Producing Artistic Value: The Case of Rock Music

Author(s): Motti Regev

Source: The Sociological Quarterly, Vol. 35, No. 1 (Feb., 1994), pp. 85-102
Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the Midwest Sociological Society
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PRODUCINGARTISTICVALUE:
The Case of Rock Music
Motti Regev

The Hebrew Universityof Jerusalem

Culturalformsgain artisticrecognitionwhen theirproducersof meaning"prove"that
they (a) contain"serious"meaningsand aestheticgenuineness;(b) they are produced
by a definablecreativeentityand (c) the creativeentity is autonomous,producingits
worksfor theirown sake. Sincethe 1960's,criticshaveclaimedartisticrecognitionfor
rock music. They have done so by stressingthe "subversive"meaningof rock, by
as autonomouscreative
identifyingthe rock-groupand the rock individual-musician
entities, by consecratinga body of albums as the "masterpieces"of rock and by
definingseveralsonic componentsas rock'sgenuineaestheticlanguage.Althoughthe
realizationof this claim remainspartial, it demonstratesthat the belief in artistic
culturalhierarchiesis a structuringforce in contemporaryculture.
"Someday everything is gonna be different
When I paint my masterpiece"
Bob Dylan
In his classic article, Adorno (1941) presented a decisive position regarding popular
music. Adorno viewed popular music, all of it, as part of the culture industry, a phenomenon which assesses the existing social reality by constituting in its audiences emotional
states which support implicitly the dominant interests of the capitalist regime. It is thus
impossible for popular music to contain the redeeming power of art, as a negation of
existing reality and as social critique.
Some forty-five years later rock critic Greil Marcus wrote in the highly sophisticated
contemporary art magazine Artforum:
Of course, almost everyone settles. No one wins. The Absolut was denied in the
Gardenof Eden, and the definingcharacteristicof humanbeings remainstheirability
to want more then they can have. Thatcontradictionproducesrage, desire, hate and
love, and real art bringsall those thingsto life. (Marcus1985, p. 86)

Direct all correspondenceto: Motti Regev, The HebrewUniversityof Jerusalem,Departmentof Sociology, Mount Scopus
Jerusalem91905, Israel.
The Sociological Quarterly, Volume 35, Number 1, pages 85-102.
Copyright 0 1994 by JAI Press, Inc.
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
ISSN: 0038-0253.

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These lines were writtenaboutthe song "EveryPictureTells a Story"by Rod Stewart.

