Department of English and Comparative Literature, American University in

Cairo
Department of English and Comparative Literature, American University in
Cairo and American University in Cairo Press
Cultural Hegemony and National Film Language: Youssef Chahine / :

Author(s): Maureen Kiernan and
Source: Alif: Journal of Comparative Poetics, No. 15, Arab Cinematics: Toward the New and the
Alternative / : (1995), pp. 130-152
Published by: Department of English and Comparative Literature, American University in Cairo
and American University in Cairo Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/521683
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CulturalHegemonyandNationalFilmLanguage:
YoussefChahine

MaureenKiernan

Youssef Chahine is withoutdoubt the most widely known

Egyptiandirectorin the West. His workis regularlyreviewedand
screened,especially in Europe, and he has undertakenseveral
withFrenchfilmmaking
companies.And yet,he is
co-productions
tied
to
the
where
he
was
born,raised,and lives
country
intimately
but
today.In no waycouldYoussefChahinebe regardedas anything
an Egyptianfilmmaker.
In the contextof Egyptianfilm history,however,Youssef
Chahine is an iconoclast. He has always worked somewhat
of theEgyptiancommercialstudiocinemaand yethe
independently
feels the pressuresof this systemimmensely.He was born in
Alexandriain 1926, at thattimea cosmopolitan
meetinggroundfor
Mediterranean
cultures;his fatherwas a middle-classlawyer;and his
more specificallyto the
familybelongsto the Christianminority,
withinthisgroup.He was educated
itselfa minority
Catholicreligion,
in a Britishschoolin Alexandria,and therebecamefluentin several
languages.Althoughhis fatherintendedhim to be an engineeron
leavingschool,withgreatfinancialsacrificebyhis familyhe traveled
to the UnitedStatesto studyactingat the Pasadena Playhousein
California.1
His experiencein the United States and his continuing
withAmericanfilmculturehas becomea subtextin his
relationship
whichis partofhis most
films,especiallytheautobiographical
trilogy
to Egypt
was in acting,butwhenhe returned
recentwork.His training
fromPasadenain 1950,
first.Whenhe returned
he becamea director
he directedhis firstfeaturefilm,FatherAmin(Baba Amin).By the
timehe had filmedCairo Station(Bab al-hadid)in 1958,Chahinehad
which
developed an authenticand personal style of filmmaking
showed a developingcounter-cinematic
practiceopposed to the
commercialcinemaof Egypt.The bulk of Chahine's careerfrom
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Cairo Stationonwardmightbe consideredto be thebestexampleof

in Egyptiancinema,withall the positiveand
"auteur"filmmaking
creativesense impliedin the term.And yet,Chahineis morethan
is also an attempt
simplyan authorofa personalvision;hisauthorship
to definean authentically
Egyptiannationalfilmlanguage.In what
be
an
called
attemptat a postcolonialdiscoursein Egyptian
might
cinema, Chahine has emergedas Egypt's most imaginativeand
polemicaldirector.2
in theater
His own relationship
to cinemaand his earlyinterest
and actingformsthesubjectof severalof his laterfilms;whatseems
mostimportant
to notein relationto his filmmaking
practicesis the
he experiencedthroughhis own family,
degree of marginality
and
He was raisedin Alexandria,
the"second
education.
upbringing,
renowned
foritsmixofethnicminorities.
city"ofEgypt;a metropolis
As a memberof a bourgeois,Christianfamilyin a predominantly
Muslimsetting,
he certainly
felthis marginalstatuskeenly.3The film
cultureofEgyptat thistimeinvolvedtheservicesofmanyofthemost
marginalgroupsin Egyptiansociety;it was-until its nationalization
in the early sixties-dominatedby ethnic minoritieswithinthe
nationalcultureof Egypt. In a sense, then,the cinema was an
choiceforChahine.
appropriate
YoussefChahinehas longdefinedhimselfas an "Alexandrine;"
whatthis means in the contextof Egyptiansocietyand cultureis
to an understanding
of Chahine'sviewpoint.4
Most urban
important
dwellersin Egyptresidein Cairo and Cairo is consideredthecenter,
the pulse of the country-in Arabic, Cairo and Egypt are often
withthesameword,"misr."Alexandria,
designated
givenitspastand
its presentgeographicallocation,continuesto be associatedwith
multi-culturalism-it
standsas a kindof counter-point
to Cairo,the
heartofEgypt.
To define himselfas an Alexandrine,then,indicatesthat
Youssef Chahine sees and representshimself as outside the
mainstream,
marginalto the mainfabricof the nationalculture.He
has casthimselfin thisrolein termsof filmculturein Egyptas well,
in orderto offeran alternative-alternative
notalien--discourse;
but
to forgethisdiscourseChahinehad to undergofirstthetrialsof the
existingsystem.His careerbeganwitha seriesof fairlyconventional
films,comedies,and musicalspresentedin a ratherunremarkable
way. When he returnedfromthe United States and began his
careerin Egypt,he workedwithinthestudiogenremode.
filmmaking
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131

