Pergamon

Engineering Fracture Mechanics Vol. 55, No. 5, pp. 831-857, 1996

Copyright 1996 Elsevier Science Ltd
Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved
0013-7944(94)00175-8
0013-7944/96 $15.00 + 0.00

VIBRATION OF C R A C K E D STRUCTURES: A STATE OF

THE ART REVIEW
ANDREW D. DIMAROGONAS
Department of MechanicalEngineering,WashingtonUniversity,St. Louis,Missouri,U.S.A.
Abstract--The presence of a crack in a structural member introduces a local flexibility that affects its vibration response. Moreover, the crack will open and close in time depending on the rotation and vibration amplitude. In this case the system is nonlinear. Furthermore, if general motion is considered,
the local stiffness matrix description of the cracked section of the shaft leads to a coupled system, while
for an uncracked shaft the system is decoupled. This means that the crack introduces new harmonics in
the spectrum. In fact, in addition to the second harmonic of rotation and the subharmonic of the critical speed, two more families of harmonics are observed:
(1) higher harmonics of the rotating speed due to the nonlinearity of the closing crack, and
(2) longitudinal and torsional harmonics are present in the start-up lateral vibration spectrum due to
the coupling.
Over 500 papers on the subject were published in the past 10 yrs. A wealth of analytical, numerical
and experimental investigations now exists. However, a consistent cracked bar vibration theory is yet to
be developed. There are still many unanswered questions, especially in the area of closing cracks in
rotating shafts. Copyright 1996 Elsevier Science Ltd

1. INTRODUCTION
IN TURBOMACHINERYfor power generation, the energy crisis of the early 1970s led to a considerable slow-down in the construction of new power stations. The bulk of the power equipment in
this country was commissioned in the 1960s and with a design life of 30 yrs, this equipment is
now in the third and last decade of its life. It is expected that failures due to low-cycle fatigue
initiated cracks will be a major cause of machine failures in the next decade.
The development of methods for on-line crack detection and monitoring started in the
early 1970s in the power industry. Dimarogonas [1, 2], in two internal reports of the General
Electric Co., Turbine Department, developed the theory of vibration of cracked shafts, an outline of which and the extension to cracked beams and turbine blades were included in a textbook [3]. Pafelias[4] continued Dimarogonas' work after 1972 and in a formal General Electric
report (published in the Technical Information Series) used the theory, and extensive laboratory
and field experiments to develop a methodology for crack detection based on the 2X harmonic
and the half critical speed subharmonic. He further reported on the development of an on-line
electronic instrument for monitoring and early warning of cracked rotors to be used as a turbine
supervisory instrument. Pafelias' report [4] had wide distribution and triggered substantial
further work in the turbomachinery industry. Since the early 1980s there has been a substantial
body of academic research on the subject.
There is a number of reports describing field experience related to the vibration of cracked
structures, by Schmerling and Hammond [5], Haas [6], Jack and Patterson [7], Greco et al. [8],
Kottke and Menning[9], Anifantis et aL[10], Klompas [11] and Kraemer et al. [12].
Reviews on the dynamic response of cracked structures were reported by Dimarogonas and
Paipetis [13], Wauer[14], Entwistle and Stone[15], Dimarogonas[16] and Gasch[17].

2. LOCAL FLEXIBILITY OF CRACKED REGIONS OF BEAMS

The fact that a crack or local defect affects the dynamic response of a structural member
was known long ago. The first attempts to quantify local defects were by Kirmsher [18] and
831

832

A.D. DIMAROGONAS

Thomson[19]. The effect of a notch on the structure flexibility was simulated by a local bending
moment or reduced section, with magnitudes which were estimated by experimentation.
The analysis of the local flexibility of a cracked region of structural element was quantified
in the 1950s by Irwin[20, 21], Bueckner[22], Westmann and Yang[23] by relating local flexibility
to the crack stress intensity factor (SIF). Based on this principle, a method was developed for
the computation of the SIF based on the local bending stiffness (the inverse of the local flexibility) of a cracked prismatic beam, determined experimentally. This formulation was used in
the 1960s by Liebowitz et al. [24], Liebowitz and Claus [25], Okamura et al. [26] and Anifantis
[27] to study the stability of cracked columns, and in the 1980s by Dimarogonas [28] for the
stability of cracked rings, and by Anifantis and Dimarogonas [29-31] and Kirkhope et al. [32] for
the stability of columns and shells.
Since 1957, several investigators computed the SIF and local flexibility for a variety of geometries of the crack and associated structural member. Liebowitz and co-workers[24-26] utilized
existing results from fracture mechanics to calculate the local rotational flexibility of a beam of
rectangular cross-section b x h with a transverse surface crack of uniform depth a.
Using the fracture mechanics relations between the strain energy release rate and stress
intensity factor and the Castigliano theorem, they computed the cracked region local flexibility,
for plane strain, as:
c = M / A ~ = (6zrh/bEI)Fl(s),

(1)

where h is the height, b the width of the rectangular cross-section, E1 the flexural rigidity, s = a~
h, a the crack depth and
Fl(s) = 1.86s 2 - 3.95s 3 + 16.37s 4 + 37.22s 5 + 76.81s 6 + 126.9s 7 + 172.5s 8 - 144s9 + 66.6s l.

The data on which eq. (1) is based was obtained by Brown and Srawley[33], experimentally,
therefore there was no need to verify the result in eq. (1) experimentally. The formulas for the
SIF as a function of the crack depth can be found in several handbooks, e.g. ref. [34].
Fine-mesh finite element techniques were used to compute local flexibilities by Gudmunson
[35], Rauch [36], Chen and Wang [37], Haisty et al. [38-40], and Krawczuk, Ostachowicz[41-50],
Schmalhorst[51, 52], and Qian et al. [53]. To overcome the problem of the crack singularity inherent in all h-extension elements, Gounaris et al. [54-56] have developed single cracked element
consistent matrices to be used with beam finite elements, and Papaeconomou and Dimarogonas
[57] developed the corresponding field transfer matrix for a cracked shaft region. A number of
finite element analyses was reported on the same subject[58-63].

3. VIBRATION OF STATIONARY CRACKED BEAMS

A local flexibility will reduce the stiffness of a structural member, thus reducing its natural
frequency. Dimarogonas [1, 2] has noticed that eq. (1) suggests that for small crack depth the
local flexibility Ac is proportional to (a/h) 2. Since this flexibility is added to the flexibility c of
the uncracked member, the total flexibility will be C = c + Ac and the corresponding stiffness
K = 1/C = 1/(c + Ac) = 1/(c + )~(a/h)2),

(2)

where 2 --- 1.86(6nh/E1) is a constant. For small cracks (~o + AcT)2= (K/m), because Ac/c is a
very small quantity, and for small Am,
(09 + Ato) 2 = w 2 + 2toAw + Aw 2 = 1/cm(l + )~(a/h)2/c) ~ 1/cm - ),(a/h)2/c,

(3)

for 2(a/h)2/c<<l. Therefore, neglecting Ao92,

A w ,~ -)~(a/h)2/2wc.

