Between the World Wars

Woodrow Wilsons 14 points became the basis of Post War peace

initiatives.
The 14 points included Freedom of seas,right of self-determination of the
European nations,abolition of secret diplomacy,reduction of armaments.
But the principle of National Self-Determination was silent in case of
Colonial colonies.
ANTI-IMPERIALIST RIVALRIES DID NOT END POST WAR and also the
emergence of USA as a major world power
THE PEACE TREATIES
PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE : Attended by France,Britain and USA.Germany
or any Central Powers was not invited.Wilsons 14 points were to be the
basis of a peace settlement with Germany but that was not to be.Germany
was given 5 days to respond to which Germany replied as being a
DICTATED PEACE.
German delegation was insulted and humiliated and Germany was asked
to own up her WAR GUILT and pay REPARATIONS.Germany pleaded that it
was not the ONLY one which should own up her guilt.
FORMATION of LEAGUE OF NATIONS : One of the first acts of the Paris
Peace Conference was the establishment of the League of Nations
(Wilsons 14th Point).
The primary objectivity was international cooperation,peace and security.
The LoN largely failed as an international peace organization but it was
successful in establishing PERMANENT OF INTERNATIONAL JUSTICE and
INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANISATION.
TREATY OF VERSAILLES with GERMANY : was signed with Germany.Under
this,Germany was to return the Alsace-Lorraine to France.
Belgium,Lithuania and Denmark gained independence from Germany.
Rhineland was to be permanently demilitarized and kept under the LoN for
15yrs.
Saar coal-mining area was brought under the control of LoN for 15 yrs.
The German Army was to be reduced to 10,000 troops and was to have no
Submarines or Air Force.Germany was admitted to its WAR GUILT and was
asked to pay REPARATIONS.
All the colonial possessions of Germany was divided amongst the Allied
powers.
TREATY OF St. GERMAIN with AUSTRIA.
DIVISION OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE and TREATY WITH TURKEY :
One of the most important events in the national awakening of the
peoples after the First World War was the revolution in Turkey. You have
read earlier of the disintegration of the Ottoman empire which began in
the nineteenth century and was completed after Turkeys defeat in the
First World War. During this period, many nations which were formerly
under the subjugation of the Ottoman empire had become free. The Arab
territories of the empire had been given away to Britain and France as
mandates after the First World War. The Allies,however, did not stop at the
dismemberment of the empire. They wanted to establish their domination
over Turkey itself and to give away parts of Turkey to Greece and Italy. The
treatment meted out to Turkey by the Allies had led to a mass upsurge in

India directed against Britain. This upsurge is known as the Khilafat

movement which had merged with the Indian nationalist movement.
Britain and France,under a secret arrangement, had agreed to divide the
Arab states of the Ottoman empire after it fell towards the end of
WW1.Syria and Lebanon went to France while Iraq,Palestine and Trans
Jordan went to Britain.Hejaz became a separate state but was later
conquered by IBN SAUD and made Saudi Arabia.
But the Dismemberment of Turkey led to a nationalist revolt in
Turkey.Greece and Italy has occupied large areas of Turkey.And the Sultan
of Turkey has signed a treaty in 1920 for almost complete dismemberment
of Turkey.A revolt under the command of MUSTAFA KEMAL swept across
the country and he forced the ALLIED POWERS to sign a treaty in
1923.TURKEY was declared a republic and the office of KHALIFHA was
abolished.
Notwithstanding these treaties,Russia ( which had been kept out of these
treaties ) and Germany were kept out of it.And CHINA,despite being a part
of these treaties was asked to give its territory to JAPAN.So there were
resentments within the ALLIED POWERS despite these treaties.
DEVELOPMENTS IN EUROPE (1919-1923)
RISE OF NEW INDEPENDENT COUNTRIES
:Czechslovakia,Hungary,Poland,Finland,Austria and Ireland.
UPRISING IN HUNGARY AND ITS DEMISE : After the uprising ,a
revolutionary govt came into being but was soon overthrown.
RISE OF AUTHORITARIAN REGIMES IN EUROPE : The collapse of
expectations of revolution often due to lack of unity among the socialist
parties and radical groups led to the strengthening of anti-democratic and
autocratic forces.Romania,Yugoslavia,Greece and Spain
Britain,France and Czechoslovakia were untouched by authoritarian
regimes.
In Germany, after a revolution that led to the collapse of monarchy, the
WEIMAR REPUBLIC (parliamentary republic) was established in 1919.The
constitution provided for a president and a Chancellor who will be
responsible to the Parliament ( REICHSTAG).Reichstag was elected on the
basis of adult franchise.
There was however much discontent in Germany over the Treaty of
Versailles and the Dictated Peace.
Meanwhile, authoritarian parties has sprung up which denounced
democracy and annulment of the treaty of Versailles.They extolled war
and organized conspiracies for the overthrow of the democratic
government.Big business houses and a section of German army also
supported them.They blamed the Jews and the communists for the defeat
of Germans.
In 1919,the NATIONAL SOCIALIST GERMAN WORKERS PARTY ( NAZI) is
formed under Adolf Hitler.
ECONOMIC PROBLEMS OF THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC : Though a democratic
government was in place but economic problems of Weimar republic didnt
end.Under the treaty of Versailles,Germany was to pay reparations to
Allied Powers but the sum was draining it economically.
In 1929 occurred the most serious economic crisis which affected all the
capitalist countries of the world. About this, you will read later. As a result

