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2016

JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT

WAMALWA N STEPHEN
AB243-1684/2008
B. CONMAN IV 2015/2016

AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE ADOPTION OF SMOKE CONTROL SYSTEMS AS A

MEANS OF ENHANCING LIFE SAFETY IN HIGHRISE BUILDINGS IN KENYA,A CASE
STUDY OF NAIROBI COUNTY

ABSTRACT
High rise buildings have become an increasingly popular phenomena within urban settings
primarily attributable to the objective fulfilled of achieving maximum land use given high costs
that come with acquiring land in such settings among the most important advantage that high
rise buildings offer to consumers is that they tend to have well occupied occupier profiles. In
other words, tailored neighborhoods. (Vincent, 2014)The other appeal factor for high rise
buildings are that they offer all the conveniences of modern living including swimming pools,
gymnasium, grand entrance lobbies, high speed elevators etc. On the negative side high rises
can pose serious challenges to both fire fighters and occupancy especially in older buildings that
dont have the benefits of modern building design.
High rise fires represent an extraordinary challenge to all fire departments and are some of the
most challenging incidents that a fire department encounters. High rise buildings can hold
hundreds of people well above the reach of fire fighters services and even Ariel devices and the
chance of rescuing victims even from exterior is near zero once the fire is above the operational
reach of the fire department personnel. Of particular concern in the event of a fire the smoke
from combustible material the form part of the building fabric or equipment otherwise housed
in the building.
The NFPA smoke control systems overview journal (1992) maintains that a number of large loss
fires have occurred where smoke was deemed a contribution factor. Most deaths are not
caused by burns but by smoke inhalation. Often smoke incapacitates so quickly that people are
overcome and cant make it to an otherwise accessible exit. Particular problems of evacuation
from outside as well as overall fighting operations and attempts to put out the fire are
furthermore encountered. Over the years there has been significant research and innovations
that has seen a host of smoke control available in for adoption in the design of high rise
buildings.
The study intends to investigate the current safety performance of tall buildings in Kenya. The
purpose of the study therefore is to investigate the current safety performance comprising of
refuge and evacuation practices under various smoke and egress conditions for a high rise
building in Kenya. The objectives of the study are; to identify the risks that are presented to the
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occupants of a structure that are a primary threat to life that can be significantly mitigated
through a smoke control system based on design considerations that inform the design of a
particular system in the building, to contain smoke to the zone of fire origin, maintain tenability
in exit access and maintain the smoke layer at a predetermined height.
The research design that will be employed will be survey research design, where both
qualitative and quantitative approaches will be used with the aim to find out the real safety
problems and the danger of life threat that occur in high rise structures in Nairobi, The study
will focus Nairobi county where various high rise buildings will be picked through random
sampling and stratified random sampling. Data collection will be done using questionnaires and
analysis by the use of SPSS and Microsoft excel
The study seeks to find out frequent life threat factors that occur where the building is designed
without a smoke control system and consequently recommend for adoption of a relevant
smoke control system in the building.

