Nervous System

A. Functions
Three major functions:
1. Receive sensory input
Gather info by monitoring changes or
stimuli from inside & outside body
2. Integration of input
Process & interpret sensory input &
determine action
3. Motor output
Carry out response decided by
integration usually by muscles
(movement) or glands (secretion)
Remember this from Intro Unit?

B. Organization
Two major parts of nervous system:

Central nervous system (CNS)

Brain
Spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
All nerves (spinal & cranial) outside of
CNS
Two components:
1. Sensory (afferent) division
Info going TOWARD CNS
2. Motor (efferent) division
Impulses EXIT from CNS
Two subdivisions of motor
(efferent):
1.
Somatic nervous system voluntary

 Conscious control of skeletal

muscles
2.
Autonomic nervous system involuntary

Controls smooth/cardiac muscle

& glands
Two subdivisions of autonomic that often
bring about opposite effects:
Parasympathetic stimulate rest & digest
activities
Ex: stimulate flow of saliva
Sympathetic stimulate flight or fight
activities
Ex: inhibit flow of saliva

C. Structure of Nervous Tissue

Classified into two types of cells:
Neurons transmit nerve impulses; no cell
division (amitotic)
Support cells(called neuroglia or glia) that
can not transmit nerve impulses; cell
division (mitotic)
Astrocytes
Microglia
Ependymal cells
Oligodendrocytes
Satellite cells
Schwann cells
1. Neurons
D. Also known as nerve cells
E. Structure allows them to receive & transmit
messages or impulses
F. All have same basic structures
Cell body usual cell organelles including
nucleus except no centrioles (no mitosis)
Processes/fibers arms that extend
to/from body
To body = dendrites (1-100s)
From body = axon (only 1)
G. Must know cell parts:
Soma - cell body
Nucleus metabolic center of cell
Dendrite(s) one or more processes that
conducts impulses TOWARD cell body
Axon hillock where cell branches out to
axon

Axon process that conducts impulses

AWAY from cell body
Myelin whitish, fatty substance found on
long axons in CNS; speeds up transmission
rate
Schwann cells cells that myelinate
axons in PNS
Myelin sheath membranes wrapped
around myelin
Nodes of Ranvier gaps in between
Schwann cells
Axon terminal branched end of axon in
which neurotransmitters are stored in
vesicles

Large concentrations of cell bodies in CNS are

in clusters & called nuclei

Small concentrations are called ganglia (pl) or

ganglion (sing) found in CNS & PNS
Bundles of nerve fibers in CNS called tracts,
but in PNS are called nerves
Myelinated nerve fibers/tracts in CNS called
white matter

Unmyelinated fibers and cell bodies

called gray matter
Three types of neurons based on function
or direction of nerve impulse:

Sensory (afferent) neurons

-Carry impulses from sensory receptors
TOWARD CNS
Nerve endings pain & temperature
receptors
Meissners corpuscle touch receptor
Pacinian corpuscle deep pressure receptor
Proprioceptors stretch or tension in
tendons & muscles

Motor (efferent) neurons

-Carry impulses FROM CNS to organs or
muscles
Association neurons/interneurons
-Connect motor & sensory neurons
Functional Neuron Types
Three types of neurons based on structure
or how many processes extend from body
Unipolar
Single, very short process from cell body
Immediately breaks into peripheral & central
axon
Unique: dendrites at peripheral end, so axon
conducts impulses away and TO cell body
Bipolar
One axon, one dendrite
Very rare, only seen sense organs (eye &
nose)
Act as receptor cells
Multipolar
Several processes extend from cell body
All motor neurons are multipolar so they are

most common

2. Support Cells
a. Astrocytes
Star-shaped
Account for ~ 50% of neural tissue
Form living barrier between capillaries &
neurons therefore make exchanges between
them
Help protect neurons from harmful
substances
Pick up extra ions