Marcusis representativeof a largergroupof critics, scholarsand fans of popularmusic
who subscribeto the belief thatthe music of the Beatles, Bob Dylan, the RollingStones
and Jimi Hendrix-to name the most obvious examples-constitutes "realart,"no less
real than any serious music might be. For the last twenty-fiveyears, this groupof rock
intelligentsiahas been formulatingtheir claim that rock music-as a kind of popular
music-should be recognizedas an art form.
This study examines the discursivestrategieswhich have been used by this groupof
critics and interpretersof rock music in orderto promoteits recognitionas an art form.
The guidingargumentis thatthe discourseaboutrock music which has beendevelopedin
andcommitmentto an ideology
this context, althoughbasedon conceptsof "authenticity"
of subversiveness,has graduallyconstructeddistinctionsand hierarchieswhich resulted
from the applicationof the traditionalideology of autonomousart.
This approachto rock musicbreakswith the predominantone, which stressesthe place
of rock in its fans' life-worlds(Frith1981;Grossberg1984a). Rock is broughthere into
the contextof the sociology of artandplacedwithin a largerculturalprocess, in which a
continuousattemptis being madeto applythe traditionalideology of autonomousart to
"popular"and otherculturalforms,therebyclaimingfor themartisticstatus.Rock music
is examinedhere in the frameworkof Bourdieu'snotionof the field of culturalproduction
(1969; 1980; 1983) which-coupled with his "social critiqueof the judgementof taste"
(1984)-offers the most comprehensivetheoreticalframeworkfor analyzingcontemporaryculturalprocesses.
The culturalfield is a space of positionsoccupied by differentsocial entities, which
mightbe organizations,groupsor individuals.These entitiesor positionsarein a constant
state of struggle over the accumulationand distributionof differentresources,and in
particularover the accumulationanddistributionof prestige,recognitionandhighevaluation. The specificityof the culturalfield lies in the fact thatprestigeand recognitionare
not granteddirectly to the social entities, but primarilyto the works and to the contents
they produce;in otherwords, theirculturalformsand artforms. Hierarchyin the cultural
field is based on the ideology of the "superiorreality"of art and of the "autonomous
creative genius" (Williams 1958; Bourdieu1969).
Accordingto this world view, a culturalform is a candidatefor recognitionas an art
form when the following basic conditionsare fulfilled: 1. It is demonstratedthatspecific
works belonging to thatformcontainin some way (a) formal-aestheticsophisticationor
genuineness, and (b) philosophical,social, psychologicalor emotionalmeanings;2. It is
possible to point to a creative entity-usually an individual-whose spirit and "inner
truth"is the source of the form and meaningof the work; 3. It can be arguedthat the
creativeentity has producedthe workby way of (at least)some commitmentto that"inner
truth,"beyond considerationsof practicalityand usefulness-the ideological theme of
"artfor art's sake."
In this scheme, the position which holds the authorityto presentculturalproductsas
fulfillingthese requirements,therebygrantingthemartisticrecognition,enjoysmonumental influence.This is the production-of-meaning
position, which includesthe analyzers,
and
teachers
critics
of
cultural
products.This position producesboth the
interpreters,
analyses and the interpretationswhich presentthe "artistry"of culturalforms, and the
belief in the validityof those interpretations
(Bourdieu1980). At its extreme,the producof a specificart
tion-of-meaningpositionconsecratesspecificworksas the "masterpieces"

Producing Artistic Value

87

formandcrownstheirproducersas the "greatgeniuses"of thatform.The knowledge,the

skills and the sensibilities-in short, the dispositionsor the habitus-employed in the
readingand decoding of such works, are a majorcomponentof the dominantcultural
capitalwhich, in its turn,is a centralfactorin processesof stratificationand reproduction
(Bourdieu1984; Lamontand Lareau1988).
Contemporary"popular"culturalforms, usuallycharacterizedby a collective process
of production,technologicalsaturationand a tendencyto appearas productsof profitseeking organizations,have been regardedby the dominantforces in the culturalfield as
an antithesisof artistryand relegatedto the inferiorpositionof "entertainment",
"show
buisness"or "massculture."Recentsociologicalexaminationsof theproductionof artistic
value have underminedthe old high/popularculturalhierarchy(Gans 1973; Schudson
1987; Wolff 1981, 1983; Becker 1982; DiMaggio 1987). These, coupled with the discourse on "postmodern"culture(Lyotard1984; Jameson 1984), have implied that the
belief in the ideology of autonomousart has declined in contemporaryculture. It is
probablytruethatthe recentdevelopmentsin the sociologyof arthavecatalyzeda decline
of the belief in the ideologyof autonomousart amongscholarsin disciplinessuch as art
historyor comparativeliterature(Wolff 1987;Zolberg1990). But it remainsquestionable
whethersuch a decline takesplace in the culturalfield itself, as impliedby the discourse
on postmodernculture.Basedon the case of rockmusic, thisarticlearguesthatthe belief
in the ideology of autonomousartstill determinesthe strugglesand definesthe prizes in
the field of culturalproduction.
The changes in the status of film (Sontag 1966; Lovell 1972; Mukerji 1978) and
photography(Christopherson1974; Rosenblum1978; Bourdieu 1990) serve as notable
evidenceto the successfulstruggleswhichtheproducersandanalyzersof "popular"forms
have conducted over the recognitionof these forms as "artistic",as valuable cultural
forms. They did so as partof the field, and by acceptingits rules. The acceptanceof the
rules of the field was manifestedin the fact thatthe struggleswere not conductedagainst
the existing parametersof art, but on the basis of adherenceto the belief in them. The
productionof meaningapparatusesof the contemporaryculturalformshave been interpreting,analyzingandevaluatingthemas a discursivestrategyof "proving"theirartistry.
The general tendency has been to point to the existence of a creativeentity, and the
commitmentof this entityto the truthof the work(andnot solely to its profitability).The
principalendeavor,however,has been to demonstratethe existenceof serious meanings
and of formal-aestheticcomplexityin these forms.
This studyplaces rock musicwithinthis process.It examinesrockas anotherexponent
of it. The article describes how the producersof rock meanings have formulatedan
of the musicwhichappliesthe traditionalparameters
of artto the specificity
interpretation
of rockand popularmusic. In otherwords,'the articledemonstrateshow the discourseon
rock music-with its specificjargonof subversivenessandauthenticity-has been claiming artisticstatus for this music along the traditionalparametersof such status.
This implies thatthe changewhichhas occurredin the artisticstatusof rockand in the
positionof popularmusic in the culturalfield shouldbe understoodas a success in terms
of the logic of this field. The leadingperspectivein the study of rock has been the socalled "incorporation"
thesis, accordingto whichthe institutionalization
of rock impliesa
failureof its "authentic"meanings.A majorendeavorof the academicstudyof rockmusic
has been to articulatethe anti-hegemonicmeaningsof rock. In additionto examininghow
rock music fulfills its subversivefunctionfor its fans (Grossberg1984a; 1984b; 1985;