to thefairlyrigid
strictly
Althoughhis earlyfilmsrarelyconformed
in Egypt,Chahinewas clearly
conventions
ofcommercial
filmmaking
in thegripofthisveryformidable
system.
Chahine,forexample,used genericformulasin his firstfilm,
Baba Amin,yethis earlyuse of musicalforms,a standardgenrein
Egyptiancommercialcinema,was even at thisstageclearlymarked
in Americanfilmmusicals.The effect,
then,is thatof
by his interest
allusion to--or even parody of-American film ratherthan an
of theEgyptianmusicalgenre.
adaptationof thepace and structure
Yet he feltcompelledto work,to a largeextent,withintheformulaic
cinema.
commercial
systemofEgyptian
The tenfilmswhichChahinedirectedbetween1950 and 1958
melodramasand musicals;in
includea numberof veryconventional
all of these texts,however,he manages to rise above complete
accordance with commercialfilmmakingthroughhis sense of
compositionand throughhis adaptationof Hollywood genre
discourse.He employsthe star
techniquesto an Egyptiannarrative
way, and he may be creditedwith
systemin a fairlyconventional
to
a
mass
audience.
Omar
Sherif
introducing
CentralStation,made in 1958, marksa significant
changein
of his career.It tellsthestoryof thedenizensof Cairo's
thedirection
mainrailwaystationin thecourseof one day.The storycenterson a
poor and somewhatdementednewspaperhawkerwho findshimself
sellerat thestation.He watchesand
obsessedwitha youngsoft-drink
to kill her,but
she
rebuffs
her
and
when
him,he attempts
pursues
another
murders
youngwomaninstead.
mistakenly
The unityoftimeandplace imposedbythelocationofthestory
unifiedandcompact
andtheeventsoftheplotmakethisa remarkably
film;thereis littlelikeitin theEgyptianstudiofilmsofthisera.From
thisfilmremainsone of Chahine'smostnarratively
thisperspective,
coherentworks and indicates an implicitrebellionagainst the
practicesof Egyptiancinema.Chahine
generallynonlinearnarrative
himselfplays the role of Kinawi, the dementedmurderer.The
in differing
in thefilmrevealsan interest
of thecharacters
interaction
and sexual
While
violence
class.
on
culturalcodes,based particularly
thesethemes
passionserveas thethreadswhichtie thefilmtogether,
ofa numberofcoupleswhorepresent
areexploredin therelationships
social classes in Egyptiansociety;thesettingof therailway
different
stationmakesa convenient
meetingplace forthesestoriesto unfold.5
of sexual obsessionand its subsequent
The explicitportrayal
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filmin
linksto violenceis one issue whichmakesthisa remarkable
this cultural and historical context. Chahine's attempts at
psychologicalrealismand depth,both in his directionand in his
ofKinawi,marka significant
breakwithEgypt'scommercial
portrayal
cinema.Chahinehimselfhas statedthatone of his mainconcernsas a
filmmaker
is to address"whatis neededin a particular
societyat a
In
I
wanted
to address
Central
historical
moment.
Station,
particular
the
universal
context."6
concernsbutalwayswithin Egyptian
The subtextof sex and violence which formsthe central
and psychologicaldevelopment
of Kinawi is not a new
motivation
issue forEgyptiancinema,but the directnesswithwhichYoussef
he bringsto his main
Chahinetreatsthisthemeand the sympathy
of
ofthisissue.The possibility
character
providea newrepresentation
far
from
the
frame
but
with
formula
is
never
melodramatic
generic
ratherthan
Kinawi as the pointof view, Chahineevokes sympathy
bathosforhischaracterization.
The visual styleof the filmanticipatesthe maturestyleof
Chahineand indicatesa carefulsenseof composition;
Chahinefavors
triadiccompositionsand oftenunbalancesthe frameby placing
on theedges of it. In CentralStationthisunderscores
the
characters
under
nature
of
several
of
the
sexual
precarious
relationships
consideration.
His use of allusionis also presenthere,althoughhis
homagesto Americanmusicalsand Hitchcockfilmsdo nothave the
centralfunction
theytakeon in hislatertexts.
The openingofthefilmpresents
a realisticlocation-establishing
shotof thecentralstationexploredwitha tracking
camerain a fairly
in
characters
move
and
out
of
the
frame.
The sense of
take;
long
off-screen
of locale is a cinematicelement
space and theimportance
whichwillbecomeone ofYoussefChahine'strademarks.The
narrative
ofthefilmis oneofChahine'smostunifiedefforts;
thecentralfocusis
on Kinawiandhisobsessionwiththeyounggirl.Unlikemostnarrative
filmsin Egyptiancinema,the plot remainscenteredon this issue.
Thereis a subplotwhichinvolvestheunionization
of theworkersin
thestation,butthissubplotis notquitesuccessfully
tiedto themain
itis thebeginning
ofChahine'sattempts
plotofthefilm.Nevertheless,
to introduce
into
his
Chahine
also includes
films.7
politicalquestions
severalmusicalnumbers,
a conventional
of commercial
requirement
Egyptiancinema,and yet thesesongs are motivatedin partby the
narrativeand charactersand providean added dimensionto the
characterization
forthetwomainactors.
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133

But suchadherenceto theconventions

of Egyptiancommercial
cinemais nota hallmark
ofthisfilmandin thiswayitmarksa turning
pointforChahine.The subjectof thefilmis itselfone whichmight
have had affinities
withEgyptianmelodrama,
butChahinehas made
severalchoicesin makingthisfilmwhichfunction
as challengesto
the commercialconventions.
To deal seriouslywithpsychological
realismwas a shiftawayfromthedominanceof musicalcomediesin
Egyptiancinema.
At this point in the historyof the Egyptiancinema, such
of audienceexpectation
werepuzzlingforthemajority
transgressions
of filmgoers;
of thetopic,thepuzzlingpointof view,
theseriousness
and thebrutalendinganticipated
thefilm'spoor reception.Puzzled
audiencesdid not supportthe filmand it was a financialfailurein
Egypt.It was, however,a criticalsuccess and thisdilemmaraised
several problematicquestionsfor Youssef Chahine as a director.
in theEgyptiancinemaafterthefailedreceptionof
Facinghis future
thisfilm,YoussefChahineconfronted
a questionwhichcontinuedto
his career-who is his audience?Althoughthis
haunthimthroughout
and the powerof
of the conventions
issue involvesa consideration
commercialcinemain Egypt,Chahinedid not at thispointcome to
termswiththeelementswhichmightaccountforthefailureofhisfirst
text.
seriouscounter-cinematic
in his
Instead,Chahinetookup thecause of nationalliberation
film
a
the
Jamila, Algerian(Jamilaal-Jaza'iriyya,
1958), biographical
heroineof the Algerianwar of
which centeredon an important
What
had
chosen to do was to deal with
Chahine
independence.
subjects.Thiswouldbe one ofonlya fewChahinefilms
non-Egyptian
textin his
whichis notsetin Egyptandwhichremainsa controversial
thatat thispointin Chahine's
careerforthisreason.It seemsapparent
to articulatemoreuniversaland pressing
careerhe was attempting
concernsofthetime.By choosinga filmprojectwhichwas so clearly
far afield fromeitherthe Egyptiancommercialfilmindustryand
Hollywood film genres, Chahine was asserting his growing
to forgea personalstyle.Jamila,the
and attempting
independence
itwas
revolution;
Algerianwas meantto be a filmaboutThird-World
and
filmmadeabouttheAlgerianrevolution,
feature
thefirstfictional
Battle
forthemoreimpressive
in manywaysit servedas a precursor
in
several
films
two
later.
The
made
twelve
overlap
years
ofAlgiers
scenesandevents,butthevisualqualityandnarrative
styleofJamila,
the Algerian is much less consistentthan that of Battle of Algiers.
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film
thecommercial
Since YoussefChahinebeganchallenging
of Egyptin explicitand provocativeways,his criticshave
industry
raisedthequestionof his intended
audience.Chahinehas
consistently
been accused of elitismand intentional
obscurityin his films;this
his career.8Whenaskedabouthis
taunthas followedhimthroughout
intentions
andhis audience,Chahinecontendsthathe makeshisfilms
forEgyptians-"I don't know any otherpeoples' stories,"9he has
and allusivenessofhisfilmtextsareoftena
said-but thecomplexity
problem even for the intellectualsamong Egyptianfilmgoers.
filmindustry
of
The burdenof theverysuccessfulcommercial
Egyptwas keenlyfeltby Chahine;whileexamininghis role as an
of
confront
theexpectations
he wouldinevitably
Egyptianfilmmaker,
an audiencerearedon Egyptiancommercialcinema.To a certain
in Egypt.The
all filmmakers
extent,thisis an issue whichconfronts
commercialstudiosystemhas establisheditselfas a popularand
powerfulsystemin thenationalcultureand beyond.As such,it has
basedon theHollywoodmodel,
initiated
and maintained
conventions,
in
and it has created audience expectationsfor entertainment
filmmaker
is
a
of
conventions
Whatany
finds,then, system
particular.
or
of a seriousavant-garde
whichrun counterto the development
non-commercial
cinema.
Chahine opted for an explicitlypoliticaltopic in the epic
of Salah al-Din (1941). He took on this projectfrom
undertaking
Ezzedine Zulfiqarwhen it was alreadyin progress;as directorial
it would give himthe scope to developa statement
on
undertaking
Egypt and its politicalcondition.Salah al-Din was, in part,an
allegoryaboutGamal Abdel Nasserand his visionof pan-Arabism.
The filmis subtitled
andis
"al-Nasser,"whichmeans"thevictorious"
thename of thefamousSultanSaladin,as well as the name of the
Presidentof Egyptat thetimethatthefilmwas made. The parallel
betweenSaladin and Nasseris intentional
and stated.The filmwas
to
be
an
historical
which
would
projected
epic
presenttheCrusades
and thisparticular
historical
periodfromtheArabpointof view.10In
thisparticular
the
film
was a success;forthefirsttimein the
respect
was givento therole and interest
of cinema,attention
of the
history
traditional
"other"in the historicaleventsof the Crusades. As a
and audiences,theMiddleAges,and
subjectforWesternfilmmakers
the Crusades in particular,offereda canvas for historicalepics
overlaidwithromanceand stressing
theheroic"quest."Littlethought
or attentionhas been paid to the land and culturewhich were
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135