Recapture released neurotransmitters

b. Microglia
Spiderlike phagocytes (cell eaters)
Dispose of debris like dead brain cells &
bacteria

c. Ependymal Cells
Covered with cilia
Line cavity of brain & spinal cord
Beating of cilia help circulate cerebrospinal fluid
that fills brain & spinal cord cavity
Forms protective cushion around CNS

d. Oligodendrocyte
Wrap flat extensions tightly around nerve fibers
Produces fatty insulating covering of axons
called myelin sheaths in CNS
e. Schwann Cells
Form myelin around axons in PNS
f. Satellite Cells
Protective, cushioning cell body in PNS

Nerve Cells of CNS

D.
Nerve

Impulse
Recall a neuron has two distinct
properties that differentiate it from any
other cell in the human body:
Irritability - ability to respond to stimuli
& convert it to a nerve impulse

conductivity - ability to transmit an

impulse to other neurons, muscles, or
glands
Most CNS neurons receive chemical stimulus
at plasma membrane (everywhere on
neuron), transmits it as electrical signal along
axon, & ends as chemical signal at axon
terminals
Most PNS neurons (sensory organs) receive
stimulus as light (eyes), sound waves (ears),
pressure (touch), chemicals (taste), or
chemicals (smell)
plasma membrane is where nerve impulse
begins
Plasma membrane at rest is polarized

K+ ions rush out of

the neuron after
Na+ ions rush in,
which repolarizes
the membrane
Na+/K+ pump on
membrane restores
original
configuration by
shoving Na+ back
out and allowing K+
back in

fewer positive ions (K+) are inside cell

than positive ions (Na+) outside cell

More negative (Cl-) ions inside cell than

outside
a stimulus depolarizes neurons membrane by
opening up Na+ gates on membrane, allowing
Na+ inside
initial exchange of ions is a local depolarization
Inside is more + than outside
Depolarization starts an action potential in
entire neuron
Once action potential (nerve impulse) starts,
its propagated over entire axon (all or nothing
principle)

requires ATP

 Impulse travels faster when fibers have a

myelin sheath
Once electrical action potential reaches axon
terminals, excites vesicles containing
neurotransmitters
Vesicles move toward axon terminal
membrane & releases neurotransmitter into
synaptic cleft
Neurons NEVER touch other neurons
Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on
neighboring neurons dendrites
New action potential will start on THAT
one
The human body uses 50 different
neurotransmitters depending on the need
Neurotransmitters either excite or inhibit
neurons
Many drugs act to mimic the effect of
neurotransmitters on the brain
Common Neurotransmitters

 Ex: secretion of saliva, change in

pupil size
Reflex arcs have at least 5 elements
involved in same arc or pattern:
Sensory receptor react to stimulus
Sensory neuron connect receptor &
CNS
Integration center connect neurons
Motor neuron connect CNS & effector
Effector organ muscle/gland to be
stimulated

E. Reflexes
Much communication between neurons on
everyday basis is done via reflexes
Reflex: rapid, predictable, involuntary
responses to stimuli
Reflex always occurs in same manner using
same neural pathways of both CNS & PNS so
they are called reflex arcs
Two types of reflexes:
Somatic: stimulates skeletal muscles
Ex: pull hand away from hot object,
blinking when air burst aimed at
eyes
Autonomic: regulate smooth & cardiac
muscles, & glands

patellar (knee-jerk) reflex is simplest type

of reflex two neurons involved
Withdrawal reflex (remove from painful
stimulus) is more complicated three neurons
involved utilizing association neuron
F. Brain Structure & Functions
Average adult brain weighs 3 lbs
Divided into 4 regions:
1. Cerebrum largest region, broken into
left & right hemispheres
2. Diencephalon interbrain atop brain
stem
3. Brain stem stalk on which brain sits,
connects to spinal cord
4. Cerebellum bulbous projection at
occipital region, broken into two
hemispheres