(4)

This means that for small crack depths the change (decrease) in natural frequency is proportional to the square of the crack depth ratio a/h. Since only monitoring cracks with small

Vibration of cracked structures

833

depths is of engineering interest, monitoring the change of natural frequency (critical speed in
the case of turbine rotors) was not important and other methods ought to be developed.
For a stepped rotor, Dimarogonas [1, 2] used a transfer matrix technique to compute the
change in critical speed of a shaft due to the crack. The results confirmed the finding that for
small crack depths the change in critical speed is proportional to (a/D) 2, e.g. an edge crack with
depth 54% of the radius produced a 5.6% (overestimated) change in the lowest critical speed of
the shaft. It was concluded that measurement of the change in critical speed was not an efficient
way to monitor rotor cracks.
Wendtland [64] reported in his dissertation on an extensive experimental program for the
computation of the change of natural frequencies of beams of different geometries and boundary
conditions using machined slots to simulate cracks. Wendtland computed the cracked section
flexibility from a crude simple beam analysis of the reduced section. Although he clearly stated
that his results were not applicable to real cracks, only to saw-cuts, there was some confusion
later-on because several authors compared finite element analysis results, modeling the crack
with a dense grid rather than a special cracked element, and reported agreement with
Wendtland, naturally, because their model was also a notched beam.
Isalik [65], Petroski and Glaszik [66], Petroski [67-74], Kumar and Petroski [75], and Ku and
Shen[76] used the equivalent slot approach of Kirmsher[18] and Thomson[19], to solve vibration
problems of damaged beams and other stationary damaged structures, modeling the damage (or
crack) with a local member of reduced cross-section.
The analytical method for the computation of the dynamic response of cracked EulerBernoulli beams by modeling the cracked region as a local flexibility found with fracture mechanics methods was first discussed in a textbook by Dimarogonas[3], with applications to cracked
turbine blades. Further applications to turbine rotors were published in the year 1976 and thereafter by several investigators and will be discussed in a separate section.
The cracked Euler-Bernoulli beam vibration theory and extensive analytical and experimental results on the natural frequencies and vibration modes of simple continuous and lumpedmass beams with surface cracks were introduced from the mid-1970s by Chondros[77, 78], and
Chondros and Dimarogonas [78, 80]. They used the local flexibility concept and the fracture
mechanics approach for its computation.
Longitudinal vibration of cracked bars has been investigated in several papers. Adams et
al. [81] treated a free-free bar with localized damage, e.g. a crack. The damage was modeled by
a linear spring of infinitesimal length separating two sections of the bar. Natural frequencies of
longitudinal vibration were determined analytically and experimentally. Gudmundson [82] considered a bar with free ends and a transverse crack at the center. He developed an equation for
the changes in the natural frequencies by using a perturbation method. The results compared
well with values obtained by the experiments and the finite element method for small cracks.
Dentsoras and Dimarogonas[83-86] analyzed a bar with a crack at the fixed end. A longitudinal
harmonic force was applied at the free end. The crack was modeled as a linear spring. Further,
the effect of the propagating crack was related with the transient dynamic response by
Dentsoras and Dimarogonas[83-86].
Springer et al. [87] examined the free longitudinal vibration of a bar with free ends and two
cracks located symmetrically at the center of the span. The cracks were modeled in two ways.
One was using linear springs, the other was using reductions in cross-sectional area. The changes
in natural frequencies were close to those obtained from experiments. Springer et al. [87] used
the reduced-area model to study a free-free beam with a crack at an arbitrary location.
Variations of the first three natural frequencies also matched well with the experimental results.
The effect of the longitudinal static loads on lateral vibrations of beams was investigated by
Krawczuk and Ostachowicz [41,42].
Silva and Gomez [88-90] performed an extensive experimental dynamic analysis of beams
with the objective of validating theoretical techniques under development for the prediction of
the location and the depth of cracks in straight beams. They described the experimental techniques and presented the results obtained for various locations and depths. They also presented
comparisons of fundamental importance for the different behavior of slots and cracks.
According to this work, cracks of small depth result in about twice the change in natural fre-

834

A.D. DIMAROGONAS

quency observed with slots of the same depth. For higher depths (ca 1/2 of the beam height) the
change in natural frequency is about the same for cracks and slots.
The spectral approach was extended to more modal parameters by Anifantis et al. [10],
Nezu and Kidoguchi [91], Wedig and Brsutigam [92], Ju and Mimovitch [93, 94], Akgun et al. [95,
96], Lu and Ju[97,98], Kujath[99, 100], Kujath and Li[101], Salane and Baldwin[102], Guigne et
al. [103], Kam and Lee [104], Kikidis and Papadopoulos [105], Liang et al. [106] and Qian et al.
[107].
Vibration of cracked composite beams was the subject of investigations by Nikpur and
Dimarogonas [108], Adali and Mankins [109], Irretier [110], Schwartz and Go [111], Cawley and
Adams[112], Nikpour[113], and Cawley and Ray[114].
Extensive test results have been reported by Dimarogonas [2], Pafelias [4], Wedtland [64],
Silva and Gomez [88-90], Schwarz and Go [l 11], Cawley and Ray [114]. Applications to large
structures were reported by Donnelly and Ilsley[115].
Applications of cracked beam theory to biomechanics were reported by Nikiforidis et al.
[116, 117], Dimarogonas [118], Sinha et al. [ 119] and Dimarogonas et aL [120].
One word of caution is in order: there is extensive confusion in the literature in distinguishing between a notch and a crack. Many authors treat cracks as notches, experimentally, analytically or numerically. Saw cuts are used to model cracks. It must be understood that no matter
how thin a saw cut is, it will not behave as a crack. In fact, in the author's experience, a thin
cut results in a local flexibility substantially less than the local flexibility associated with a fatigue crack. This matter was quantified by Silva and Gomez[88-90].
4. VIBRATION OF CRACKED PLATES
Vibration of cracked plates was the subject of investigations by Lynn and Kumbasar[121],
Stahl and Keer[122] and Ko[123], using elasticity methods, and by Chondros and Dimarogonas
[79], Reddy [124], Lee[125], Aggarwala and Ariel [126] and Krawczuk et aL [43, 127, 128], using
local flexibility methods. Further results were reported by Hirano and Okazaki[129] and Solecki
[130].
Multi-degree-of-freedom cracked systems were investigated with numerical techniques by
Dimarogonas[131] and Dias et al.[132].
5. BEAM VIBRATION COUPLING DUE TO CRACKS
For stress analysis purposes, Gross and Srawley[133, 134], and Rice and Levy[135] computed the local flexibility corresponding to tension and bending, including their coupling terms.
Dimarogonas and Paipetis [13], Dimarogonas [136-138], and Anifantis and Dimarogonas [139]
introduced the full 6 x 6 flexibility matrix for the cracked region and computed for a rectangular
beam with a transverse crack the 5 x 5 local crack flexibility matrix neglecting torsion. Further,
they observed that this matrix was not purely diagonal but had off-diagonal terms which indicated the coupling between the longitudinal and lateral vibration. A full 6 x 6 matrix for a general loading of a Timoshenko beam was introduced by Papadopoulos and Dimarogonas [140149], and Ostachowicz and Krawczuk [150], for a beam of rectangular or circular cross-section.
Similar results for the Bernoulli-Euler beam were obtained by Gudmundson[35, 82, 151,152], by
way of a 2 x 2 flexibility matrix for a rectangular cross-section subject to longitudinal and lateral
motion, the same result for the local flexibility as the one by Rice and Levy[135].
Papadopoulos and Dimarogonas [140-149] introduced the coupled longitudinal, torsional
and bending vibration analysis of a cantilevered beam with a transverse crack. Using a local
flexibility matrix for the crack, they determined the first three modes of free vibration. During
the analysis and experiment, they gave the beam a longitudinal, harmonic displacement at its
fixed end and plotted the response as a function of the excitation frequency. At small crack
depths, peaks occurred at the natural frequencies of longitudinal vibration. As the crack depth
increased, other peaks appeared due to the coupling with bending vibration.
Rizos et al. [153] used for crack identification the measurement of the flexural vibration of a
cantilever beam with rectangular cross-section. The beam had a transverse surface crack which