been no attempt
burdenedwiththesewars.Therehas mostdefinitely
an Arabversionof thegreatbattlesfortheHolyLand; in
to construct
cinema history,the Arabs have been the infidels,their image
to suitthehegemonic
discourse.
manipulated
to counter
thisrepresentation
Salah al-Din,then,was an attempt
whenEgyptian
nationalism
andwas conceivedat an historical
moment
revised.The colonial occupationhad
was also being historically
a
area which
cinematic
of
image Egyptand the surrounding
shaped
was beginning to be countered by the National Cinema
Council-whichhelpedfinancethefilm-in its choiceof production
material and projects for financing.11Chahine, then, had an
notonlyan Arabviewofhistory
withthisprojecttorender
opportunity
inEgypt.12
situation
butalso toallegorizethecontemporary
forany
Needlessto say,thiswas a veryambitiousundertaking
the
limited
one filmproject.Add to thisinitiallyintimidating
plan
budgetof Egypt'snationalfilmboardand thishistoricalepic was in
some ways destinedto fall shortof expectations.Chahine was
compelledto use importantstars fromthe commercialindustry,
have avoided.For example,
type-castin a way he mightordinarily
lead
Salah al-Dinhimselfwas playedby AhmadMazhar,a romantic
the heroismof a
in the studiosystem,cast in orderto foreground
leader fromthe Arab world.Fromthe pointof view of historical
Salah al-Din is a successfulattemptat historicalepic.
revisionism,
and fair
as a sympathetic
The character
of Salah al-Dinis represented
rulerwho shows unprecedented
mercytowardhis adversaries;his
and
is
characterized
Richard
with
by understanding
King
meeting
thanthepassionatevillainyso favoredbyWestern
rather
compromise
representation.
in stagingbattlescenesand in editing
Chahinewas resourceful
to conveya sense of breadthand scope despitethe limitsset by
thediminished
economicnecessity.
Nevertheless,
aspectof theepic is
evident.Althoughthefilmwas made in Cinemascope,thereis little
betweenthe
reasonforitsuse. Chahineoftenframestheconfrontation
two leaders,Salah al-Din and Richardthe Lion-Hearted,
using the
ends
thetwofiguresat extreme
widthofthescreenwithskill(framing
of thewidescreen,forexample);andbattlescenesare oftenstagedto
evoke a wide horizontalplateau.This is one film,however,where
Chahinedoes not favora movingcameraand a greatdeal of the
sweepofthelandscapeandepic actionis lostor subsumed
impressive
ofepic qualitywas
in theeditingprocess.Much of thisstreamlining
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necessitatedby a budgetwhich did not matchthe historicalor

allegoricalscope of theproject.The resultis a filmwhichis often
in its inattention
to historicdetailand its inaccuracyin
embarrassing
costumeanddesign.
an attempt
On theallegoricallevel,Salah al-Din represents
to
on
the
the
need
was
foremost
for
which
pan-Arabism
political
express
very
agendaof Abdel Nasser.In thisaspect,the projectconformed
this
film
at
with
the
focus
of
state
particular
political
production
nicely
historicalmoment.Shadi Abdel Salam, forexample,had problems
his own projectspartlybecause theydid not promotethe
financing
cause of pan-Arabunityand solidarity.13
So, in this instance,the
in
to theNational
the
as
politicalparallelssuggested
script, presented
Film Board and to Chahine,were effectivein securingfunding.
The portrait of Salah al-Din and the emphasis on
accordin theEasterncampcertainly
the
Christian-Muslim
foreground
issueofArabunity.The character
of Salah al-Din,wise andcarefulin
his judgments,
humaneand consideratein his treatment
of subjects
and enemies,is clearlymeantas a flattering
of AbdelNasser.
portrait
The narrative
stresson Salah al-Din's accomplishments
presentsnot
on theCrusades,buta positiveappraisalof
onlyan Arabperspective
Nasseras well.14In theyearspriorto the1967defeat,thiswouldhave
been a politicallytolerableviewpointfor both the NationalFilm
BoardandforChahinehimself.
the film standsout as an
Despite the many shortcomings,
achievementin the attemptto articulatea national cinematic
discourse.Because it attempts
a fairlysophisticated
of
representation
a well-documented
historical
it bears
periodfroman Arabviewpoint,
closerexamination.
Its successat representing
a sympathetic
portrait
of an historicalfigureis significant.
From a cinematicviewpoint,
however,thefilmis less thanbrilliant.
As an example of the genre of historicalepic, then,Salah
al-Din falls shortof the breadthof cinematicscope which is
of thisgenre.Whilethewidescreenframing
characteristic
cannotfail
to providethe picturewitha wide rangeof landscapepossibilities,
mostotheraspectsofmiseen scenefallshortofepic proportions.
For
example,detailsof makeup,such as theredbeardwhichis wornby
RichardThe Lion-Hearted,
are patently
false,and hardlyintendedto
the
of
reproduce stylization expressionism.
The editingof the film demonstrates
Chahine's attemptat
masteringthe formthroughthe use of allusionsto Eisenstein-like
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137