of this crisis, eight million workers, about half of the working population of
Germany, were rendered unemployed.It was during this period that the
Nazi Party, which was no more than a conspiratorial group in the
beginning, began to spread its influence.
The victory of Nazism in Germany, like that of fascism in Italy, was neither
the outcome of a popular uprising, nor the result of a sham march on
Berlin such as Mussolinis on Rome. In the elections held in Germany
before Hitler came to power, the Nazi Party had polled less votes than the
Socialist and Communist vote put together. It had won only 196 seats out
of a total of about 650. Hitlers coming to power was the result of political
intrigues.
Inflation was breaking its back too.French troops occupied the RUHR
region (Coal and Metallurgy centre of Germany) in order to recover the
reparations.But German workers staged a passive resistance
protest.Germany also started printing huge amounts of paper money and
that led to decline in value of German Mark.A new currency was brought in
and this invited the resentment of people.The Nazi gained immensely from
this development.
FASCISM IN ITALY : After the unification of Italy,the Italian government had
shown little concern for the welfare of the agricultural and industrial
workers whose conditions were miserable in the extreme. It had,instead,
plunged Italy into the First World War in the hope of gaining colonies.
About 700,000 Italians were killed in the war. The conditions of the people
had worsened further. The growing strength of the socialist movement in
Italy posed a threat to the existing system.
Italy had joined the war with the aim of gaining colonies. However, the
peace tree, ties had failed to satisfy her ambitions. The Italian government
at the time was dominated by capitalists and landlords. These sections
began to support antidemocratic movements which promised to save
them from the danger of socialism as well as to satisfy their colonial
aspirations. The movement started by Mussolini was one such movement.
Socialist movement had weakened in Europe and anti democratic forces
began to take roots.Armed bands called FASCES were formed to create
terror in Socialists, Communists, Workers movement etc.Also ,the ruling
class of Italy had sided with the Allied Powers in WW1 but they felt
cheated over the division of colonies post war.So they also found the
fascist movement as an instrument to satisfy their ambitions.
A NATIONALIST FASCIST PARTY was founded in November 1921 under
MUSSOLINI.
In 1921, elections were held m Italy. However, no single party could win a
majority and no stable government could be formed. In spite of the terror
organized by Mussolinis gangs, his party could get only 35 seats while the
socialists and communists together won 138 seats. In spite of his poor
showing in the elections, Mussolini openly talked of seizing power.
On 28 October 1922, he organized a march on Rome. The government of
Italy did not show any sign of resistance against the volunteers of
Mussolini. Instead, on 29 October 1922, the king of Italy invited Mussolini
to join the government.
Thus without firing a shot, fascists under Mussolini s leadership came to
power in Italy. The takeover of the government by fascists was followed by
a reign of terror. The socialist movement was suppressed and many
socialist and communist leaders were either jailed or killed. In 1926 all