Vibration of cracked structures

835

was extended uniformly along the width of the beam. The analytical results were used to relate
the measured vibration modes to the crack location and depth. From the measured amplitudes
at two points, the respective vibration frequency and analytical solution of the dynamic response, the crack location could be found. The crack depth and location could be estimated
with reasonable accuracy.

6. THE C O N T I N U O U S CRACKED BEAM THEORY

Christides and Barr [154, 155] made a rigorous step towards the development of a cracked
Euler-Bernoulli beam theory by deriving the differential equation and associated boundary conditions for a uniform Euler-Bernoulli beam containing one or more pairs of symmetric cracks.
The reduction to one spatial dimension was achieved by using integrations over the cross-section
after certain stress, strain, displacement and momentum fields were chosen. In particular, the
modification of the stress field induced by the crack was incorporated through a local empirical
function which assumed an exponential decay with the distance from the crack and included a
parameter that could be evaluated by experiments. Application of the extended Hu-Washizu
variational principle [156, 157] resulted in the following equation of motion for the cracked
Euler-Bernoulli beam along the x-axis of a cartesian system (x,y):
E(I - K)Qwi~'+2E[Q'(I - K ) - K ' Q ] w ' " + E [ Q " ( I - K ) - 2 K ' Q '
- K ' ] w " + p A f b = 0,

(5)

where m = I/Ir, Ir is the second moment of area of the reduced section, Q ( x ) = ( I - K ) /

(I - 2 K + L), I + .[Af 2(X)dA, K = .[Azf(x)dA, f ( x , z) = [z - m z H ( h - [zl)]exp(-ctlx - xil/d).
For example, for a beam of rectangular cross-section 2d x 2b with a symmetric pair of surface cracks at mid-span, x = L/2,
E I Q w i'~ + 2 E Q ' w " ' + EIQ"w" + pAib = 0.

(6)

The function fix,z) is the crack function, assumed to be linear in z and exponential in x, d
the depth of the beam section, a the depth of the crack, h = d - a , xi the crack location along
the beam, z the lateral coordinate and ~ the stress exponent to be determined experimentally.
There are two limitations of the method:
(a) et needs to be determined experimentally for every different geometry and boundary condition. Warburton [158] however, showed that 0t can be determined in terms of the local flexibility of the cracked region, eq. (1), rendering the two methods equivalent for natural
frequency computations.
(b) The crack function f ( x , z ) avoids the singularity at the crack tip, therefore it treats the
crack as a notch. However, since is determined experimentally, it compensates for some of
the error in the crack function.
Some experiments on beams containing cuts to simulate cracks were briefly described in
Christides and Barr [154]. The change in the first natural frequency with crack depth was
matched closely by the theoretical predictions. To validate the theoretical results, Shen and
Pierre[159] used a two-dimensional finite element approach to determine the parameter that controls the stress concentration profile near the crack tip in the theoretical formulation without
requiring the use of experimental results. They observed an agreement between the theoretical
and finite element results.
The Christides-Barr method suffers from the limitation of treating the crack as a notch.
However, it was an important step in the right direction. A rigorous cracked beam vibration
theory is yet to be developed.

836

A.D. DIMAROGONAS
7. TORSIONAL VIBRATION OF SHAFTS WITH CIRCUMFERENTIAL CRACKS

A peripheral crack was found to influence the torsional vibration of a shaft. Dimarogonas
and Massouros[160] introduced the influence of a peripheral crack upon the torsional dynamic
behavior of a shaft. They used the linear spring model to find that the introduction of a crack
results in lower torsional natural frequencies, because of the added flexibility. Experimental
results were in close agreement with their analysis. The results showed that the changes in
dynamic response due to the crack was high enough to allow the detection of the crack and estimation of its location or magnitude.
Christides and Barr[155] extended Barr's theory for the uncracked bar and developed the
theory for the torsional vibration of the cracked shaft based on the general variational principle
and the independent assumptions about the displacement, momentum, strain and stress fields of
the cracked shaft. They derived the equations of motion for a uniform shaft in torsional vibration where the shaft had one or more pairs of transverse symmetrically disposed open edge
cracks along its length. This restriction on crack geometry avoided the coupling of torsional and
flexural motion which followed a non-symmetric crack configuration. The cracks were regarded
as always open to avoid the nonlinearity associated with the compressive stresses over a closing
crack face.
Torsional vibration of cracked structures was also the subject of investigations by Chen
and Wang[37], Ostachowicz and Krawczuk[45], and Papadopoulos and Dimarogonas[140].

8. CRACK IDENTIFICATION IN BEAMS

Formal methods have been developed for identification of the crack location and magnitude from vibration measurements. Pafelias[4] reported on the development of a turbine supervisory instrument for on-line crack identification in turbine rotors.
The most popular parameter applied in identification methods is change in natural frequencies of structure caused by the crack. It is due to the fact that estimates of the natural frequencies can be obtained from measurement of the vibration at only one point on the structure. The
drawback, that escaped the attention of most investigators, is that the change of natural frequency due to the crack is proportional to the square of the relative crack depth or for redundant systems, as shown by Dimarogonas[1,2], thus insignificant for most practical identification
needs. The identification problem was discussed by Chang and Petroski[161], Kozlow[162] and
Shatoff[163]. It was formally introduced for cracked beams by Chondros[77, 78] and Chondros
and Dimarogonas [79, 80], who developed nomograms for the calculation of the crack depth for
different beams and locations of the crack (assumed known). Adams et al. [81] have developed
an experimental technique to estimate the location and depth of the crack from changes in the
natural frequencies. Cawley and Adams [164, 165] and Anifantis et al. [166] further expanded the
spectral method for identification of defects in beams and frames by analyzing the changes in
the vibration frequency spectrum. Yuen [167] presented a systematic study of the relationship
between damage location and size, and the changes in the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a cantilever beam. Anifantis et a/.[10, 166] and Rizos and co-workers[153, 168] developed an identification technique for location and magnitude of the crack in a cantilever beam with a
rectangular cross-section having a transverse surface crack on the basis of more than one natural frequency change. Further work on cracked beams was reported by Parekh and Carlson
[169], the General Electric Company [170, 171], in M a c h i n e Design [172], by Jenkins [173],
Reznicek and Springer [174], Crum [175], Diana et al. [176, 177], AI-Ansary and Azayem[178],
White[179], McFadden[180], E1 Katib and E1 Sayed[181], Xia et a/.[182], Herbert[183], Rogers
and Hollingshead[184], Gu et al. [185], Ogawa et al. [186], Xu and Peeken [187], Bastadzhan et
al. [188], Ismail et al. [189], Liang et aL [190], Zhang [191], Zhao and Luo [192], Bosmans [193],
Boving [194], Pandey et al. [195], Yiching and Sansalone [196], Lazzeri et al. [197], and Hu and
Robert[198].
Gudmundson [151,152], and Pye and Adams [199] reported on the inverse problem, use of
frequency measurements to determine the stress intensity factor. Probabilistic analyses were
reported by Lu and Ju[97] and Wedig [200, 201].