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1987; Frith 1981; 1988b;Chambers1985; Wicke 1987), a centralissue in the study of

rock has been the "loss of authenticity",the subordinationof its originalsocial meanings
to the interestsof the music industryand to hegemonic culture. Interpretations
of this
process have rangedfrom harshdescriptionsof the "co-optation"of rockmusic (Chapple
and Garofalo1977), to analysesof thecontinuingstruggleover meaningbetweenfans and
the industry(Frith 1981, 1988b),to ruminationsand disputesabout the "death"of rock
(Grossberg1986). The academicstudyof rock music has acted moreoften thannot as an
extension of the productionof meaningapparatus,producingan academicassessmentof
the "subversiveness"of rock. The examinationof the productionof rock meaningsfrom
the perspective of field theory which is suggested here, inverses the "incorporation"
thesis. The legitimationof rock, thepossiblerecognitionof its artisticvalue, is in fact the
prize over which the strugglehas been conducted.
It all means, also, thatthe dynamicin the field of popularmusic in the last twenty-five
years is determinedby an artisticlogic. The productionof meaningapparatusof rock
music duringthe last twenty-fiveyearshas proclaimeda groupof musiciansas the "great
artists"of rock music and has consecratedtheir works as the "masterpieces"of this
musical form. The corpusof musiccreatedby these musicianshas accumulatedover the
years, forminga repertoryof musicalcodes, soundpatternsand specificworks.Knowing
and masteringthese codes and patternscomprisesthe collection of rockdispositions,the
specific habitusof the form. This habitus,as a collectionof practicesandstylisticimperatives for makingmusic, formsthe aestheticof rock. This aesthetichas been adoptedby a
growing numberof musicianssince the 1950s. By 1972, about 80 percentof the music
producedin the United States consistedof differentrock derivatives(Chappleand Garofalo 1977). The adoptionof the rockaesthetichas been in fact a continuousrecognition
of the "greatartists"of rockandof theirworksas the formulatorsof thecreativeaesthetic
in popularmusic. It is a constantprocessof change, wherethe "greatartists"of rock are
propelledto a definedtop artisticpositionas the pioneers, innovatorsand delineatorsof
the road to creativityfor the whole field.of popularmusic. An ever-presentfrontierof
"alternative","fringe"and other"serious"styles of rock has been nurturedby the producers of meaning. These groupsbecome the suppliersof innovationsin soundtexture
and lyricalcontentfor the whole field of popularmusic. The adherenceof rockcritics to
the traditionalconceptof art has been a centraldrivingand structuringforce in the field
and not a "romantic"ideology whichcamouflagesthe commercialinterestsof theindustry
(Stratton1982; 1983a; 1983b).
Rock music critics-or at leasta specificfractionof them-have been the vanguardof
this process. The discoursethey constructedhas been based on the announcementof an
hereticalbreak with the popularmusic that precededrock. This was made possible by
several music productionpractices which have crystallized in the second half of the
century and which have alteredtraditionalpracticesof playing, producingand storing
music.
POPULARMUSICAS A CULTURALFORM
Around mid-century,popular music was associated mostly with the "popularstyle"
(Hamm 1979), the peak of which is usually identifiedwith the music of composerslike
JeromeKern,RichardRodgers,Cole Porterand IrvingBerlin. Regardedby its critics as
music producedby formulafor a mass-marketdemandand as based on borrowingsof