political parties except Mussolinis party were banned. The victory of

fascism Italy not only led to the destruction of democracy and the
suppression of socialist movement, it also led tothe preparation for war.
The fascists believed that there could be no harmony between two or
more nations. They glorified war which, according to them, ennobled
people.
Thousands of BLACKSHIRTS organized a MARCH ON ROME in 1922.The
King of Italy invited MUSSOLINI to form the government and thus began
the FASCIST RULE in ITALY.
DEVELOPMENTS IN AFRICA : Though the struggles for national
independence in Africa gained momentum after the Second World War, the
1920s and the 1930s were a period when the first political associations
were formed.An important role in the growth of national consciousness in
Africa was played by a series of PanAfrican Congresses. The Pan African
movement asserted the identity and unity of the African people, and
independence of Africa. The national movement in the Union of South
Africa had emerged earlier than in other parts of Africa.
In 1912 had been formed the African National Congress which became the
leading organization of the South African people. The people of Ethiopia
fought heroically against the Italian invasion of Chen country in 1935-36
and their resistance served as a source of inspiration to the people of
Africa.
DEVELOPMENTS IN EUROPE FROM 1924-1936 :
GREAT DEPRESSION and its IMPACT ON EUROPE : Europe was on a path to
recovery from 1924 to the Great Depression.The period of recovery again
began in 1933 after the GD had ended.
GD exposed the dependency of Europe on USA.The industrialized countries
of Europe suffered on account of shut down of companies and rise in
unemployment,while the Agri based countries suffered on account of no
export of their agri products to the USA.
Because of GD,the Fascist regimes had taken firm roots in Eupore.
In BRITAIN, In 1921, there were 2 million unemployed persons in Britain.
The workers movement made great advances. In 1924, the first Labour
Party government came to power. However, it did not remain in power for
long. In 1926 occurred the biggest strike in the history of Britain involving
6 million workers. The strike ultimately failed. A few years later, Britain
was badly affected by the worldwide economic crisis and about three
million people were unemployed.In 1931, the National government
comprising the Conservative, the Labour and the Liberal parties was
formed. This government took some steps to over come the serious
economic difficulties though the unemployment situation reroamed
serious.
Conservatives were voted to power in 1924 and they let the coal mines
decrease the wages and increase the working hours.As a result ,in 1926,a
major strike was called but soon it ended.
In 1929,the Labour party was again voted to power.But when it tried to cut
wages to meet the exigencies of the GD,it was voted out of power and in
its place a NATIONAL GOVERNMENT was formed that stayed on until
1933.But by that time most of the WHILE colonies of Britain were
independent and were brought under the COMMONWEALTH and the other
colonies were also restive.