Vibration of cracked structures

837

A great number of additional reports on identification of cracks based on measurements

and analysis of changes in natural frequencies has appeared [202-212].
It is well-known that a crack changes the vibration mode shapes of a structure. There have
been several methods based on changes in mode shapes for crack detection in structures, e.g.
the ones reported by Pandey et al. [195], Fox[207] and Luongo [208]. The main disadvantage of
this method is that it is very difficult to determine the mode shape of an engineering structure.
One of the dynamic characteristics which is applied in the system identification is the
change of amplitude of forced vibrations. Akgun et al. [95, 96] presented a crack diagnostic
method in which they used the relation between acceleration and excitation as a crack indicator.
The changes in spectrum of longitudinal forced vibrations have been applied by Collins et al.
[211] for crack detection.

9. VIBRATION OF CRACKED ROTORS

Detection of cracks in rotating shafts was initiated around 1970 due to a case of a turbine
rotor failure due to a fatigue crack, by Dimarogonas [1, 2] and Pafelias [4], at the Turbine
Department of the General Electric Company in Schenectady. Metallurgical examination
revealed that the failure was due to a fatigue propagated crack. A sister machine had a similar
loading history and it was suspect for having the potential for a forthcoming failure of the same
type. An investigation was undertaken to assess the possibility of crack detection without interrupting the operation of the machine and without causing unnecessary alarm to the power company operating the machine.
It was known from fracture mechanics that a crack introduced to a structural member a
local flexibility. In fact, measuring the local flexibility is a standard method to find the stress
intensity factor in fracture mechanics [20-22]. Moreover, a surface crack on a beam introduces
dissimilar flexibilities in the direction of the crack tip and the one perpendicular to it. As the
shaft rotates, the stiffness in a fixed direction will change with time, more precisely, it will be a
periodic function of time. This situation is similar mathematically to the two-pole rotors which
have dissimilar moments of inertia and thus the response should be similar. Dimentberg [213]
has treated extensively the case of rotors with dissimilar moments of inertia and has identified
higher harmonics and a subharmonic, which was suggested by Dimarogonas [1] as a potential
method for crack detection.
Dimarogonas [1,2] was confronted with the problem of computing the local flexibility of a
shaft with an edge crack. Direct application of the fracture mechanics method could not be
done, because solutions for the stress intensity factor, for a cylindrical shaft with an edge crack,
were not available. He used the approximation to consider the section as consisting of elementary strips of varying height which were perpendicular to the crack tip and parallel to the axis
of symmetry of the cylindrical shaft. Each was considered as a rectangular cross-section beam
with an edge crack for which eq. (1) is valid, assuming that there was no traction between these
strips. The compliance (rotation per unit moment in a plane which contains the shaft axis and is
normal to the crack tip) was found by integration of the Strain Energy Release Rate function
along the x-axis, which coincides with the tip of the crack:
cn(a) = (64/EyrR3)F2(a/D)

r/R[b/R

F2 = Ja

a-b/R ( t ~ / R ) ( y / R ) 2 F 2 ( a / h ) d ( a / g ) d ( x / R ) '

(7)

(8)

where F2 is the dimensionless local rotational compliance due to bending/7.-= cE~R3/64 and
ot/R = [1 - (x/R)2] 1/2 - (1 - a / R )

(9)

b / R = [ - ( a / R ) 2 + 2a/R] 1/2.

(10)

838

A.D. DIMAROGONAS

The function Fz(a/R) was computed by a double numerical integration by Dimarogonas [2],
Dimarogonas and Paipetis [13] and Papadopoulos and Dimarogonas [144]. Similarly, for the
bending moment on a plane through the axis of the shaft and parallel with the crack tip

ct(a) = (R/2E)G2(a/D),

(11)

where
G2=

~o/R

[ b/R (t~/R)G2(ct/h)d(ot/R)d(x/R),
J0

G2 is the dimensionless local rotational compliance due to bending G2 = 2cE/R. The lower limit
of integration in eq. (8) was set to zero because half of the crack is closed due to the load. The
function G2(a/R) is computed by a double numerical integration[l, 13,144].
Dimarogonas [1, 2] investigated experimentally the local flexibility of an epoxy-glass shaft
with a true edge crack (induced by fatigue) and reported good agreement of the test results with
the above analytical approximation. He further investigated the compliance function of the
rotating cracked shaft section along a fixed direction. The local compliance of the cracked shaft
discussed above refers to displacement always perpendicular to the crack tip line, and will be
referred to in the sequel as cn. In the direction of the tip line, there is also a compliance due to
the crack ct, much smaller for small crack depth but considerable when the crack depth
approaches the radius.
At time t = 0 it was assumed that a horizontal shaft had the crack in the lowest position
with the vertical axis Ox perpendicular to the crack tip line. At time t the shaft has rotated by
angle cot. The horizontal axis was Oy. The respective compliances were[l, 2, 4, 13]
Cyy = CnSin2cot + cpcos2wt,

Cxy = (c. - cp)sin2co t/2,

Cxx = Cpsin2cot + CnCOS2cot,
Cyx = ( - c . + ep)sin2tot/2.

(12)

Thus, the compliances are periodic functions of time with frequency 2co. This was an important observation because it points at a response which will have a frequency component
twice the excitation frequency.
To test this hypothesis, a De-Laval rotor with mass m concentrated at mid-span was considered [1, 2, 4]. No rotatory inertia was used, for simplicity and co is the constant angular velocity. If only direct stiffnesses are considered, k. = 1/c.kp = 1/cp. Let Kn = k~k./(ks + k~),
Kp = kskp/(ks+ kp) and ks is the shaft stiffness, k. and kp are constant on a coordinate system
(n,p) which rotates with the shaft.
The frequency equation is given by Dimentberg[213]
~. = +{ - (K. + Kp)Z/4m 2 + w 2 4- [(Kn + Kp)Z/m 2 + ~to411/2} I/2,

(13)

where ~ = ( K . - Kp)/(K. + Kp).