montage.Cuttingbetweenthewaves of theocean and thewaves of

soldiers clashing in battle,Chahine manages to circumventthe
problemsoflimitedcrowdsceneswitha montageofquickcutswhich
createparallelbattlescenes.In the few such instancesof inventive
cinematicnarrativein the film,Chahineshows himselfto be the
masterofa cinematic
form.
Thereare fartoo few such instancesin Salah al-Din and the
finalimpression
of thefilmremainsone of an occasionallybrilliant
failure.It is also a film,however,whichhelpedto establishChahine
as a recognizableauteurin thenationalcinemaof Egypt.Whilehis
careerhad alwaysbeeneclecticandnoteworthy,
withSalah al-Din he
had shownthathe was capable of a recognizably
distinctcinematic
and
he
that
had
control
of
the
film
formofthe
evenifthecontent
style
hadbeenassignedto him.
YoussefChahinelatermade a dramaticturntowardtherural
landscape,a settingwhichhe had neverseriouslyexploredin his
career.A quasi-documentary,
The People of theNile,undertaken
for
theNationalFilmBoardprecededby a yearone ofhismostambitious
featureundertakings,
The Earth(al-Ard,1970), based on a novelby
thepopularwriterAbdel RahmanSharkawi,translated
by Desmond
Stewartas Egyptian
Earth(1962), andsetin a villageinruralEgyptin
the1930s.
The connections
betweenthetwotextsforma newemphasisfor
fromtheurban
Chahineand a movement
away,at least temporarily,
inthefellaheen,
milieuwhichconstitutes
muchofhiswork.His interest
and theireconomicproblemsand socialrepression
duringtheyearsof
is playedoutin his adaptation
of TheEarth(1968).
Britishoccupation,
moment
thelifeofthisclassat thishistorical
The novelitselfrepresents
to
in a richlynaturalistic
narrative
whichChahinebrought
multi-plotted
thescreenalongwiththeuse of symbolicmotifswhichwouldbecome
device in his films.Both the novel and the film
a staplenarrative
the
represent storyof a peasantfamilycaughtin an economiccrisis
of
thecomplexities
Chahineportrays
broughton by thelandowners.
thehierarchy
whorepresent
of characters
a variety
villagelifethrough
ofruralEgypt.The
withintheclass structure
ofpoweranddomination
plot of the film revolvesaroundthe attemptsby the landowner
the
MuhammadPasha to allow a railroadto be constructed
through
the
various
thefarmers
landwhichthefellaheenfarm.Although
protest
therailroadgoes aheadas scheduled
dictatorial
rulingsof thelandlord,
as he
and theheroof thefilmis killedby thelandlord'shenchmen
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clingstothecottonplantshe willneverharvest.
absentthroughout
mostof the filmis the colonial
Strikingly
insteadby
presenceof the British;in the end, theyare represented
colonizedSudanesesoldierswho terrorize
thevillagein thenameof
the colonizers. The irony of these black soldiers engaged in
thehegemony
of theirown whiteoppressorsis skillfully
perpetrating
betweenthepeopleof Sudan and the
playedoutin thestarkcontrast
of
But
Chahine's
people Egypt.
pointis invalidated
by theabsenceof
ofBritishcolonialism.The victims,
in thiscase the
anyrepresentation
Sudanese,bear unjustlythe bruntof colonial violence.In fact,the
blacksoldiersarerepresented
onlyas catalystsof Britishcolonialism,
whichin turnis takenup by the pasha who effectsthe finalrift
betweenfellah and land by introducing
industrialization
and the
of the railroad.He, too, incorporatesthe colonial
modernization
discoursealthoughhe is even further
fromthatculturein visual
thantheblacksoldiers.
representation
Whatis apparent
thefilmis theinability
ofEgyptian
throughout
cinema to representthe colonial presencein any directway; the
nationalfilmlanguageeven at thispointof thenationalization
of the
cinemahad not developedthe meansto articulatethehegemonyof
Western culture in Egypt. This relationshipof colonizer and
colonized,then,is stillrelegatedto thecategoriesof class and race,
seen in thelandowning
class of Egyptand in thecase of
particularly
Sudanesesoldiers.The textof thefilmthusclearlypresentstheclass
conflictof colonialEgyptbutavoidstheissue of Britishoccupation.
Like thefilmsof thestudiosystemmadeundercolonialrule,thefilm
articulatesthe hegemonicrelationsbetweenEgyptiansof different
classes, and theserelationsare symbolizedin partby the railroad
whichbringsthemodemandtheurbanto a poorandruralsetting.
The
Earthis Chahine'sfirstattempt
to systematically
the
rural
represent
in manyinstances.Basinghis
poorand he fallspreyto sentimentality
scripton a novel ties him to characterswhich often become
he developsin thisfilmthebeginnings
of
Nevertheless,
stereotypes.
an iconography
whichwill continueto servehimin his development
ofa visualstyle.
WhileSalah al-Din servesas an exampleof an historical
epic,
TheEarthis an exampleof a pastoralepic,butone whichallows the
discourseof thecommercial
Egyptiancinemato governthestructure
of thenarrative.
the
Although filmdoes not takecommercialgenre
filmsas its standard,
Chahinestillfollowsthe discourseof cultural
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139

dictatedby thestudiosystemsincethe1930s.The film

representation
even thoughit is set in
provideslittlecritiqueof colonialhegemony,
the 1930s at the height of the British colonial presence.
As a pastoralepic,TheEarthis fairlyconventional
exceptin its
visual style;Chahinehere employsthe beginningsof a personal
in a numberof the
symbolicsystemwhichwill serveas a leitmotif
filmsin his career.In thisparticular
text,thehandswhichtendand
clutchthecottonplantbestrepresent
thefellaheen'srelationship
tothe
land.This shot,of handstendingthecottonplantfilmedin close-up,
of thetext.In a greatmanyof his films,sucha
becomesa summary
fromthe narrativebecomes a motifwhich
shot,decontextualized
summarizes
somemajorthemeorrelationship.
The mostexplicitly
politicalfilmsof YoussefChahine'scareer
at
this
begin
stage;followingThe Earthand its criticaland financial
success, he undertooka series of filmswhich would confronta
numberof the most pressingquestionsin contemporary
Egyptian
society.These are also amonghis mostambiguousfilmsfromthe
and theyrepresent
a turning
pointin his
pointof view of narrative,
of
The
efforts
to addressthequestion audience:
Sparrow(Al-'asfour),
and The Returnof the Prodigal ('Awdat
The Choice (Al-ikhtiar),
al-ibnal-dal).
of
Narratively
complex,The Sparrow(1972) is representative
of the
thisnew agendaforChahine;thefilmdeals withtheaftermath
and
1967 warwithIsrael,a subjectwhichvirtually
everyintellectual
at thattimein Egypt.Chahinehas said that"the
artistconfronted
filmmaker
person.The
workingafter1967 is almost a different
The
that
humiliation."15
had
following
changeddramatically
agenda
narrativeof the storyis very complicatedand oftenconfusing,
different
storieswithhighlysymbolicand allegorical
interweaving
subtexts.On firstviewing,it is too complexformostaudiencesto
unravel.The principlesettingof the filmis the house of Bahiyya
Cairo.Bahiyyaherself
of contemporary
whereone findsa microcosm
therethe
is a symbolforEgyptand theaudiencefindscongregated
Raoufwhohas
andthepoliceofficer
intellectual
Youssef,a journalist,
of thestateis alludedto
pursueda thief,Abu Khedeir.The corruption
fortheactionwhichoccursbetweenthese
in thevariousmotivations
mainplayers.
The settingsand subplotschangewithgreatrapidity
and,little
of
foractionsor thecause-and-effect
of themotivations
relationship
is themainsubtextof TheSparrow
theplotis madeclear.Corruption
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and thepoliticalmessageof the filmis obvious:at theend,Nasser

in thewake
as president
makeshis famousradiobroadcastresigning
ofEgypt'smassivedefeatandthepeople,lead by Bahiyya,taketo the
to the corruption
streetshouting"No!" to defeat,to his resignation,
whichled toboth.
At this point in Chahine's career,the need to conceal the
in his filmswas a necessarystrategy.
Censorshipof
politicalcriticism
for
hurdle
a
difficult
issues
was
and
remains
anyfilmmaker
political
issues.Chahine,
andcontemporary
whowantsto confront
challenging
the
of
means
to
circumvent
devise
felt
to
a
then,
variety
obliged
like TewfikSaleh and Shadi Abdel
problemsfaced by filmmakers
of
Salam. Alreadyestablishedas a majorforcein thecounter-cinema
Egypt, Chahine was developinga reputationas a difficultbut
offilmgoers,
baffledthemajority
filmmaker.
His narratives
rewarding
of his message.
yethe feltthiswas a necessitybecause of thethrust
did
in
The
and
in The Choice
the
he
narrative
as
Sparrow
Obscuring
his goals.
for
his leasteffective
was certainly
strategy accomplishing
The politicalmessageof his filmsin thisperiodfailedto reach
classes
theaudiencewhomostneededtohearit.Whiletheintellectual
werein themiddleof examiningEgypt'sfailurein the 1967 warand
in a
theirthoughts
theirown rolein thatprocess,Chahinearticulated
filmnarrative
whichspoketo themalone. The semi-literate
majority
of Egyptianfilmgoers,accustomedto commercialcinema and
excludedby
and genrefilms,werevirtually
expectingentertainment
theopacityof thenarrative.
Withthesetwofilms,Chahinefacedthe
ofhis careerin a
dilemmawhichhad hauntedhimfromthebeginning
to
elude
his
were
devised
thecensorship
narratives
veryexplicitway:
of thestate,buttheywerealso eludingtheaudiencetheyweremeant
for.Chahinerealizedthathis intendednarratives
wereperhapsaimed
at the intellectualclass who were alreadyconfronting
theseissues
he was enlightening
thealreadyawakened,a farcryfrom
themselves;
hisintended
purpose.
TheReturnoftheProdigal,filmedin 1976,showsa somewhat
half-hearted
by Chahineto remedythisproblemwithinthe
attempt
in Egypt.The filmportrays
contextof counter-cinema
thedissolution
of a bourgeoisfamilyin thewakeofnationalization
and itsaftermath;
again, the filmis repletewiththe kind of personaliconographic
of Chahine's
imageswhichhad becomemoreand morecharacteristic
filmicstyle.Thereis a clown who appearssilently,beginningand
endingthefilm,buthe servesno narrative
purpose;thereare various
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141