1. Cerebrum
Made of two hemispheres together called
cerebrum
Encloses other three parts of brain
Entire surface made of peaks and valleys
Gyrus (gyri) peaks of ridges
Sulcus (sulci) shallow valleys
Fissures deep grooves separating
large regions
Parietal Lobe
Somatic sensory area located just
posterior to central sulcus receives &
interprets impulses from bodys sensory
receptors (NOT special senses)
Pain, cold, light touch
Spatial map depicting region on body where senses
come from and how much brain power is devoted to
them is called sensory homunculus
Sensory pathways are crossed pathways,
meaning left side of brain receives

impulses from right side of body & vice

versa
Itch on right hand interpreted on
left side of somatic sensory area.
Occipital lobe
Visual area located in posterior part
Temporal lobe
Auditory area bordering lateral sulcus
Olfactory (smell) area deep inside
Frontal lobe
Contains primary motor area, just
anterior to central sulcus, which allows us
control of skeletal muscles
Spatial map region calledmotor
homunculus
Brocas area located inleft hemisphere
gives ability to speak
Higher intellectual reason
Soci
ally

acceptable behavior
Language comprehension

 Two layers of cerebral hemisphere:

Gray matter (cerebral cortex)
Outermost layer made out of cell
bodies of neurons (no myelin)
Ridges allow greater surface area,
increasing amount of neurons
Several islands of gray matter that
jut inward called basal ganglia
White matter
Deeper cerebral layer made from
fiber tracts (bundles of nerve fibers)
Major tract called corpus callosum
connects right & left cerebral
hemisphere
2. Diencephalon
AKA interbrain, made of 3 areas:
Thalamus relay station for sensory
impulses going up to sensory cortex
Get rough idea if sensation will be
pleasant or unpleasant sensory
cortex figures it out
Hypothalamus regulates body
temperature, water balance (thirst),

metabolism (appetite), sex, pain,

pleasure, pituitary gland
Pituitary gland is attached &
secretes hormones
Epithalamus pineal gland(secretes
hormones) & choroid plexus (knots of
capillaries that form cerebrospinal fluid)

3. Brain Stem
Made of 3 structures:
Midbrain reflex centers for vision &
hearing
Pons fiber tracts that control breathing

 Medulla oblongata control heart rate,

blood pressure, breathing, swallowing,
vomiting
Many small gray matter areas that control
breathing, blood pressure
Running along length is reticular formation
which regulates consciousness, awake/sleep
cycles
Damage here results in permanent
unconsciousness or coma

4. Cerebellum
Two hemispheres & wrinkly (convoluted)
surface
Outer cortex is gray matter while inner
region is white matter called arbor vitae
(tree of life)
Provides timing for muscle activity, controls
balance & equilibrium
Constantly monitors body position &
makes adjustments to keep balance

G.Protection of CNS
As nervous tissue is very soft and delicate,
injury to irreplaceable neurons can be
catastrophic
Three methods of protection:
Bony skull & vertebral column
Membranes
Cerebrospinal fluid
Membranes
Three connective tissue membranes
called meninges cover & protect CNS
Top: Dura mater (tough mother)
Periosteal layer (touches skull)
Meningeal layer
Middle: Arachnoid mater (spider
mother)
Looks like a cobweb
Bottom: Pia mater (gentle mother)
Clings gently but tightly to
brain surface
CSF (Cerebrospinal Fluid)
Watery broth similar to blood plasma
Constantly formed by choroid plexuses
a. Little protein, lots of vitamin C, lots
of ions
Always circulating among ventricles,
canals, & aqueducts in brain
a. Spinal tap removes CSF from
lumbar area
Brain can not handle tiniest fluctuations
of chemicals (all kinds) as other organs
can