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CHAPTER 1

1.0 Background to the problem

One of the Characteristics of a high-rise building fire is difficult to evacuate the occupancy of
the building. In existence, Building fire examples show that a lot of people live are lost on their
way for escaping or in the front of the elevator entrance. (NFPA, 1999)
Practice demonstrates that solving the suddenly separate movement of endangered crowd is
extremely important. At the beginning of 80's, Code on Fire Protection Design for Residential
High Rise Building was prepared and issued in China, in which, there was a very clear regulation
that a staircase for safety evacuation shall be set up. If a fire occurs in a high-rise building,
people inside will be safe if they move into an evacuation staircase in the floor they occupy and
then they will have enough time to escape outside from the building at fire or move to other
safety areas. Generally speaking this is a method to overcome the difficulty in a long and
dangerous escape route. For creating such a short and safe escape route, a range of technical
measures and related equipment are needed, especially for those evacuation staircases which
are in the middle of a building or in the buildings without natural light and smoke purging
conditions. As for the construction and structure of the staircase, fire-resistant performance of
the construction materials was proved early in 70's, and fire door in the evacuation passage
also met requirements on fire prevention. Today, one of key problems needed further to study
is, how do we enable smoke and high-temperature air-flow caused by fire move in a direction
opposite to that of escaping crowd movement, i.e., escaping crowd move from their rooms to
the evacuation staircase, while smoke and high temperature air-flow accumulated in the
corridor outside the door of front room of smoke proof staircase move to origin of fir and other
direction opposite to people evacuation. (NFPA, 1999) The study seeks to find such a method
and certainly assure the enhancement of life safety of the crowd on their escape attempts
Occupants are provided with a clear escape path, permitting them to exit the building far more
quickly and safely. To make the smoke and hot air-flow move in direction opposite to that of
crowd movement in escape routes, the critical factor is that the pressure difference must be
produced among corridor, from room of staircase and staircase in an escape route. The
relationship of the pressure should be: the pressure inside the corridor is lower than that in the
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front room, and that in the front room is lower than that in the staircase. If such a relationship
is established, it can be guaranteed that the smoke and the hot air-flow shall not move into the
front room, and still, at the time when the fire door of the front door is opened by occupants,
the pressure inside the front room shall be decreased, and the velocity of the fresh air-flow due
to the decreased pressure shall be higher than that of the smoke and the hot air-flow. That will
force the smoke and the hot air-flow moving

1.1 Problem statement

Catastrophic fires have occurred in virtually every major city in the world. In the last century there have
been 73 such disasters in the United States alone (Young 2009). Smoke is recognized as the major

killer in all fire situations in fire scenarios involving tall building often represent worst cases
where high potential for smoke related injuries exists(Beryl and Halpin, 1980.)Present day
buildings, furnishings etc. tend to be highly combustible and give off smoke when they burn.
Smoke rather than the actual flames of a fire accounts to 80 % of all casualties from fires. Only
25% of fire related deaths result from heat exposure. People die directly either from inhaling
smoke and gas, or from becoming overwhelmed by smoke and killed by the flames. (Milke,
1999)
Before any flame is even visible, smoke may move faster than 50 fpm (25cm/s) from the point
of origin and may kill people before that are even aware that a fire is developing. Once a flame
becomes visible, smoke may move well over 100 fpm (100cm/s) before the flame has even
started. Fires in modern buildings usually last less than 30 minutes, while the smoke problem is
present for hours. (Milke, 1999)
Smoke may be acrid, biting, choking. It can tear at the eyes and temporarily blind a person. At
the same time, it can obscure exits. Stairwells and elevator shafts can become filled with smoke
thereby blocking peoples efforts to escape and impeding fire fighters. The toxicity of some
smoke affects the nervous system immediately. Smoke may contain gases that dull a persons
senses and cause the loss of all feeling. Victims may mentally float away, or may comprehend
what they need to do, but be unable to co-ordinate their muscle. People will claw at a door
knob, for example, instead of turning the handle. (Cernak, 2008)