Investigation of these roots can be found in Dimentberg [213]. Thus, instability exists
between the natural frequencies which correspond to the two stiffnesses
(Kn/m) 1/2 <co <(Kp/m) 1/2.

(14)

The response has two terms, one constant amplitude term

Ame = eto2 /(Kn - mw 2)

due to the constant force term meco 2 and another due to the rotor weight rag,

(15)

Vibration of cracked structures

Amg = g(0)2
where o02 = (K,, + K p ) / 2 m ,
system, is

_ 0)2)/[2(0)20)2 _ w2(w2 + w2))],

o02 = (Kp - K , ) / 2 m .

( = ew21(K,

839

(16)

The resulting motion, in the moving coordinate

_ m0)2) + g ( w 2 _ 0)2)/[2[w20) ~ _ 0)2(0)~ q.. O)2)2]lei".

(17)

The amplitude in the stationary coordinate system will be

z=e0)2/(Kn_mwZ)eiWt+g(w~_ (_Ol)/[2[(.o1(.022
2 2 _wz(0)~ +w2)]]ei2wt"

(18)

The first term is the 1/rev vibration amplitude. There is a 2/rev component, due to the second term with amplitude dependent only on the dissimilarity of the local flexibilities and not on
the imbalance, while the 1/rev amplitude depends, as expected, only on the imbalance.
The denominators have zero at
1

0)s = ~0),[1 - (Kp - K , ) / ( K p + Kn)] 1/2.

(19)

This is a subharmonic, about one-half the critical speed of the rotor for small cracks for which
Kz, m , K , .

The above findings allow for a clear crack detection strategy[2,4]:

(a) the vibration signal of a cracked rotor if processed through a vibration analysis system
should show a 2/rev signal (at frequency twice the frequency of rotation). Its amplitude is
A = g(0)2 _ w Z ) l [ 2 ( w 2 0 ) ~ _ 0)2(0)~ + 0)2))],

(20)

where 0)2 = ( K , + K p ) / 2 m , 0)2 = ( K p - K n ) / 2 m .

Of course, this method is approximate
because we do not know exactly where the crack is and its exact form. However, for monitoring purposes, this method can be easily applied.
(b) A second check after a crack is detected can be performed by balancing. A balance correction should not influence the 2/rev signal amplitude, if this is due to a crack (because nonlinearities might lead to a 2/rev component in the signal, but if the rotor is balanced this
signal should be drastically reduced).
(c) A third check can be made by observation of a subharmonic, half the rotor fundamental
critical speed. It is expected, however, that this will appear at high crack depths.

10. M U L T I - D E G R E E - O F - F R E E D O M

SYSTEMS

Realistic rotors have to be modeled as multi-degree-of-freedom systems. Moreover, rotation

changes the location of a surface edge crack, thus renders the elastic properties of the rotor variable. Dimarogonas [1, 2], Pafelias[4] and Dimarogonas and Paipetis[13] considered a rotor with
n - 1 cylindrical elements separated by n nodes at distances Ll, L2..... Ln from the left end of
the shaft. The shaft is supported by two linear bearings at nodes Jl and j> The cracked section
of local stiffness kc was located at node k. The flexibility influence coefficient ac~/ due to the
crack only (the displacement at node j due to a unit force at node i considering only the crack
flexibility), id = 1,2 ..... n, is
acq = (12 - lk)(lt. -- ll)(lk -- 11)(12 -- l i ) / k c ( l l + 12 - 2lk)(12 -- ll), for i > j ,
= (lk - 12)(l~ - l~)(lk -- 10(12 -- li)/k(l~ + 12 - 2/k)(/2 -- l~), for i<j.

(21)

These influence coefficients were assembled into a matrix AA. The system flexibility matrix
was then A + AA, where A is the rotor flexibility matrix of the rotor without the crack. The
equations of motion are

840

A.D. DIMAROGONAS
(A + AA)M.~ + x = (A + AA)f,

(22)

where M is the mass matrix, x the displacement and f the force vectors. Multiplying from the
left by (A + AA)- 1
M~ + (K + AK)x = f,

(23)

where AK = K - ( A + AA)-1
For a stationary shaft, the change in natural frequencies due to the crack can be found by
application of Rayleigh's principle. To this end, Rayleigh's quotient was written in the form:
(.o9+ Aco)2 = X T(K + AK)X/X TMX,

(24)

assuming that the eigenvectors X do not change considerably due to the crack. Neglecting the
(Ao) 2 term and using the property co2= XTKx/XTMX,
Aco = X TAKX/2coX TMX.

(25)

The change of every critical speed due to the crack can thus be estimated with a simple formula. Further use of the sensitivity theory was reported by Dimarogonas and Paipetis [13],
Wang and Zhang [214], Chondros and Dimarogonas [215] and Girard et al. [216].
For a rotating shaft, AK is a function of time [eq. (12)]. We can set up the stiffness matrix
due to the crack in the form, neglecting coupling of horizontal and vertical motion,
AK = AKnsin2o~t + AKpCOS2Ogt,

(26)

where AKn and AKp correspond to directions perpendicular and across the crack tip line, respectively. Using trigonometric identities, the stiffness matrix due to the crack becomes
AK = (AKn + AKp)/2 + (AK~ - AKp)cosEwt/2,

(27)

and the equations of motion, if the masses are lumped at the nodes and rotatory inertia is neglected, are
MJ~ + [K + (AKn + AKp)/2 + (AKn - AKp)cos2tot/2]x = f(t) + Mg,

(28)

where Mg is a vector of the weights of the lumped masses.

For harmonic excitation f = Fcos~ot, the response is sought in the truncated form
x = X0 + XlCOStOt+ X2cos2tot.

(29)

Substituting and equating harmonic terms of the same frequency, one can compute the response, in particular the 1/rev and 2/rev amplitudes XI, X2, as solutions of the following linear
equations:
(-co2M + (AKn + AKp)/2 + (AKn - AKp)/4)Xl = F

(30)

(-4~o2M + (AKn + AKp)/2 - (AKn - AKp)-I(AKn + AKp)(AKn - AKp)/8)X2

= -(AKn - A K p ) - I M g ( A K n - AKp)/2.

(31)

As in the case of the De Laval rotor, the 1/rev amplitude depends only on the harmonic excitation (such as imbalance), while the 2/rev amplitude depends only on the weight of the rotor.
Investigations on multi-degree-of-freedom rotors were also reported by Krawczuk and
Ostachowicz [41, 42], Zastrau [217, 218], Allen et al. [219], Gao and Zhu [220] and Guang and
Gasch[221]. Perturbation solutions were reported by Shen et al. [159, 222-224]. Application of
multi-degree-of-freedom system analysis for crack detection in bridges were reported by Chang
et al. [225], Salane and Baldwin [226] and Samman and Biswas[227,228].