shotssimilarto thenonnarrative
insertshotswhich
decontextualized
madeTheSparrowso narratively
incoherent.
The Returnof the Prodigal incorporates
a greatnumberof
genericcodes as well. Youssef Chahine has termedthis film a
"musical tragedy" and has indicated that such a familiarly
unconventional
genrename helped to get the filmpassed by the
censors.16Yet his ability to structurethe film as a musical,
to include
unconventional
as thenarrative
maybe, is also an attempt
as manypeople as possible in his audience. Such a filmwould
conformsufficiently
to the commercialgenericmode forEgyptian
in
order
to
attract
who
a broaderaudiencethantheintellectuals
film,
thebulkofChahine'sviewers.
hadpreviously
formed
In TheReturnoftheProdigal,theeldestsonofthefamily,'Ali,
fora dozen yearsforarguingagainstthestate.
has been imprisoned
He is suddenlyreleasedand returns
to his family;theyfindhimaged
He
becomes
a
hardened
and changed.
man,moredecadentthanthe
restof his quicklydecayingclass. The filmends withthe family
destroyedin a massacre.The decadence of the bourgeoisieand
of 'Ali, who is unable
class is epitomizedin thecharacter
intellectual
to maintainhis aspirationsand idealismoutsideof prison.Chahine
of
offersa varietyof possiblecauses forthe decay and corruption
is
what
using, ironically,
Egyptianintelligentsia,
contemporary
of genericforms.The "musical
possiblythe most anti-intellectual
in thisfilmadheresto manyof
orchestrates
which
Chahine
tragedy"
of commercialEgyptianfilmin its form,yetthe
the characteristics
criticaland oftenpolitical,witha scriptand songs
contentis bitingly
writtenby Egypt's prominentpoet and artistSalah Jahin.For
example,at one pointin thefilm,a groupofpeopletaketo thestreets
in a brashdanceand songtitled"The StreetsareOurs."As theymake
thesettingand thesong,theyare suddenlyhalted
theirway through
theirpassage.
a
cowboywhoprevents
by gun-wielding
Egypt'sincipientdependenceon thepostcolonialpowerof the
United States and that nation's growinghegemonyin the area
critiquefromChahine.The implications,
engendera not-so-subtle
however,reach furtherthan this; as Chahine moves towardan
in this
he also attempts,
formof expression,
increasingly
postmodern
film,to criticizethe very class which,in conjunctionwith the
postcolonialpresenceof the UnitedStates,is responsiblefor the
oftheseveryformsofdiscourse.
introduction
The Returnof the Prodigal oftenreads as a fragmented
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form,and yetthis
movingtowarda postcolonialnarrative
self-parody
formis relianton theconceptofthemodemthatis so important
tothe
of
the
often
Chahine's
film.
What
unites
bitingpolitical
bourgeoisie
critiquesof this period of Chahine's career is this attemptat
developinga postcolonialmodeof discoursewhilestillrelyingon an
indigenousfilmlanguage.The Returnof theProdigalis perhapsthe
mostsuccessfulattempt
at thiscomplextask,in partbecause it very
uses
the
playfully
generic form so importantto the national
commercialindustry.The "musical tragedy"leads to a further
in formin muchof themostimportant
textsin Chahine's
disruption
latercareer.Withthisgroupof politicalfilms,Chahinehas founda
formof discoursesuitableto his subjectand begins the task of
thatdiscourse.
refining
In 1978, Chahinemade his nextfilm,thefirstof whatwould
become a trilogyof autobiographicaltexts. Alexandria, Why?
lih?) is an evocationof the portcityof Alexandria
(Iskandariyya,
is closelymodeled
duringWorldWar II. Yahya,themaincharacter,
on Chahineand thefamilyis his own. WhatChahinehas set as his
taskis a textof self-realization
and definition
through
memoryin the
form of a postmodenistmyth.17Central to the film is the
in theprocessofbecoming.Yahyais a
of a filmmaker
self-reflexivity
fora vocationandattempting
to definehimself.
character
searching
is
most
Chahine's
successfulattempt
Alexandria,Why? perhaps
to embodythespecificand thepersonalin an Egyptiannationalfilm
styleandlanguage.The issueofan Egyptiannationalcultureis central
to thetextbutin thisfilmit is notan easy issue. The settingof the
filmis Alexandriain the yearsof WorldWar II, a timeand place
whichmightwell qualifyas one of themostcosmopolitan
of modem
the
of
Mediterranean
Alexandria,
history.
seaport
Egypt, has
been
a
crossroadsforEuropeanandNearEasterncultures;
historically
combine this historicalmixtureof cultureswith the enforced
occupationby foreigntroopsduringthe war, and the milieu is a
of languages,cultures,and races.For theyoungEgyptian
patchwork
who representsChahine,comingof age in this arena
protagonist
exposeshimto a confusing
arrayof marginalized
groups-foreigners
are oftenhomosexuals,
run
the
from
Black toJewto
Egyptians
gamut
effete.
The
multicultural
English-speaking
experienceof 1940s
Alexandriais notat all confusing
forthehero,buttheWesternviewer
is presentedwith an array of ethnic groups which defy any
of"Egyptian."
stereotypical
rendering
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143