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89

musical content from other sources(Middleton1990), popularmusic before the 1950's

was hardlya candidatefor claims regardingartisticrecognition.
In the second half of the centurypopularmusic manufacturinghas centeredaround
amplificationand electricinstrumentsas meansof performance.Studioworkbecamethe
productionpracticeandthe phonogram(record,tape, cd) a commodity.The use to which
these componentshave been put by musicianshas graduallydefineda culturalcontextof
music makingessentiallydifferentfromthe traditionalone (Frith1986).This new context
formedthe basis of changeat the coreof rock'sartisticideology.It is shortlysummarized
here.
Amplificationandelectric/electronicinstrumentshaveinfluencedmusicmakingmainly
by the unprecedentedqualitiesand volume of their sonic textures.Recordingmachines
and studio technology have redefinedmusic production.With them, creationof music
could become a processof assemblage,in whichsonic rawmaterials-possibly recorded
in differenttimes and at differentplaces, by one or variouspersons-are mixed into one
packagewhich is the musicalwork.Twoconsequencesof recordinghave been the emergence of new creative roles in the productionof music (i.e. sound engineersand proand singersto
ducers, see Kealy 1979), and the growingcontributionof instrumentalists
the actual creation of the work, and not only to its performance(which means also a
certaindecline in the centralityof composition).The fixationof soundandthe eternalization of musicalperformancewhichwere madepossibleby the record(tape, CD), madeit
possible to store and producemusicalworksas sonic substance.Froman abstractentity
whichmighthave countlessperformances
but no "original",musicalworkscould become
artifactsin which the workandits performanceareunitedintoone culturalunit(rendering
other performancesor recordings"covers"of the "original"recording).The following
pages demonstratehow the productionof meaningapparatusof rockmusicfoundin these
componentsthe basis for the definitionof rock'sgenuineness.
PRODUCERSOF MEANING
Aroundthe mid-1960s, a struggleto raisethe artisticprestigeof popularmusic began. It
was based on the belief that since the mid-1950s a new type of popularmusic had
emerged-initially called "rock'n'roll"and later"rock".This music was essentiallydifferentfromthe popularmusic whichprecededit andwhichcontinueto exist in conjuction
with it. Thatis, althoughinstitutionalchangesthattook place in the productionof popular
music might explain the emergenceof rock'n'roll-of the music itself-in 1955 (Peterson 1990), the explanatoryfactor regardingthe culturalstatus of rock music is the
appearanceof a belief in the distinctnessof this music-a belief thatwas articulatedinto
an artisticideology abouta decade later,in the 1960s.
The productionof value for rock music was not basedon an explicit formulationof a
"pure"aesthetic theory, as in the case of film. At issue here were ratherthe social
meanings of the music-rock was believed to be subversive in regardto dominant
and analyseswhich served to distinguishbetween"auculture-and the interpretations
thentic"rock music and its imitation.An aestheticwhichevaluatesmusicaccordingto the
successful realizationof its social functionshas been manifestlyat work (Frith 1987,
1990).
formsof popularmusicandotherformswas
Makinga distinctionbetween"qualitative"
an acknowledgedphenomenonbeforethe adventof rock'n'roll,both among musicians