Vibration of cracked structures

841

II. CRACK IDENTIFICATION IN TURBINE ROTORS

Pafelias [4] continued Dimarogonas' work at General Electric and he is the first to report
on an early detection of a crack in a turbine rotor. His detection strategy was also based on the
2/rev frequency component of the response for small crack depths and low subcritical speed
which can be associated only with a deep crack. Moreover, he made extensive laboratory and
field measurements with full-size turbine rotors, he made detailed measurements of the cracked
rotor local flexibility as a function of rotation and confirmed the 2/rev crack detection methodology. Pafelias' experiments lead to the development of an instrument called "Crack Detection
Monitor"[4].
Dimarogonas [1-3, 13] discussed the change in natural frequencies due to the crack and the
dynamic effects of the local flexibility which is a periodic function of time.
In 1976, there was an IME conference in England and three papers were presented on the
dynamics of cracked rotors by authors related with European turbine manufacturers. Henry and
Okah-Avae [229], Gasch [230, 231] and Henry [232] used a simple mechanism for the simulation
of the nonlinearity which is presented with the crack opening and closing in rotating shafts and
evaluated by analog computer the vibrational behavior of the cracked De Laval rotor. They
used the transformations between the stationary and rotating coordinate systems to obtain linear differential equations with variable coefficients, essentially the same as eqs (12)-(20). Similar
results were also presented by Ziebarth et al. [233-235].
Mayes et al. [236-241] reported analytical and experimental results for cracked turbine
rotors and computed the dynamic response of a rotor considering the crack flexibility as a periodic on-off function. Further, they extended the results for the uniform Euler-Bernoulli rotor
and stepped rotors.
Grabowski [242-247] showed the strong dependence of the dynamic response on the crack
position and the relatively weak dependence of the vibration of the cracked shaft upon the
imbalance.
Mayes and Davies [239] used a finite element method to find the vibrational response of a
rotor with a transverse crack. They stipulated that the self-weight bending dominates on the
crack opening and closing. The results of the study were compared with experimental results.
They have also studied experimentally the effect of a transverse crack on the dynamics of a
multi-rotor, multi-bearing system. They found that the dynamic behavior of a cracked shaft,
except for very large cracks, is similar to that of a slotted shaft with additional excitation due to
the crack opening and closing, and they have developed a method of estimating the reduction of
a section diameter required to model a crack.
Further studies of the spectral behavior of a cracked rotating shaft and application to field
problems of rotor crack detection, using the 1/rev and 2/rev component in the spectrum and the
difference of the speeding-up and coasting-down spectra were reported by Bently [248-250],
Bently and Muszynska[251-253], Muszynska[254, 255], Brutti et al. [256], Bachschmid et al. [257,
258], Kujath[99-101], Meyer[259] and Nilsson[260].
Analytical investigations of the frequency spectrum associated with a cracked rotating shaft
with a periodically closing crack, beyond the dissimilar moment of inertia effects, were reported
by Dimarogonas and Paipetis [13], Nelson and Nataraj [261], Inagaki et al. [262-265], Ishida et
al. [266] and Wauer [267] developed a continuous cracked shaft theory based on the local
moment concept of Kirmsher [18]-Petroski [66-75].
Monitoring of rotor cracks, mostly on the basis of the 2~o signal, was reported by So11268],
Baumgartner and Ziebarth [269], Armor [270], Schmied and Kraemer [271], Bohnsted and
Leopold [272], Wang et al. [273], Imam et al. [274, 275], Kowal and O'Brien [276], Dalpiaz and
Meneghetti [277], Rajab and AI-Sebeeh [278], Scheibel et al. [279], Huang et al. [280], Sekhar and
Prabhu[281,282], Southgate and Tur[283], McCloskey[284], and Ratan and Haim[285]. Further
work on crack identification was reported by many investigators[286-296].

842

A.D. DIMAROGONAS

12. VIBRATION OF CRACKED TURBINE BLADES

Monitoring systems for turbine blades were discussed by Leon and Trainor[297], and Chen
and Jeng [298]. The problem of vibration of cracked turbine blades has been the subject of several investigations. Dimarogonas [3], and Datta and Ganguli [299] modeled a blade as a cantilever beam with a local flexibility at the crack. Finite element modeling for the cracked blade has
been reported by Ostachowicz and Krawczuk[300, 301], and also by Wauer[302], and Chen and
Jeng[303].

13. VIBRATION OF CRACKED PIPES AND SHELLS

The transverse vibration of rings was investigated by Yao and Dimarogonas[304] and investigations on transverse vibrations of cracked pipe have been reported by Moshrefi et al. [305,
306] and Hale et al. [307]. The discrete continuous model of the cracked pipe has been based on
the concept of local flexibility. The vibration behavior of a cracked cylindrical shell has been
examined by Srinivasan and Kot [308]. The finite element code NASTRAN has been used in
order to determine the natural frequencies and mode shapes of the shell structure.

14. VIBRATION COUPLING DUE TO SURFACE CRACKS

Dimarogonas and Paipetis [13] generalized the Irwin method of the computation of local
compliances, extending it for five degrees of freedom crack flexibilities, and Dimarogonas and
Papadopoulos [309, 311,312] and Dimarogonas [310, 313] for six degrees of freedom. The additional displacement in the direction i due to a crack of depth a is[34]:
a

ui =

J(a)da,

(32)

where J ( a ) is the strain energy release rate and Pi the corresponding load. J(a) for general
loading of the cracked section is
J(a) =

Kli
L ",i=l

Klli

"~-

+m

i=l

Kill/
i=l

E',
/

(33)

.I

where E" = El(1 - v 2) for plane strain and K are the stress intensity factors for modes of fracture I, II, and III. The local flexibility due to the crack is, by definition,
02 Iij(a)da"
cij = OPjOPi

(34)

Since there are no results for the stress intensity factors for the edge crack on a cylindrical
shaft, the shaft will be considered as an assembly of elementary rectangular strips, as in Section
3. Therefore, the Strain Energy Release Rate J(ct) for a local crack depth ct has to be integrated
along the crack length b to yield[13]
cU - aPjOPi

_J(a)dadx,

(35)

where x is along the direction of the crack tip.

Equations (33)-(35) yield the complete flexibility matrix of the cracked section with the following expressions for the stress intensity factors[34]:
KII ---- 0-1 (/tot)l/2Fl (a/h), 0-1 -~- P I / ( 7 r R 2 )

(36)

g i 4 = o'4(21"t~)l/2Fi (o//h), 0"4 = 4 P 4 / ( r r R 4 ) x

(37)

KI5 = trs(rrot)l/2F2(tx/h), 05 = 4P5(R2 - x2)l/2/]rR 4

(38)

Vibration of cracked structures

gli3 ~---tr3(lrot)l/2Fli(ot/h),
gII6 =

t7622(ltol)l/2FIl(Ol/h),

giti2 -~
glii6 =

843

or3 m kP3/(rtR 2)

(39)

o"611 ~--"2 P 6 x / ( r t R 4)

(40)

tr2(Ttot)l/2 Fill(Ot/h), 02 -~ kP3/(rcR 2)

t~6III(Tfol)l/2gIII(O1/h),

0r611I ~--"2P6(R 2 -

x2)1/2/(lrR2)

(41)
(42)

KI2 ----"KI3 = gl6 = 0

(43)

KII1 = gII2 = glI4 "~" gII5 = 0

(44)

gIIIl 6 = giii36 = Kill46 = Kill56 ~---0,

(45)

where
Fl(s) = (tan~./~.)l/2(0.751 + 2.02s + 0.37(1 - sinZ)a)/cos~.,
F2(s) = (tan~./)01/2(0.923 + 2.02s + 0.199(1 - sinZ)4)/cos;~),
Eli(S) = (1.122 - 0.561s + 0.085s2 + 0.18s3)/(1 - s) 1/2,
EIII(S) = (tanX/X) 1/2,
s = or~h, 2 = not/2h, h and ct are local strip height and crack depth, respectively, at x.