As result, neurons are kept separated

from blood borne substances by bloodbrain barrier which is composed of least
permeable capillaries in human body
a. Only water, glucose, essential
amino acids, fats, respiratory gases,
and fat-soluble alcohols, nicotine,
caffeine, and anesthetics can pass
b. Metabolic wastes (urea), toxins,
proteins, most drugs are prevented
c. Nonessential amino acids & K, are always
pumped from brain
H. Spinal Cord
The other component of CNS, its a two-way
conduction pathway from PNS & brain
composed of neurons with long axons
Reflex center where reflexes are determined
17 long spinal cord is continuation of brain
stem ending at L2
Starting at L3, branched into 31 pairs of spinal
nerves exit vertebral column called cauda
equina (horses tail)
Cervical 8 pairs
Thoracic 12 pairs
Lumbar 5 pairs
Sacral 5 pairs

Covered by meninges for protection

Gray matter of spinal cord resembles butterfly
Posterior projections =
posterior/dorsal horns

Anterior
projections =

ventral/anterior horns
Gray matter surrounds central canal
which contains CSF
Spinal (nerve) fibers entering spinal cord

White matter composed of myelinated fiber

tracts
Divided into three regions: posterior,
lateral, anterior columns
Two types of tracts
Sensory/afferent tracts: conduct
sensory impulses TO the brain

 Motor/efferent tracts: carry impulses FROM

brain to skeletal muscles
I. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Consists of nerves & scattered groups of
ganglia found outside CNS
Nerve is bundle of neuron fibers not in CNS

Neuron fibers (processes) surrounded by

endoneurium
Groups of fibers bound by perineurium
Whole bundles called fascicles
Fascicles bound together by epineurium
Nerves carrying both sensory & motor fibers
called mixed nerves
All spinal nerves are mixed
Sensory (afferent) nerves toward
CNS
Motor (efferent) nerves away from
CNS
Cranial nerves 12 pairs that serve head and
neck
Spinal nerves 31 pairs formed by both dorsal
& ventral roots of spinal cord
Ventral rami (extension) forms four
plexuses (network of nerves) which are
both sensory & motor
Three nerves to know:
Sciatic nerve
part of sacral plexus
Largest nerve in body

Serves lower trunk & posterior

thigh/leg
Inflammation or damage causes
sciatica
Median nerve
Part of brachial plexus
Allows flexion of forearm & some
hand muscles
Pressure on nerve from tendon
causes carpal tunnel syndrome
Inability to pick up small
objects, fine motor control
VII Facial nerve
7th cranial nerve
Serves muscles for facial
expression, salivary & lacrimal (tear
ducts) glands, taste buds
Weakening or paralysis causes
Bells palsy
J. Autonomic Nervous System
Involuntary motor branch of PNS that controls
smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, glands
Information from CNS activates nerves that
release neurotransmitters which then signal
appropriate muscle/gland
Recall two divisions of ANS that have
opposite effects:
Sympathetic extreme situations (fear,
exercise, rage)

Parasympathetic rest & conserve

energy
Three neurotransmitters in ANS:
Acetylcholine both sympathetic &
parasympathetic
Epinephrine sympathetic division
Norepinephrine sympathetic division
K. Development
Formation
Nervous system formed during first 4
weeks of embryonic development
Maternal infection or poor health habits
may cause permanent damage
Measles causes deafness
Smoking decreases oxygen causing
low birth weight, others
Drugs (OTCs & illegal) can
permanently damage
Maturation
Last areas of CNS to mature is
hypothalamus
Preemies have problems controlling
body temperature
Throughout childhood, no neurons grow
but in fact become myelinated, allowing
neuromuscular control
Aging

Brain at maximum weight as young adult

Next 60+ years, neurons get damaged &
die

Other unused pathways can take

over & be developed
Sympathetic nervous system becomes
less efficient
Premature shrinking of brain occurs when
individuals accelerate normal process
with lifestyle
Boxers, alcoholics, drug abusers
L. Diseases/Injuries
Huntingtons Disease
Dominant genetic disease (one dominant
allele needed) for 50% chance of
acquiring it
Strikes in middle age (around 50)
Massive degeneration of basal nuclei
then cerebral cortex
Initial symptoms are wild, jerky
movements termed chorea (Latin for
dance)
Usually fatal within 15 years of onset
Treated with neurotransmitter (dopamine)
blockers
Parkinsons Disease