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(Becker 1951) and among audiences(Riesman 1950; Johnstonand Katz 1957). The
distinctionwas explainedmainlyas functioningfor the definitionof the groupas such, for
its constructionas a distinctsocial unit. Likewise, severalresearchershad pointedto the
functionalityof rock music in general, and of certainrock styles in particular,for the
to
The perspectivehas been basicallyanthropological:
emergenceof youth"sub-cultures."
understandthe meaningof the musicandits uses for the particulargroupdescribed(Brake
1980; Hebdige 1979; Willis 1978;Vulliamy 1977). The life-worldsof rock fans (or of
musicians) might comprise, in this regard,a differentdiscourse than the one analyzed
here. The maindifferencebetweenthemakingof meaningin a subculturalcontextandthe
productionof meaningby an autonomousapparatuscomprisingmass-media,lies in the
demand of the latter for a wider public and institutionalrecognitionof the meanings
produced,and in the implicitclaim for status and prestige.
During the 1960s, then, an autonomousapparatusof meaning productionemerged,
which publicly interpretedandpresentedrockas a "serious"musicalandculturalpractice.
This particularapparatusproducedthe dominantdiscourseon rock (Taylor1985; Frith
1981) and consisted of two main channels of production:radio broadcastingand
journalism.
The contributionof radioto the productionof rock'sartisticmeaningtook formin the
emergence of special broadcastingformats, which were destined by their producersto
"quality"or "alternative"formsof popularmusic. The most apt example in the United
States was the emergence,in the late 1960s, of F.M. radiostationswhichweredevotedto
playing music from rock albums,signifying a breakfrom the A.M., top-fortyoriented
stations. F.M. stationsmusic editorswere given muchmore freedomof decision regarding the music they aired, which meantthat theirchoices were not necessarilythe most
commerciallysuccessful songs (Denisoff 1975). In the United Kingdom(and other European countries), after the initial formationof an all-popular-musicstation in 1967
(BBCI, modeledafter"pirate"stationssuch as RadioCaroline),the formatwhichmostly
contributedto the productionof an artistichierarchywas the specialprogram,devotedby
its editors to "alternative"or "art"rock. The programof John Peel is the most notable
example in this context (Barnard1989).
The late 1960s also saw the emergenceof periodicalsdevotedto a "serious"treatment
orientedpress. Crawdaddy,Creemandother
of rock-as opposedto the "entertainment"
which
researchers
but
the
one
commonlyagreehas been the most
publicationsappeared,
influential
is
and
RollingStone(Frith1981;Denisoff 1975;Taylor1985).In the
important
United Kingdom the long establishedmusic weeklies Melody Makerand New Musical
Expressshiftedtheiraccentin the early 1970s, movingto the forefrontof the movementto
enhancethe statusof rockas "serious"music. Duringthe 1970s, the groupof writersthat
had been active in the "serious"coverageof rock musicbeganto recapitulate,summarize
of the aesthetics, value and social meaningsof the
and conclude their interpretations
book
form.
These
books
took
in
the formof collectionsof articlesand reviewsthat
music
had appearedin magazines(Christgau1973;Eisen 1969; 1970;Marcus1969;Willis 1981;
Bangs 1988; Landau 1972), biographiesof musicians (McGregor 1972; Laing 1971;
Norman 1981; 1984; Marsh 1985), rock encyclopedias(Parelesand Romanowski1983;
Hardyand Laing 1976; Logan and Woffinden1977; Roxon 1980), rock histories(Belz
1969;Gillett 1970;Miller 1980;Ward,Stokes, andTucker1986), recordguides andpolls
(Marcus 1979; Christgau1981; Robbins 1985; Marshand Swenson 1983; Gambaccini
1987) and othergenresof writing(Cohn 1969;Mabey 1969;Marcus1975; 1989;Meltzer
1970; Frame 1983; Laing 1969; 1985).