Although many components of smoke are still a mystery, some are clearly understood. Carbon
monoxide interacts with hemoglobin in the blood and prevents the hemoglobin from carrying
oxygen. Death results from oxygen deficiency.
The smoke problem is further compounded by the increased toxicity and the volume of smoke
and other fire gases generated by many modern polymers. Some contemporary materials such
as plasticized polyvinyl chloride (PVC), produce up to 500 times as much smoke per ft 2(m2) of
exposed surface area as red oak does (Cernak, 2008)
While natural materials emit toxic gases when burned, synthetic materials add exponentially to
the poisonous brew, so their increased use in modern buildings complicates the smoke
problem. Smoke containing toxic gases is given off through chemical decomposition of heat
even before any visible flame or combustion occurs. About 1000 new chemicals are introduced
every year, and there are not nearly enough funds to research their entire potential hazard.
Fire fighters have recognized this situation and most fire fighters wont even go near a fire
today without self-contained breathing apparatus. They know they cant get in, make rescues
and safely get out without such protection. (Cernak, 2008). Deadly and in of themselves, these
components can have a synergistic effect, that is, the total effect can be greater than the sum
of the parts PVC, in particular is capable of having this effect. A rubber substitute PVC is
commonly found in electrical wiring insulation, electrical fixtures, interior plastic plumbing and
office copying machines to name only a few of its uses. PVC decomposes to form over 60
different gases, including hydrogen chloride, phosgene and a host of other products, some
known to be carcinogens. (Cernak, 2008)
For some time now, the burning of PVC has been known to produce hydrogen chloride (HCL), a
sensory and pulmonary irritant. It incapacitates a person, and the immobilized victim succumbs
to lethal carbon monoxide poisoning. Since it has a relatively long smoke life, phosgene remains
toxic not only during actual acring period, but also for sometimes thereafter. Moreover,
hydrogen chloride from the combustion lingers even longer, presenting a special danger to fire
fighters during the cleanup phase of fire. (Cernak, 2008).
While we endeavor to prevent, minimize and control the occurrence and severity of fires by
installing sprinkler systems, minimizing the use of combustible materials in construction and
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minimizing ignition sources, fires still occur and live are still lost. The question which constitute
the statement of the problem and which this study seeks to answer is what is the current safety
performance comprising of refuge and evacuation practices under various smoke and egress
conditions for a high rise building in Kenya

1.2 Research questions

To achieve its goals the following are fundamental questions of the study.
What is the current safety performance comprising of refuge and evacuation practices under
various smoke and egress conditions for a high rise building in Kenya?
How do we enable smoke and high-temperature air-flow caused by fire move in a direction
opposite to that of escaping crowd movement?

1.3 Objectives
The prime focus of the study involves answering the questions as to how it can be guaranteed
that the smoke and the hot air-flow shall not move into the escape routes and the stairwell,
and still, at the time when the fire door of the front door is opened by occupants, the pressure
inside the front room shall be decreased, and the velocity of the fresh air-flow due to the
decreased pressure shall be higher than that of the smoke and the hot air-flow. Objectives of
the study are;
To identify the risks that are presented to the occupants of a structure that are a primary threat
to life that can be significantly mitigated through a smoke control system based on design
considerations that inform the design of a particular system in the building,
To inhibit migration of smoke from the smoke zone
To maintain a tenable environment in areas of refuge and means of egress during the time
required for evacuation.
To maintain the smoke layer at a predetermined height.
To provide conditions outside the fire zone that enable emergency response personnel to
conduct search-and rescue operations and to locate and control the fire.