In the contextof Alexandria,Why?theconceptof "other"is

neverclearlydefined;Yahya declinesto measurehimselfagainstany
one marginalgroup,findingcomparisons,for example,between
his
himselfand his homosexualuncle. Likewise, he transforms
Arabicwhich
schoolroom
readingofShakespeareintoan impassioned
When
even his Britishprofessorseems capable of understanding.
Yahya arguesa pointwithhis teacher,theherodoes it in Arabicand
his adversaryrespondsin English.Yet the debate continues,each
to relinquish
butrefusing
theotherand his autonomy
acknowledging
thepowerof language.For Yahya and fortheEgyptianaudiencefor
whom he serves as pointof view, the "other"neversuccessfully
leaves Egypt.
coalesces intoa definableentityuntilthe protagonist
YoussefChahinehas alwaysworkedon the
As a filmmaker,
he has found
marginsof commercialcinemain Egypt;as a director,
His
on manyfronts.
communities
himselfa memberof marginalized
and so he
beenthoseof theopposition,
politicshave also consistently
has developedas a leadingvoice in cinemain theregionone would
in the"other,"
His interest
have to say in spiteof these"differences."
in commercialcinema,has
the marginalgroups not represented
in thecontextof givingvoice ratherthan
beenpresented
consistently
pointingfingers.In The Sparrowforexample,he refusedto pointto
theIsraelis,choosinginsteadto examinenational
theobviousculprit,
resisted
in a self-reflective
way. Chahinehas consistently
corruption
the
to
obvious
the
choosing explore,instead, complicated
groupings,
cultureandpoliticalfabricof
of elementsin theshifting
interrelations
theMiddleEast.
inAlexandria,Why?and,indeed,in
The roleof theintellectual
one. In thisinitial
is a problematic
thewholeautobiographical
trilogy,
of an Egyptianartist/intellectual,
thebeginnings
to represent
attempt
withtheWestto whichhe also pays
Chahinefindshimselfin conflict
and
Yahya,receiveshisinspiration
homage.18The youngintellectual,
trainingin and fromthe West, and yet the Egyptiannational
ambivalencetowardthis stateof affairsis palpable. The issue of
collaborationbetweenthe Egyptiannationalistsand the Germans
coded
culturally
duringWorldWar II is one of themoreunsettling
of
But
the
context
film.
of
the
viewers
ambiguitiesfor Western
forEgyptians
Germanyand itsrolein WorldWar II is verydifferent
whoknewtheBritishas a colonialpresence.
to Hollywoodfilms,and his earliest
attracted
Yahya is strongly
creativeacts, withthe exceptionof the schoolroomArabicHamlet,
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revolve around recreationsof musical numbers.The cultural

of Hollywoodis neveracknowledged
as suchby Yahya or
hegemony
filmmaker
the
ambivalence
toward
the
theWestand
Chahine;
yet
by
in thefilm.This
remainsa subtext
itsintellectual
andculturaltradition
of theBritishsoldier,fey
surfacesoccasionallyin therepresentation
who drunkenly
and latentlyhomoerotic,
sings "The
yet poignantly
WhiteCliffsofDover"beforehe is shippedtohisdeathat al-Alamein.
In Alexandria,Why?Yahya fightsto go to Americato become
a filmdirector;but when he entersNew York harbor,he findsa
theStatueof Libertyand a groupof
leeringprostitute
impersonating
Hassidic Jews ominouslyawaitinghis arrival.Like his neighbor,
Isaac, who leaves Egyptforthenew stateof Israelin 1948,Yahya is
withan imagehe did notanticipate.
Forboththeseemigrd
confronted
not
in
the
World
New
does
characters,
any way conformto their
preconceived
imageof it.In mostof thesubtextsof thefilm,national
is
main
a
concern;it is oftenan ambiguousissue forthe
identity
andforChahineas filmmaker.
characters
Alexandria,Why?is perhapsYoussefChahine'smostcoherent
narrativeand the culminationof his experiment
withmodem and
postmodernformsin film. Althoughthe text draws on several
itsfocuson theintellectual/artist
narrative
threads,
comingof age and
the subtextof nationalidentity
providea coherencethathis earlier
filmslack.Alexandria,Why?also continuesChahine'smovetowarda
postmodernform in film narrative;in this case, much of the
playfulnessand allusivenessof the plot are motivatedby Yahya's
in Hollywoodfilmsand musicalsin particular.
interest
The opening
of
the
film
of
intercuts
scenes
the
with
Alexandrine
beaches
sequence
EstherWilliamsfilms,choreographed
to popularAmericandance
musicof the 1940s. The closingshotis newsreelfootageof wartime
Europewhichexplodesin timeto themusicand is matchedwiththe
waveson thecoastofEgypt.
As Westernviewers,we areaskedtodiscounttheimportance
of
whathas been deemedone of the seminaleventsof the twentieth
of thefilmon theissue of
century-WorldWar II. The perspective
nationand history
is skewed,then,to thatof a youngEgyptianwhose
and interestsdo not necessarilylie withthe European
sympathies
allies.The playridiculesall politicalviewpoints
in thepresenceofthe
Britishambassadorin Alexandria.Chahine's apparentattemptto
recreatethe atmosphere
of Alexandriaduringtheseyearshingeson
his abilityto createa textwhichplayswithhistory
whileat thesame
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145

of thatera somewhatludicrous.It is a
thenationalism
timerendering
but
the
narrative
whichChahineconstructs
difficult
task,
postmodern
dismantlesall nationalidentitiesin a very successfulattemptto
of nationalismand culture,and possiblyto
explorethe ambiguities
forgea "national"discoursebasedon pluralisms.
Soon afterAlexandria,Why?was releasedand wenton to win
awards,includinga Silver Bear at the Berlin
major international
a majorheartattackand
FilmFestival,Chahinesuffered
International
is
this
extensivebypasssurgery; partof his autobiography
underwent
inAn EgyptianStory(HadutaMisriyya,1982). Thismajor
chronicled
his careerand his lifeand gave rise
illnesscausedChahineto rethink
to makefilmsthatweremorepersonal,notonlyin
to a determination
their iconographybut in their subject matter as well. The
autobiographical
trilogy,whichin manyways remainshis master
ofthisrefocusin hiscareer.
is
the
result
work,
threadof the
An EgyptianStorypicksup theautobiographical
a successful
become
an
adult
who
has
as
filmmaker
Yahya
young
in Egypt.Noural-Sherif,
an Egyptianstarat thebeginning
filmmaker
mannerisms
of his career,mimicsChahine'sidiosyncratic
brilliantly
musttravelto
When
Chahine
in the openingsequenceof the film.
the questionsof Egyptiannational
London foropen-heart
surgery,
in
of
the
and
Arab's
place theWestcometo thefore.Chahine
identity
way, populatingEngland
again treatstheseissues in a postmodern
with relatives of the filmmaker and enabling the
his
to navigatetheWestwithoutsurrendering
filmmaker/protagonist

identity.
Egyptian
Unlikemanyof Chahine'spreviousfilms,An EgyptianStory
was both a popular and criticalsuccess. His reputationas the
storytellerof Egypt had been established with his previous
he
textandChahinewouldnowexploitthenotoriety
autobiographical
his
narrative
While
for
the
had earnedas spokesman
style
marginal.
the postmodern
to incorporate
his attempts
remainsnoncommercial,
has piqued
traditions
ofbothEasternand Westernnarrative
structures
ofa moregeneralaudience.Thisaudiencemaynotalways
theinterest
his texts,butno one wouldmiss a Chahinefilm,if only
understand
culturalfigure.
has
nowbecomea notorious
becausehe
to
The thirdpartof Chahine'sautobiographical
trilogyreturns
initial
of
his
in
a
later
thesubjectof thefilmmaker
reprisal
years
forty
Alexandria film; this one is titledAlexandria Again and Again
kamanwa kaman,1989). The filmmaker,
Yahya,this
(Iskandariyya
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timeplayedby Chahinehimself,is aboutto be honoredat a major