Producing Artistic Value

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In the way they categorizeentries (in encyclopedias)and divide chapters, in their

choice of musicians and topics worthy of lengthy articles, in their taken-for-granted
periodizations,in the adjectivestheyuse, in theirrankingof recordsin termsof qualitythese books (and others)contain,andthereforeconstruct,the acceptedtruthsaboutrock
music up to 1980. These workswerecompiledor writtenseveralyears afterthe musical
productswith which they deal, and they reflectself-criticismand screeningof ideas and
attitudes. It is not the immediateresponsewhich is publishedin the runningissues of
magazines.
The point is thatthe constructionof "authentic"
rockas a distinctionby theseproducers
of meaninghas been basedon the applicationof the traditionalparametersof autonomous
art to popular music. Componentsof popularmusic-lyrics, amplification,recording
technology,assemblage,stylisticeclecticism-have been interpretedin the rock context
as aestheticmeans for expressingrebellionand subversiveness,thus discoveringin rock
music aesthetic genuninenessand "serious"meanings.The consecrationof specific albums as the best manifestationsof these meansand meanings("masterpieces")
has rendered their creators(groups,individualmusicians)autonomouscreativeentities.
In other words, the constructionof a hierarchyof "authenticity"by this apparatus
shouldbe understood,in termsof fieldtheory,as a type of meaningproductionwhich was
aimedat raisingthe artisticprestigeandculturalstatusof popularmusic. Gaininga certain
amountof generalrecognitionforthe valueof rock"masterpieces"
equalsthe construction
of an artistic hierarchyin the field of popularmusic. It reflects an acceptanceof the
dominantrulesof the culturalfieldby rockproducersof meaninganda success in termsof
the logic of this field.
ROCKAND THEPARAMETERS
OF ART
General Meaning: the Ideology of Subversiveness
Unlike other types of popularmusic, so it has been argued,rock music is "grassroot"
popularmusic, it grows from"below",from the daily realityof its musiciansand audiences, it is the music of the urbanera-the "sound of the city" (Gillett 1970). More
specifically,rock music has beenpresentedandconceivedas the music whichreflectsand
expressesthe feelings andthe spiritof a specificgenerationalgroup.It is the musicof the
generation which was born and grew up after World War II, mostly in the West; a
generationthathas been raisedin affluence,butalso undera continuousnuclearthreatand
in an alienatedurbanecology. At its core, rock music expressesthis group'snegationof
and resistanceto its conditionsof existence,againstanythingwhich is "square":routine,
expected, normativeandconformist.In its soundsrock musicexpressesrage, alienation,
anomie, anxiety, anger, fear. Yet, in responseto the boredomthat comes with affluence
and to the uncertaintyof the social and political situation, rock music is as well an
expressionof immediatehedonism:love, sex, dance, consumerismand drivingoffer a
relief fromboredomandanxiety.This is the "pop"side of rockmusic, whichpresentsfun
and pleasureas a rejectionof the ethic of workand restraint,and as redemptionfrom it.
Autonomous Creative Entity
The claim that rock music is a meaningful,"serious"type of popularmusic has been
supported,in accordancewith the traditionalconcept of art, by the attributionof its
meaningsto a creativesource, an artisticentity. As opposed to the composers,lyricists,

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arrangersand singersof earlierperiods,who were consideredfrom the perspectiveof art