1.4 Justification
Currently, Nairobi has only 12 buildings that tower more than 80 meters, but this is expected to
rise to 18 by the year 2016, when six more buildings are expected to join the roll of honor.
These are Hazina Towers, Britam Towers, Kings Prism, UAP Towers, Le Mac, KCB Plaza and
CTDLT Towers. Experts assert that the sudden clamor of sky scrapers in the capital is a sign of a
maturing real estate industry and that Nairobi is asserting itself as a financial hub in the region.
A report released last year by mentor management, a real estate firm, showed that companies
are willing to pay double the market rate of $0.7 per square foot charged by a majority of
developers at the city center in order to relocate to city suburbs like Upper Hill and Westlands.
And the exodus is already happening. Some of the firms that have moved from the city center
are the Nairobi stock exchange, Barclays Bank, Standard Chartered Commercial Bank of Africa.
The report further projected that Upper Hill and Westlands will contribute 70 percent of the
1.7 million square foot of office space that will come into the market annually over the next two
Years. (Vincent, The daliy nation, 2014)
Over the years, Kenya has been exposed to a variety of disasters such as, fires, droughts, floods,
landslides, HIV/AIDS, human conflicts, drug abuse, traffic accidents, oil spill, industrial accidents
and terrorism, among others. Kenya, like many other countries in Africa and elsewhere in the
world has experienced an increase in the diversity, intensity and frequency of occurrence
Of disasters over the past two decades, with many emerging disasters, such as corruption. In
many cases these have resulted in an increase in the number of people affected and property
damaged leading to rising economic losses. Disaster response reviews have indicated that
response costs the government and other stakeholders more than would otherwise be the case
if sufficient efforts had been put in place for effective disaster management as shown from the
cost of responding to drought in the year1999-2001.
In comparison to low-rise buildings, very tall buildings have several inherent attributes that
increase the variety, probability, and severity of potential fire events, including: higher
occupant loads; longer evacuation times; access issues for responding fire departments;
potential water pressure/availability issues; pronounced stack effect; the potential for multiple
concurrent occupancies to be present; and their iconic, high -visibility nature. Specifying
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adequate smoke control provisions during the design of very tall buildings plays a key role in
addressing several of these issues. (Craighead, 2003)
Smoke control in the broadest sense simply means controlling the movement of smoke
throughout a building via passive and active means. The installation of fire and smoke barriers
with protected openings is a form of passive smoke control. Arguably, automatic sprinkler
systems provide a form of smoke control by limiting the size and growth rate of fires and by
cooling the smoke and thereby reducing buoyancy and pressure differences. (Magdanz, 2002)
This study will focus on engineered smoke control systems in very tall buildings, which use
mechanical means to produce pressure differentials across barriers to inhibit smoke spread. It
will discuss the code trends of the past and some of the relevant design considerations for
smoke control in very tall buildings of the future.

1.5 Significance
Since the mid-1990s, we have seen a tall building boom unprecedented in the history of human
kind. Whereas since the late 1800s we have witnessed a specific regionalized periods of
intense high rise building construction-such as during the late nineteenth Chicago or art deco
New York the recent past has seen tall buildings realized in unprecedented numbers on
virtually all countries in the globe. (Craighead, 2003)
In the world of high rise building design and construction, a variety of security and life safety
questions are posed to the engineers and architects who must provide a functional building,
regardless of size and occupancy. While we have always known that the life safety protection of
the occupants of buildings is of paramount importance, todays building tenants demand more:
How secure is their space from a variety of threats. Consequently the study recognizes that
achieving the proper level of protection is not possible with just one system or procedure. It is
the synergistic effect of all building systems and features working together that keep facilities
safe. (Craighead, 2003)
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There often several years between major loss of life or large property loss fires in high rise
buildings but the potential always exists. Every year, we see, hear and read about the terrible
tragedies caused by fires, earthquakes, tornadoes, bombings, disgruntled employees, terrorists
and the like. Every possible scenario must be accounted for. (Craighead, 2003)
Past Disaster Management performance in Kenya reveals poor monitoring, evaluation and
research, including poor data recording systems, inefficient evaluation, inconclusive research,
ignored disaster types, and a general unpreparedness for systematic, effective disaster
management. (G.O.K, 2009)The study is in consonance with the objectives of the national policy
for disaster management in Kenya march, 2009 which makes provisions for establishment of
effective monitoring, evaluation, research and application to all hazards and disasters
(Natural and man-made). Thousands of lives are dependent on it, among other things the study
seeks to create awareness and training in view of enhancing safety.

1.6 Scope of the study

1.6.1 Physical coverage

Most building targeted in the study are around the Upper hill arte and the greater Kilimani area
towards Ngong road. The list of buildings to be studied will be arrived at through stratified and
random sampling of the population i.e. office block, hotel, malls etc.
1.6.2 Subject and variable coverage

The study is interested in high rise building due to their tall nature which presents a life safety
threat in event of outbreak of a fire due to particular problems of evacuation. While life safety
is of interest to the study it main area of concern is control and management of smoke with a
view of providing a conducive environment to the occupancy of the building.