In FRANCE,ambitions to become the dominant power got crystallized.They

began massive armament programme.France had to vacate the RUHR
region of Germany in 1924 and due to DP,there was large scale
unemployment.The Fascist forces in France mulled a take over but were
defeated by the Socialist/Communist forces.
In 1936, a strong coalition of socialist,communist and Radical socialist
forces ( famously called the POPULAR FRONT) was formed to take on the
Fascist forces.It initiated major economic reforms by way of withdrawal of
wage cuts and rationalizing the working hours of workers.The Popular
Front also formed a LITTLE ENTENTE with Romania and Yugoslavia in the
event of a German aggression.It also constructed a MAGINOT LINE ( a
defense system) to take on any German invasion.
In IRAN, Iran had been divided into Russian and British spheres of
influence before the First World War.
The Soviet government after the revolution of 1917 had given up the
sphere under her control and had withdrawn all her troops from there. The
British, however, tried to extend their influence over the entire country.
These efforts weremet with a widespread uprising. In 1921, power was
seized by Reza Khan who in 1925 became the emperor. The British troops
left Iran and the modernization of Iran began.
In PORTUGAL, SALAZAR had established a Fascist government and he
helped the Fascist forces in Spain overthrow the republican government
there.
In the ARAB WORLD : There was an upsurge in Arab countries against
Britain and France. The Arabs had been asked by the Allies, during the
First World War, to fight against their Ottoman rulers. However, the end of
the war did not result in the independence of Arab countries. These
countries had assumed additional importance after it was known that they
had immense oil resources. Britain and France had extended their control
over these countries as their protectorates and mandates .
In SPAIN,a Fascist movement called FALANGE grew that was being
supported by the Catholic Church.In 1935,there was a rebellion by the
miners against the unpopular government and GENERAL FRANCISCO
FRANCO was sent to crush it.The POPULAR FRONT govt that was formed to
resist the Fascist forces came to power but soon SPAIN plunged into a civil
war after the FALANGE came together with the army generals to overthrow
the Republican government.
In GERMANY,Great Depression had left an economic and political
vacuum.The NAZI party was already formed and it rebuked democracy and
glorified and wanted to revive the days of TEUTONIC EMPIRE.( Like the
Italian Fascists glorified the days of the Roman Empire)
NAZIS aroused Anti-Semitism,holding the Jews responsible for all the
German misery.The Nazis extolled the purity of the German race-Aryan
race.The Germans were against the communists and they used of the
sense of humiliation of the German people for their defeat and the
DICTATED PEACE and REPARATIONS.Big landlords and industrialists also
supported the NAZIs.The NAZIS organized a group of volunteers called SA
or BROWNSHIRTS.They started killing the Jews and anti-fascist forces.The
NAZI vote share in elections rose after the Great Depression.In 1932
elections,the NAZI party emerged as the single largest party.In
1933,HITLER was appointed as the CHANCELLOR of GERMANY.Thus his

HITLERs coming to power was not because of massive election results in

favour or by overthrowing of the existing government.It was the result of a
BACKSTAGE DEAL with right wing politicians.These parties,the
bankers,landlords and industrialists has persuaded HINDENBURG to make
HITLER the CHANCELLOR.
In 1933,HITLER came to power and got the REICHSTAG building burned
down.The Communist party of Germany was blamed for the fire and was
suppressed.Elections were again held amidst this crisis but even then
HITLER failed to win a majority.Soon he began exterminating the Social
Democrats,trade union leader and the communists.
In 1934,HITLER became the PRESIDENT OF GERMANY.
Soon after coming to power,he began armament of Germany much
against the terms of the TREATY OF VERSAILLIES.In 1933,Germany
withdrew from the LEAGUE of NATIONS and started building a German AIR
FORCE.In 1936,he occupied then demilitarized RHINELAND.In 1935 he
announced that Germany was not bound by terms of the treaty of
VERSAILLES.
THE STAGE WAS SET FOR THE NEXT WORLD WAR.
By 1937-37,Germany ,Italy and Japan has emerged as a bloc of aggressive
powers.
One reason why Hitler thought his invasion of Poland in 1939 would not
precipitate a war because the other two powers-Italy and Japan-were
themselves indulged in establishing supremacy.Italy in the Balkans,Arab
countries and Africa and Japan in Asia and Pacific.
FASCIST TROIKA OF JAPAN,ITALY and GERMANY : rise of Japanese
imperialism, her wars against China and Russia, the conquest of Korea and
her acquisition of the German spheres in China after the First World War.
The government of Japan gradually passed into the hands of militarists.
These three countries started series of aggressions in Europe, Asia and
Africa. All of them claimed to have been fighting against communism and
were united in 1937 under the ANTI-COMINTERN Pact. (Comintern is short
for Communist International which, as mentioned before, had been formed
after the Russian Revolution and to which the Communist Parties of
various countries were affiliated.) Germany, Italy and Japan came to be
known as the AXIS Powers.
When the acts of aggression began, the aggrieved countries, the Soviet
Union and many leaders m different countries of the world demanded
collective action to defeat the aggressions. In 1935, the Communist
International advocated the formation of Popular Fronts consisting of
Communists, Socialists and other antifascists to counter the danger of
fascism and war. It may be recalled that Hitler had come to power m
Germany because the Communist and Social Democratic Parties of
Germany had failed to unite against the Nazis. The Comintern s advocacy
of uniting all antifascist forces was followed by the formation of Popular
Fronts in many countries. In France, the Popular Front succeeded in
preventing a fascist takeover. The policy of Popular Front also had a
significant influence in bringing together various antiimperialist forces in
the colonies. It also created a worldwide awareness of the danger that
fascism posed to all countries and helped in building support for the
victims of fascist aggression.
POLICY OF APPEASEMENT : The covenant of the League of Nations
contained a provision for economic and military sanctions and collective