Degeneration of dopamine-releasing
neurons in substantia nigra (in midbrain)
so basal nuclei dopamine targets
becomes overactive, causing tremors
Treatment with L-dopa drugs helps some
symptoms, but after more neurons are
affected, it is ineffective

 Newer (albeit controversial) treatments

include transplanting embryonic
substantia nigra tissue, or genetically
engineered (stem cells), or cells from
fetal pigs
Alzheimers
Progressive degenerative disease that
results in dementia (mental deterioration)
Nearly 50% of all people in nursing
homes have Alzheimers
Begins with short-term memory loss,
short attention span, disorientation, loss
of language
Result of shortage of acetylcholine &
structural changes in brain (areas of
cognition & memory)
Microscopy of tissue shows abnormally
large deposits of protein
About 5-15% of people over 65 will get
this
Stroke (Cerebrovascular Accident/CVA)
Blood circulation to brain area is blocked
resulting in tissue death
Blood clot
Ruptured blood vessel
Area of tissue is initially located by
looking at patients symptoms
Left cerebral hemisphere results in
aphasia (language impairment)

Severe strokes kill 2/3 people almost

immediately, and remaining 1/3 die
within 3 years
Mild strokes do not cut off blood flow
completely
Called temporary brain ischemia or
transient ischemic attack (TIA)
Not permanent but offer warning
signs of CVA later
Spinal Cord injuries (SCI) & Paralysis
Any damage to the spinal cord resulting
from crushing or severing.
Cervical injuries
Cervical (neck) injuries usually
result in full or partial
tetra/quadriplegia.
Thoracic injuries
Injuries at or below the thoracic
spinal levels result in paraplegia.
T1 to T8 : inability to control the
abdominal muscles.
T9 to T12 : partial loss of trunk and
abdominal muscle control.
Lumbar and sacral injuries
Decreased control of the legs and
hips, urinary system, and anus.
Multiple Sclerosis
Autoimmune disease in which myelin
sheaths around axon fibers in CNS are

gradually destroyed by own immune

system
Myelin converts to hardened sheaths
called scleroses
Lack of insulation leads to inability to
control muscles
Treatment today includes hormone-like
substance called interferon
Will result in complete inability to
function
Meningitis
Inflammation of meninges due to viruses
or bacteria
Can be life threatening since can spread
to nervous tissue of CNS
Diagnosed by spinal tap to look at CSF
M. Diagnosing Problems
EEG (electroencephalogram)
Assess electric activity of brain impulses
Many electrodes are placed on scalp and
measurement of activity pattern is
recorded
Used to diagnose epileptic lesions,
tumors
PEG (pneumoencephalography)
Detection of hydrocephalus (water on
brain)
Cerebrospinal fluid is drained via spinal
tap, air is injected into subarachnoid
space

Provides clear picture of ventricles

Extremely painful for patients recovery
takes 2-3 months for CF to return back to
normal
Not used since 1980s
Cerebral angiogram
Used to assess condition of cerebral
arteries
Dye is injected into artery & disperses
into brain
X-ray is then taken which highlights dye
so blood flow can be assessed
Stroke victims
Computed (Computer- Aided) Tomography
(CT or CAT) scan
Series of X-rays grouped together by a
computer.
Used to see tumors, lesions, MS or
Alzheimers plaques, infarcts (dead brain
tissue)
Important in mapping brain prior to
surgery
MRI scan (Magnetic Resonance Imagery)
Used to see tumors, lesions, MS or
Alzheimers plaques, infarcts (dead brain
tissue)
Similar to CT scan but 3D image
capabilities
PET scan (Positron Emission Tomography)

 Used to determine sugar (glucose)

uptake/usage of cells
Faster growing cells (cancer) use
sugar faster
Active brain areas also use sugar
faster

Alzheimer, Parkinson,
epilepsy, tumors, dementia
Patient drinks glucose solution, areas of
fast uptake show up on image