as craftpersonsin the service of the industry,the music-makingwhich emergedin the
context of rock has been interpretedas artisticand creative.Two framesof music making
have been consolidatedas the creativeentitiesin rock music:the groupandthe individual
musician.
The rock group, as a self-containedcreative unit, became the prototypicialcreative
entity in rock music duringthe 1960s. The ideal type of the group containsfour to six
musicianswho compose the music, writelyrics, play andsing. Lateron, whenthe role of
the musical producerhad gained an aura of creativityas well, many groups became
producersof their own records.The concept of the group translatesthe collectivity in
productioninto a creativecollectivity:the rationaldivisionof labouris transformedin the
context of the rock group into a sharedcreative responsibilitywhich incorporatesthe
playing of instrumentsas a component(juridicallyexpressedin the assignmentof copyrightto the groupname).Manyrockgroupsachievedrecognitionandhigh artisticevaluation when they becamea self-containedunitof creativity.Aftermath(1966), for example,
was the firstalbumby the RollingStoneswhichcontainedno "covers"-only self-written
songs:
No longerwerethe Stonessimplyrecyclingthe bluesandR&Bof themasters;
now
theyhadevolveda rock& rollformof theirown... nowthestylewasdistinctlytheir
own (Marsh,1983,p. 431).
In additionto the centralityof the group,the individualmusicianis also a prominent
creative entity in the perceptionof rock music as art. Given the complexity of the
productionprocessin popularmusic, the mostvaluedmusiciansare notjust "composers,"
but ratherindividualswho masterall the componentsof production,or at
or "performers"
least a substantialpartof them:They compose, write lyrics, sing, play instrumentsand
often take creditfor musicalproductionas well. The individualmusicianin rock musicis
an individual who masters and uses the componentsof popular music in a creative,
autonomousmode (Landau1972). Hence, for example, the high appreciationfor Stevie
Wonder'searly 1970's albums, which signalledhis full creative autonomy(Wardet al.
1986, pp.498-249; Logan and Wofinden1977, pp. 246-247).
Rock music's producersof meaninghave designatedthe group and the individual
musician as creative entities, who in spite of the commercialcontext are committedto
music which expresses its inner truth.In the United Kingdom, where art-schoolshave
been a nurturinggroundfor many rock musicians,theirself-image as "artists"has been
prevalentsince the early 1960s (Frithand Home 1987). Designatinga creativeentityalso
gave the productionof meaninga nucleusof producersand works aroundwhich it could
constructa "history"of rock music.
Crowning and Consecrating: History, "Masterpieces"
At the core of rock history,since the beginningof its formulationin the late 1960s, is a
narrativethat relates a sequenceof eruptionsof "authentic"music-makingat different
points in time. Several "greatartists"(individualsor groups)who producea numberof
"masterpieces"(songs and albums)emergeat each of these moments,amalgamatinginto
a growingcanon of "authentic/classicrock music".The long-playingphonographrecord

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("album")became in this processthe main culturalunit in rock music. It became "the