action against aggression. However, the Western governments, instead of

resisting the aggressions, followed a policy of appeasement of the
aggressive powers. Appeasement meant a policy of conciliating an
aggressive power at the expense of some other country. But for the
Western countries policy of appeasement, fascism could not have
survived as long as it did and would not have been able to unleash the
Second World War.
The great landowners, aristocrats, industrialists, bankers, high churchmen,
army leaders magnates of every kind in Western Europe, together with
many middleclass elements had never lost their fear that their own
workers and peasants might demand a social revolution, perhaps one
spearheaded and organized by communists. Their support of
fascism as a force, albeit a gangster one, which would defeat communism.
COMPONENTS OF THE POLICY OF APPEASEMENT : JAPANESE INVASION OF
CHINA(Capture of Manchuria in 1931),SPANISH CIVIL WAS,GERMAN
MILITARIZATION(Germany had quit the LoN and began militarisation in
1936),GERMAN INVASION OF AUSTRIA,(1938) ,ITALIAN INVASION OF
ETHIOPIA (1936).
SPANISH CIVIL WAR : A joint German-Italian aggression resulted in Spanish
Civil War.
A POPULAR FRONT govt was in place in Spain and it started introducing
reforms by breaking up big farmland and distributing it among the
peasants.The FALANGE was spurned and made plans to overthrow the
govt.
The FALANGE started killing ,helped largely by Spanish Army generals and
one General FRANCO who led his army from Spanish Morocco to join the
FALANGE in SPAIN.
Italy and Germany both supported the anti-republican Fascist forces.
Britain,France and the USA chose to keep silent on this issue.
With help from Russia though,the republican forces raised an army of
volunteers and heroically defended MADRID.
There was international solidarity with Spain for fighting against the
FASCIST forces.
Even Nehru went to Spain to express solidarity with the Republican govt.
Many writers,poets and artists mobilized public opinion in support of
Spain.
Pablo Picasso painted GUERNICA was an expression of art against the
Fascist forces.
But by 1939,the entire Spain has fell to the Fascist forces and FRANCO was
recognized by Britain,France and the USA.
MADRID continued to push back the rebels,until it eventually fell to
Fascists.
THE SPANISH CIVIL WAR IS CALLED THE DRESS REHERSAL TO THE WW2
BECAUSE THE FASCIST COUNTRIES TRIED THEIR NEW WEAPONS ON THE
BATTLEFIELDS OF SPAIN.
ANSCHLUSS of Austria with Germany Hitler ,in connivance with
Mussolini,marched into Austria in 1938 and helped the Austrian Nazis
capture power there.Although there was an earlier treaty between Austria
and Germany that prohibited the political union of both countries.
BETRAYAL of CZECHOSLOVAKIA : Cz. had emerged as an independent
nation after WW1 and had support of the western countries.It was a rare

European country with democracy and an industrialized economy.Hitler

demanded that SUDETENLAND (which had a sizeable German population)
be given to Germany.Russia promised to come to Cz rescue if there was
any German aggression.But through a meeting in MUNICH in
1938,France,Britain,Italy and Germany decided to hand over Cz to
Germany.Russia was not invited to this meeting.This is known as the
MUNICH PACT.
BETRAYAL OF POLAND : After Cz ,Germany now made demands of territory
from Poland.Britain and France,for the first time,began negotiations with
Russia to extend help to Poland in case Germany attacked her.
But since Poland had been following anti-Soviet policy ,it was not ready to
let Russian army enter its territory.
In August 1939,Germany and USSR signed a NON-AGGRESSION pact
(USSR signed this treaty because it had been pleading for long with the
western powers to halt the FASCIST advance but since the west was
following the policy of appeasement it chose to look the other way;Russia
got suspicious of their motive and therefore signed a pact with Germany)
and stage was set for an attack on Poland.
On 1st September,Germany attacked POLAND.
On 3rd September,Britain and France declared war on Germany.
We have WW2 !