The local flexibilities are assembled into a local flexibility matrix

Co~1

C = / c41
LC~l

0
22
0
0
0
C

0
C14 1715 0 ]
0
0
0
C26
6"33 0
0
C36
0
c44 c45 0
'
0
c54 c55 0
C
0
0
C66

(46)

where c is the compliance or deflection in the i direction due to the load in the j direction. By
inversion of the compliance matrix we can obtain the local stiffness matrix K = C - i. Off-diagonal terms of the flexibility matrix indicate vibration coupling.
Figure 1 is a rotor vibration spectrum measured by the author in 1983 at Lavrion #2, 300
MW machine of the Public Power Corporation of Greece, where persistent vibration indicated a
problem with the LP rotor. The manufacturer, Alsthom, suspected misalignment and tried
unsuccessfully to realign the machine. Measurements were conducted by the author and a crack
was diagnosed on the basis of a substantial 2/rev component of the spectrum. The machine was
then inspected and a 120 crack was found. The peculiar peaks on this and other spectra
prompted the author to investigate the problem further. These peaks correspond both to higher
harmonics due to nonlinearities and coupled vibration modes.
Vibration coupling effects have also been observed experimentally for longitudinal and
bending vibration, and with bending and torsional vibration by Papadopoulos and
Dimarogonas [140-150]. Further work was reported by Suherman and Plaut [314]. Such coupling
is due to a combination of non-diagonal terms in the crack flexibility matrix and the
Timoshenko shear strains. The latter couple the motion even without a crack but for slender
rotors this coupling is not noticeable. The authors suggested that this type of coupling is more
sensitive to small cracks than the longitudinal/bending vibration coupling. It was also observed
that coupling due to surface cracks can separate degenerate modes of symmetric structures.
Similar results were reported by Ostachowicz and Krawczuk[45].
E F M 55/~--F

844

A.D. DIMAROGONAS
Amplitude, dB

Speed of Ro~Uon, 50 Hz

I
I

!
I

100

200

300

400

500

Vibration Frequency, Hz

Fig. 1. Vibration spectrum of the Lavrion No. 2, 300 MW machine.

15, THE CLOSING CRACK
The words "spring hinge model" used in literature refer to the linear spring model, because
for a given crack depth, the equivalent spring constant remains the same for both directions of
loading. In the case of the breathing crack, a crack that opens and closes during vibration, the
spring constant appears to be different for open and closed cracks. In most cases, fatigue cracks
develop in areas of varying stresses superposed on static stresses, the latter are usually the result
of static loads. In this case, if the static stresses are sufficiently high, the crack remains always
open and the linear analysis is valid. In the absence of a static force which keeps the crack
open, the crack will close during the part of the cycle when the stresses are compressive and it
will behave as a bilinear spring.
Closing or breathing cracks have been investigated experimentally by Carlson [315] and
Gudmundson [35], with numerical integration methods by Imbrahim et al. [316], Chen and Chen
[317] and Actis and Dimarogonas [318], with bilinear analysis by Dimarogonas [313], Lee et al.
[319], Chu and Shen[320], Jun et al. [321] and Krawczuk and Ostachowicz[41], with the RitzGalerkin method by Collins et al. [322] and Shen [323].
Structures made of bi-modulus material also behave as bilinear springs. Ambartsumyan
and Khachatryan [324] developed a different-moduli theory of elasticity. Khachatryan [325]
applied it to the longitudinal vibration of prismatic bars made of different-moduli materials.
Lenkov and Tolokonnikov [326] studied the axisymmetric strains in materials with different
moduli. Green and Mkrtichian [327], Paolinelis et al. [328], Bert and Kumar [329], Tran and Bert
[330], Reddy [124] and Doong and Chen [331], also reported investigations of bi-modulus material because of its potential application in composite materials. In all these reports, the crack
is assumed to open and close periodically, thus the cracked element can be assumed to be piecewise linear and studied accordingly. No discussion was given for the extent of the validity of
this assumption.
Dimarogonas and Paipetis [13] devoted one chapter to the discussion of the dynamic response of structural members with variable elasticity, including for closing cracks. They demonstrated problems of instability and used the van der Pol equation to find the regions of stability.
They further discussed the associated Mathieu-Hill equations and the Floquet theory as they
are applied to the vibration of structures with variable elasticity. Dimarogonas [2], Pafelias [4],
Dimarogonas and Paipetis [13], Dimarogonas and Haddad[332], and Dimarogonas[333] demonstrated that in the case of a substantial static load the closing crack behaves as a local flexibility
which is periodic with a period equal to the speed of rotation. They developed a method to
compute the dynamic response of such a rotor and find the higher harmonics of the motion by

Vibration of cracked structures

845

transforming the system of differential equations with periodic coefficients into a series of equivalent differential equations with constant coefficients.
Gudmunson [35] observed some discrepancy between analytical predictions and experimental measurements of the natural frequency change due to cracks. He partially attributed this discrepancy to the effect of the crack closing.
Dimarogonas and Papadopoulos [311,312] studied a rotating shaft with a closing transverse
surface crack. When the shaft rotated, the crack would open, partially close and fully close
during rotation. The numerical solution indicated that the breathing crack and crack closure
behavior had a substantial effect on the response and stability of the cracked rotors in the
coupled vibration mode. Actis and Dimarogonas [318] used the finite element method to study
the simply supported cracked beam. Wauer [267] discussed the rotational vibrations of a simply
supported, circular rotating shaft with a circumferential crack. Dawicke and Grandt [334] considered the closing of a three-dimensional crack, and Ichimonji and Watanabe a rotor with a
slant crack[335].
The crack in a structure leads to changes in the damping because a plastic zone appears
along the crack edge. The changes of damping caused by the crack are usually a relatively small
part of the total damping of the structure [336, 337]. For this reason, an analytical relationship
between crack depth and damping has never been reported.