film.Butthefestivalis in
filmfestivalforhis earlierautobiographical
an
Europeand he failsto wintheaward.Chahineappearsas himself,
outsideragain,relegatedthistimenotonlyto themarginsofEgyptian
culturebutshunnedbytheWesterncinemaculture.
to the
own relationship
Centralto thistextis the filmmaker's
to filma
cultureof the West, codifiedin his ambiguousattempts
acts and
Hamlet.In Alexandria,Why?theyoungstudent
passionately
to
the
shock
ofhis
in
his
from
Hamlet
Englishclass,
singsthesoliloquy
It is thisscenewhichbest
teacherandthedelightofhisfellowstudents.
betweenthese
to
find
Chahine's
commonality
attempts
represents
cultures.Alexandria,Again and Again also featuresthe
differing
andchantedin
HamletcastwithEgyptians
of a problematic
production
a
Arabic.It is notthecastingin Arabicwhichmakesthisproduction
text
creates
which
the
rather
the
rift
but
for
metaphor difference,
betweenChahineand 'Amr,his youngstarand love object.Chahine's
his efforts
bothto controlthe
to producethisfilmrepresents
attempt
"other"with whom he clearly identifiesand to understandthe
withwhichAlexandria,
culturaltradition
Eurocentric
Againand Again
struggles.Chahine,an educatedAlexandrine,can understandthe
taskandroleforhis young
Westerncontext,
butit is clearlya difficult
serials
his
on
to directtelevision
'Amr
turns
back
Hamlet
star.Instead,
fora Gulfsheikh.This shiftis represented
vividlyin thefilmas is the
andilliterate.
tensionbetweenyoungandold,literate
Alexandria,
Again
of
and Againis thefirstclearexampleof Chahine'sacknowledgment
ofreconciliation.
andoftheimpossibility
difference
Alexandria,Again and Again takes as its centralevent the
Egyptianfilmguild's strikefor greaterautonomyin 1987. As a
politicaleventand as a politicalsubtext,this narrativethreadhas
itrepresents
theclearalliancebetweenartand
important
significance:
politicswhichChahinehas maintainedin his work since Central
Station.It also represents
a further
explorationof the role of the
in
intellectual
and artist thenationalcultureof Egypt.The filmis the
most radical formof postmodernnarrativestructure
thus far in
Chahine'scareer.The filmintercuts
thesubplotsof thestrikeand the
filmingof Hamletwithflashbacksnotonlyto theawardsceremony
butalso to historical
recreations
of Alexander'soccupationof Egypt.
film
The
shiftsabruptly
fromone subtext
to another,
disjointing
thenarrative
in disturbing
structure
and disorienting
ways.Chahine's
to deal withtheissues of a nationalcultureand theartist's
attempts
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147

Alexandria,
Againand Againis
place in it are centralto each subtext.
in
the
of
themostradicaland disturbing
trilogy,
autobiographical
part
partbecauseChahinein no waydistanceshimselffromthenarrative.
The distancing
deviceswhichsuturethediscourseseem extratextual
because Chahineis himselfso closelyallied withthefilm.The film
andfiction.
disturbs
becauseoftheoverlapofautobiography
discourseofthe
in a postmodern
Withhiscontinued
exploration
added a new
has
Chahine
of
self-reflexive
filmmaking,
possibilities
to
dimensionbothto thenationalcinemaof Egyptand theissues of
thenational
filmas well. Usingtheselfto characterize
Third-World
direction
a
new
indicates
of
of at leasta part Egyptiansociety
identity
forauteurcinemain EgyptandtheThirdWorld.The autobiographical
trilogyof Youssef Chahine has initiatednew genericformsand
possibilities in Egyptian cinema, though largely confined to
counter-cinema.
with generic
Youssef Chahinehas continuedto experiment
aboutCairo.In many
to filma documentary
formin hisrecentattempt
for
as a strategy
has come to courtcontroversy
ways,thefilmmaker
Its
Cairo
Illuminated
of
freedom
People
by
expression.
promoting
aboutthecity
(Al-Kahiramunawarabi-ahliha,1991), a documentary
filmto
as seen by Chahine,is in manyways his mostcontroversial
this
and publiclycondemned, film
date. Bannedby thegovernment
won accolades when it was presentedat Cannes. The film was
as an unnecessarily
condemnedby theEgyptiangovernment
negative
and
form
with
film
The
of
the
documentary
experiments
city.
portrait
considered
be
what
to
in
an
might
attempt represent
authenticity,
someofthemostpressingproblemsofa troubled
country.
The film is set in the metatextualcontextof Chahine
theircountry
to represent
challenginga groupof youngfilmmakers
fora foreigntelevisionproject.Chahine,again,movesin and out of
the text as the marginalizedcharacterhe has always played,but
thanin his
somehowmoreaware of and resignedto his difference
of the
in
the
issue
of
all
first
difference
this
earlierwork.He explains
to
Islam in contrast
Representing
growthof Islamicfundamentalism.
of
Westernnorms,Chahinepresentsnumerousdisconcerting
images
Western culture-including a miniskirted,barefoot blonde
underthewatchful
gaze of an Islamicsheikh.But
tourist-unfolding
is onlyone of a numberof problemswhichare
religiousdifference
muchis
Chahine's
gaze. As in his earliertrilogy,
through
represented
has made in thefabricof
made of thechangeswhichmodernization
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Egyptiansociety.Economic and social problemsare the focus of

manyofthescenesin Cairo Illuminated
byIts People. WhatChahine
to do is to questiontheformofdocumentary
has attempted
as well as
offera social and politicalcritiqueof thecontemporary
scene.What
of the government
in a
constructed
resultsis a bitingcondemnation
textwhichbases itseffecton issuesofauthenticity.
Chahine himselfappears in the filmas an observerof the
affairsof thiscity,and so his perspectiveservesas the
day-to-day
of
withinthe
viewpoint thefilm.Whathe observesis in partpresented
of thepoliticaloppositionto Westernpresencefeltduring
parameters
the Gulf War. The filmis set in Cairo duringthe days between
15 and February
23, 1991.Whiletheoppositionto thewaris
January
in some of the mostauthenticnewsreelfootageof the
represented
of
much
whatservesas subjectmatter
is thegrowingeconomic
film,
and social crisiswhichfacesthiscity.Thereare shotsof thesuq, of
the growingnumbersof Cairenes and of the continuingtension
betweenreligionsandbetweenclasses.Manyoftheseissuesaredealt
within sceneswhichare clearlyconstructed
episodes,not authentic
and
documentary
footage. The line between these documentary
is
sometimes
a
one.
blurred
Often,
quasi-documentary
renderings
Chahineveryclearlyconstructs
a fictionalepisode withcaricatured
of
various
social
and speakto the
representations
groupswhoperform
camera.Forexample,in a sequencewhichcritiquesthenouveauriche
and theirmaterialism,
Chahinehas a man dressedin a whitesuit
a
white
Mercedes
addressthecamera,speakingof his ability
driving
to separatehimselffromtherestofhisfellowCaireneswithhisnewly
and corruptly
are the sequences
acquiredwealth.More problematic
whichare not so obviouslystagedand scripted.The last scene,for
example,is set in a fundamentalist
mosque wherea youngsheikh
speaks of infidelsand oppression;the centralcharacter,a young
manbefriended
unemployed
byChahineentersthemosque.He makes
this
eye contactwiththesheikhand thescenecutsto a crewfilming
scene.The transition
is disruptive:
theaudienceis unawareuntilthis
moment
thatthisis a "docudrama"
rendering.
Chahinehas undertaken
severalco-produced
projectsin recent
with
French
film
in
an
to
the
years
producers
attempt circumvent
restrictions
inherentin the filmmaking
industryof Egypt.He has
maintained
thattheseprojectshavenotcompromised
hisessentialvoice
as an Egyptianfilmmaker.19
Indeed,bothAdieu,Bonaparte(Al-wida'
ya Bonapart,1985), and The Sixth Day (Al-yawmal-sadis, 1986)
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149

addressEgyptianissues in a stylewhich is markedlyChahine's.