16. EMPIRICAL DIAGNOSIS OF MACHINERY CRACKS AND INCIPIENT FAILURES

An important problem in rotating shafts is the diagnosis of incipient failures so that corrective measures can be implemented to avoid failure. This is usually the job of experts who,
through extensive experience, can interpret vibration, sound, temperature and other signals in
relation to possible mechanisms of failure. It seems that this is a typical place where an expert
system can be used.
Predicate calculus-based expert systems [338,339] have already been widely used, with frame
representation of knowledge, in addition to experience tables and other aids to assist in machinery failure diagnosis [274,279,280,340, 341].
Dimarogonas [311, 333] used interval analysis of a heteroassociative artificial neural network
module for empirical knowledge acquisition and retrieval. An artificial neural network module
was also used by Dimarogonas and Papadopoulos [312] and Xu and Peeken[187]. The inputoutput relation in the module is at steady-state with an error back propagation methodology,
between layers k and k + 1.
m

aj,~ = E w q , k#A(cPi, k+l)

(47)

i=l

~j,k+l = Oj(aj,k+t),

(48)

where q~i is the value of the input neuron i, i = 1, 2 ..... m, a binary [0 or 1] interval[342] e [0,1]
or fuzzy variable[343,344], for which #A(~bi) is a membership function e [0,1], of the form

lzA(ai, bi, ~bi) = 1/{1 + exp[ai(~pi - b/)]},

ai, bi are assigned different values corresponding to the linguistic values of the fuzzy input, such
as "low", "high", "medium", "insignificant", etc.
wq is the weight function between input i and output j,
~j is the value of the output neuron j, j = 1,2..... n,
Oj(aj) is a threshold function, for example the Heaviside Function H(af--ao).
Knowledge is represented in this module by:
(a) The
(b) The
(c) The
(d) The

weights wq of the synapses.

input membership function #a(~bi).
output threshold values ~,j.
network topology.

846

A.D. DIMAROGONAS

This procedure is coded in EXPERTS[31,333].

The aim of the learning process is to develop and/or improve the desired mapping function
between the input and output vectors. This is accomplished by adjusting the weights and
threshold values according to some learning rule.
If a result is defined for the first time, equal weight is assigned to all the units that are activated for this result. Then, the appropriate column of the weight matrix [wo] is normalized to a
certain value, common for all columns. This correlational rule is expected to be improved lateron with further learning, since one can intuitively conclude that the weight of several units does
not have to be the same.
Each subsequent teaching session with the same result, and possibly different values of the
input vector, is incorporated into the system by way of an error-correcting rule[187].
Let {wo.} be the existing value of row i of the weight matrix and {do} the normalized input
vector. Then, the row i of the weight matrix relating layers k and k + 1 is adjusted to the value

(49)

{Wik} ~" {Wik} "~ ~i{dik},

where ; is a correction factor which will determine the weight of the new knowledge on the
existing one. Finally, vector {Wik}* is normalized.
During application of the error-correcting rule, new features and units might be defined
during the definition of the input vector for a new case that the system is learning. The system
creates the network additions and assigns zero weight to the idle synapses.
Available experience for failure diagnosis in turbomachinery [340], was utilized to initially
teach the system. Additional diagnoses from the author's experience were taught to the system,
and additional features and diagnoses defined.
17. A CONTINUOUS CRACKED BAR VIBRATION THEORY

Yao [345,346] and Chondros, Dimarogonas and Yao [347] developed a continuous cracked
bar vibration theory based on the variational formulation of Barr[154] but using fracture mechanics results to find the disturbance of the displacement field due to one or more cracks, unlike
the Christides and Barr approach that determines the displacement disturbance field on the
basis of an empirical function and a test. Thus, they obtain the differential equation for longitudinal vibration of the cracked bar in the form:

E [ O2u
8u
"~ O2U
~ -ff~X2 + a l -~x + a au) -- ~-~ = 0,

(50)

where u is the longitudinal displacement, function only of the longitudinal coordinate x and
time t, E and p are modulus of elasticity and density, respectively.
The central two terms in the above equation are due to the introduction of a crack. The relation between the functions al(x), a2(x) and the displacement disturbance function due to the
crack f ( x ) , are
2f'
al-l+f,

f'
a2- l+f'

(51)

where, for a single edge crack of a bar fixed at the left end, free at the other end, with a rectangular cross-section of height h and width w, a crack of constant depth along the width of the
bar, with the stress and strain distribution as found in fracture mechanics,

f(x) = CoC(oO(V'-L + ~

L),

(52)

rrl.1222a2(1 - v2)

CoC(ot) - (v/- +

Lo~- L)wLo'

(53)

is the crack depth ratio = a/h, a the crack depth, h the section height (in the direction of the
crack), L0 the length of the bar, L the distance of the crack from the left end, v Poisson's ratio.

Vibration of cracked structures

847

It was further assumed, without loss in generality, that the crack remains always open and that
coupling with lateral and torsional vibration can be neglected. The function C(~) depends on
the crack and bar geometry and boundary conditions, and can be found with methods of fracture mechanics for other configurations. Chondros et al. [346] have conducted experiments which
showed that this method is closer to experimental results than the lumped crack flexibility.
Moreover, the method can be extended to lateral vibration of beams and torsional vibration of
bars.
It is apparent that for crack depth a ~ O, f ( x ) ~ O, and eq. (50) takes the expected form
of the wave equation for longitudinal vibration of bars without cracks.

18. CONCLUSIONS
From 1971 to this date, over 500 papers were published on the dynamic response of rotors
and other structures with cracks (Fig. 2). Three were the basic methods for dealing with the problem: equivalent reduced section[18], local flexibility from fracture mechanics[I-3], and cracked
continuous bar or beam [154, 155,341,342]. An important observation was the recognition of the
vibration coupling due to cracks[13].
Parametric vibration, and bilinear and nonlinear effects characterize vibration of cracked
rotating shafts [2, 4,13].
Extensive experimental investigations were reported for cracked/notched beams [64, 78,282,
4]. Expert systems utilizing predicate logic [339], or fuzzy logic and artificial neural networks
[31 I, 333] have been developed for empirical crack identification in rotating shafts.
A wealth of further analytical, numerical and experimental investigations has been
reviewed. There are still many unanswered questions, especially in the area of closing cracks in
beams and rotating shafts. A consistent cracked beam vibration theory is yet to be developed. A
(non-exhaustive) list of topics of interest for further research follows:
(1) Development of a rigorous cracked beam vibration theory.
(2) Further work on the effect of the closing cracks.
(3) The effect of the propagating crack, if the time of propagation is not greatly larger than
the period of vibration.
(4) Analytical formulation of the damping change due to the crack, as an alternative means
of crack identification.
(5) Thermal effects due to cracks in vibrating structures.

1M1
1ON

IlIN

1N1
ll71
1577
1076

1|~
1~1
6

10

lS

20

Fig. 2. Papers on the dynamicsof cracked structures, 1971-1992.Y.

848

A. D. DIMAROGONAS

Acknowledgements--Mr D. E. Bentley, Profs A. D. S. Barr, T. Chondros and H. Irretier, Dr Agnes Muszynska, and
Profs W. Ostachowicz, C. Papadopoulos, R. H. Plaut, J. M. Montalvao e Silva, J. Wauer and B. Zastrau read the manuscript and suggested additional references and improvements of the text. Their contribution is gratefully acknowledged.

REFERENCES
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(Received 19 September 1993)