casts, their subjects,
Althoughthese films featureinternational
and
are
those
which
mark
settings, style
Egyptand Egyptiancinema
fortheworldat large.
The Emigrant(Al-muhajir,
1994) is Youssef Chahine'slatest
film.Co-producedwitha Frenchproducer,
thefilmadds to thewide
in his career:in
arrayof filmgenreswhichChahinehas attempted
most respects,the film is a conventionalBiblical epic. Set in
Pharaonictimes,The Emigrantchroniclesthe exile of Josephin
Egypt. From the beginningof the production,the subject itself
considerations
generated
problems.Chahinewas forcedbycensorship
to changethenameof themaincharacters
to concealtheirreligious
werealso renamed.
significance.
JosephbecameRamandhisbrothers
Censorialcontroversy
was notconfinedto thereligiousaspect
of the film;therepresentation
of PharaonicEgyptalso came under
Chahine'snoblemenare, at times,less than stately.The
scrutiny.
ofthearmyis impotent,
commander-in-chief
andthePharaohhimself
is youngandweak.
Whatan audiencemightexpectfromepic filmmaking-action,
action,and a castofthousands
marching
through
military
particularly
absentfromthisfilm.Instead,the
exoticsettings-isconspicuously
withsmalltableauxwhichnarratethe storyof
vieweris confronted
andwarin
Ram andhisexile.The dramatic
episodesoftomb-building
PharaonicEgyptare indicatedthrough
dialogueratherthanthrough
dramatic
representation.
The visualsweepanddramaticscenerywhichusuallydominate
thedrama
here.Certainly,
westernBiblicalepics are also less striking
of Egyptiansceneryis one of theexceptionalaspectsof thefilm,but
its functionis unclear:thereis littlemotivationfor the postcard
in
picturesof desertand mountains.AlthoughRam is a foreigner
Egypt,hisalienpositioncannotbe detectedvisually,butonlythrough
hiswords.
andthenon-Egyptian
oftheEgyptian
The representation
then,is
oddly ambiguousin a filmwhichtitlesitselfThe Emigrant.What
emergesmuchmoreclearlyhere is a critiqueof class ratherthan
as
The Pharaoniceliteis depicted,almostwithout
exception,
ethnicity.
the
of
Given
the
task
ineffectual.
and
unattractive,
farming
impotent
desert,Ram and his Egyptianpartnerssucceed at what has been
described as an impossible task by the Pharaoh. Back in Thebes, the
priestesspines for physical love and the army leaders conspire. The
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butofthefertile
is notso muchoneofEgyptversustheforeign
contrast
The
over
the
rich.
in
contrast
to
controversy thefilmhas
impotent
poor
ragedin theEgyptianpressand reachedthecourts,butin theend the
filmwas notbanned,and in facthas been successfulcommercially.
Challengingthe generic constraintsof both Egyptianand
ofmuchofChahine'swork.
Hollywoodcinemahas beenthehallmark
within
In TheEmigranthe choosesto workmuchmoreambiguously
the
from
is
of
tone
The
constraints.
apparent
problem
generic
costumesto the love interestto the editingof the film.The film
appearsto be an epic whichdid nothave quitetheenergyor breadth
expectedofit.
The evidenceofChahine'sfilmsarguesfora consistent
attempt
to finda nationalvoice in the postcolonialdiscourseof Egyptian
his use of classical Hollywoodcinema has
culture.Increasingly,
in its attemptsat
become less reverent,and more postmodern,
His careerhas includedan attemptat virtually
self-referentiality.
tasteforfilmmusicals.
of
sort
genrefilmand showsa consistent
every
He has attemptedto use such narrativetraditions,important
themselvesin the long historyof Egyptiancinema,to popularize
political opposition. For Chahine, the postmodernistnarrative
and morea method
becameless a modeof filmicdisruption
structure
ofa politicalcritique.Chahinehimselfhas said
forthecommunication
As
dare not silencehis steadfastopposition.20
thatthe government
Egypt's foremostfilm director,he commandssignificantmedia
to
if notalwaysa largeviewingpublic.For thegovernment
attention
imprisonhimwould silencehimonlynominally.In thisrespect,he
remains a leading media figure and, internationally,
Egypt's
best-known
director.
NOTES
1 Roy Armes,ThirdWorldFilmmakingand the West(Berkeley:
of CaliforniaPress,1987): 251-67. Armes'chapteron
University
and one
Chahineis a sourceof accuratebiographicalinformation,
of the few sources on this filmmakerpublishedin English.
2 For thecontroversy
Chahinegenerates,
one need onlyreferto his
clash withgovernment
in
spokesmen Egyptoverhis documentary
"Cairo." The film was roundly criticizedin the press as
misrepresenting
Egyptto theWest.His latestfilm,The Emigrant
(Al-Muhajir), has also caused a controversial debate.
3 Interviewwith Youssef Chahine (December 15, 1991). The
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151

at
citedwereconductedas partof classroominteraction
interviews
in Cairo in a courseI taughton Egyptian
theAmericanUniversity
to AhmadHassounaand
Cinema(fallsemester,
1991).I am grateful
fortheirparticipation.
totheclassmembers
editedby
4 An entireeditionof theFrenchpublication
Cindmaction,
no. 33 (Editiondu
Christian
Bosseno,YoussefChahinel'Alexandrine,
It is just
Serf,1985)is devotedto YoussefChahine,theAlexandrine.
in relationto thiscity.
of howhe has definedhimself
one indication
5 See Guy Gauthier,"Gare central, trois secondes d'arret,"
54-59.
Cindmaction,
withYoussefChahine(December17, 1991).
6 Interview
withYoussefChahine(December15, 1991).
7 Interview
8 Film reviewersin the popular press of Egypt and my own
thisimpression:
discussionswithstudentsof filmhave confirmed
a director
Chahineis perceivedas too "difficult"
by manyEgyptian
filmgoers.Althoughhis is a householdname in Egypt,manyof
havenotseenhisfilms.
thesefilmgoers
withYoussefChahine(December20, 1991).
9 Interview
10 LizbethMalkmusand Roy Armes,Arab and AfricanFilmmaking
(London:Zed Books,1991) 152.
withMoustafaDarwish,November,1992. Mr. Darwish
11 Interview
is an Egyptianfilmcriticwhoalso servedas headofthecensorship
ofSalah al-Din.
boardduringthefilming
discussionof thisfilm,see Hala Halim,"The signsof
12 For further
Saladin : A Modem CinematicRenditionof MedievalHeroism"
Alif12 (1992): 78-94.
withMoustafaDarwish(November22, 1992).
13 Interview
and theuses of it in his films,
14 For Chahine'sviewson nationalism
see an interviewwith him by Andr6eTournes,"Chahine,le
JeuneCindma,119 (June,1979): 28-30.
nationalism
demystifie,"
withYoussefChahine,December17, 1991.
15 Interview
16 Jacques L6vy, "Singing in Cairo: Naissance de la trag6die
33,72-75.
musicale,"Cindmaction,
17RaphaelBassan,"Alexandrie
autobiographie
pourquoi?la m6moire:
1.
68-7
etmodernit6,"
33,
Cindmaction,
and of elites
18 For an initialdiscussionof theroleof theintellectual
Khaled
see
of
films
in
the
Osman,"La
moregenerally
Chahine,
33, 38-43.
th6matique,"
Cindmaction,
19 Interviewconductedas part of a class taughtin conjunction
with Chahine at the American Universityin Cairo (spring
semester,1990).
withYoussefChahine,Cairo(August31, 1990).
20 Interview
152

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