work", the unit which radiatesartisticaura.
In otherwords, the formulationof a historyof rock involves the acts of consecration
andcrowning,with the relevantcriteriabeingthe evaluationof creatorsandtheirworksas
musicallyinnovativein relationto the precedinghistoricalmoment,andmostlyas being a
successfuland refreshingexpressionof the subversivemessage. As in otherfields of art,
the periodizationof rock musicand its "masterpieces"
is not definitive,and often subject
to strugglesand re-evaluations.What follows representsa consensusthat does seem to
exist amongthe mentionedwritersregardingthe historyof rock up to 1980. The albums
mentionedbelow occupy the highestpositionsin critics polls (New Musical Express,30
November 1985; Rolling Stone, 27 August 1987; Gambaccini1987) and are given top
gradingin recordguides (Marshand Swenson 1983;Christgau1981).
Three momentsof condensed"authentic"music-makingare generallyacceptedas the
basic periodizationof rock historyuntil 1980: the initial momentof rock'n'roll, which
lasted moreor less from 1955to 1958;the momentof "thesixties," which lastedmoreor
less from 1964 to 1972; and the momentof "punk"or "new wave", which lasted from
1976 to 1979. This does not necessarilymeanthatin the periodsbetweenthese moments
there was no "authentic"productionof music, but the threedifferentmoods associated
with each of these "waves"are regardedas the cradleof the best works in rock music.
The majorproductof the musicindustryin the 1950swas the "single"
ROCK'N'ROLL.
one
record,containing
song on each side. As a consequence,the long-playingrecordsof
this period which rank high in artistic evaluationsare compilationsof songs by the
musiciansthathave been crownedas the leading"pioneers"of rockmusic. The principal
musicianswho have been crownedas the firstrockartistsareChuckBerry,LittleRichard,
JerryLee Lewis and BuddyHolly. A majoradditionto this list is Elvis Presley- mostly
as a performingpersonality-particularlywith respectto his first years of activity (the
collection of his first recordings,The Sun Collection, issued on one album in 1976, is
regardedas his artisticpeak).
"THESIXTIES".The musicalproductsof this periodcomprisethe majorpart of the
classic corpusof rockmusic. It was duringthisperiodthatthe belief in the artistryof rock
emerged, and in which the rock groupas a creativeunit was crystallized.A noteworthy
phenomenonduring"thesixties"was whatcame to be knownin the UnitedStatesas "the
British invasion," namely,the artisticand commercialsuccess of many British groups
in the United States. The individualmusiciansand especially the groups in this period
are numerous,yet there are several names whose "greatness"is hardlyin dispute:The
Beatles, The Rolling Stones, The Beach Boys, The Who, The VelvetUnderground,The
Band (groups),Bob Dylan, Jimi Hendrix,VanMorrison(individuals).
Eachof these createdduringthis pivotalperiodseveralalbumswhichare consideredto
be the core "masterpieces"of rock music. A considerablenumberof these musicians
continuedto make highly regardedrecordsin subsequentdecades. Of the several"great"
recordseach of these nameshas produced,the following are premierexponents whose
consecrationconstitutesthe claimof the producersof meaningfor the recognitionof rock
music as art: Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (1967, The Beatles), Exile on Main
Street (1972, The Rolling Stones), Highway 61 Revisited (1965, Bob Dylan), Are You
Experienced? (1967, Jimi Hendrix), Pet Sounds (1966, The Beach Boys), The Velvet
Undergroundand Nico (1967, The VelvetUnderground),Who'sNext (1971, The Who),

The Band (1969, The Band),Astral Weeks(1968, VanMorrison).

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PUNK. The principalmeaningattributedto this wave of music in rock is that punk

of rock duringthe 1970s. Punk rockers
constitutesa reactionto the institutionalization
have respondedto what they perceivedas the growing detachmentof successful rock
musiciansfromthe public they grewout of and supposedlyrepresentedand to the diminishing subversivecomponentin theirmusic. WritingaboutThe Clash, rock critic Lester
Bangs notes that:
of all thehopeswe
... it only showshowfarthey'regoingtowardsthe realization
is trulythedemoeverhadaboutrock'n'roll
as utopian
dream-becauseif rock'n'roll
craticartform,then...elitismmustperish,the "stars"havegot to be humanized,
it'sall a shuck,a ripoff,andthemusicis as deadas the
demythologized...Otherwise
Stones'andLedZepplin'shasbecome(Bangs1988,p. 233).
Punk musiciansassumedthe task of bringingback to rock the type of harshrebellion,
roughsound, musicalsimplicityand-mostly in Britain-direct referencein the lyricsto
social issues (unemployment,inter-racialrelations)which they thoughtwere lost. Punk
signaled a maturingof a historicalself-consciousnessamong rock musiciansand critics
regardingtheirart. It was the firsttime thata "newgeneration"of musicianshademerged
whose claim for recognitionlay withinthe contextof rock and was basedon a heretical
break with the previousgeneration(unlike the "sixties"musicianswhose attitudeto the
rock'n'roll"pioneers"was a moreorthodoxone).
The productionof meaningapparatussaw in punk an artisticideology of primitivism
and minimalism, which paralleled,in its view, artistic movementsuch as Dada in the
that
1920s (Laing 1985;Marcus1989).Notablecontributionsof punkrock"masterpieces"
are cited in critic-polls and in record guides are Never Mind the Bollocks, Here's the Sex

Pistols (1977, The Sex Pistols),TheClash(1977, The Clash),Horses (1975, PattiSmith)

and This YearModel (1978, Elvis Costello).
Eminentfiguresin the historyof rock music, whose recordshave been consecratedas
"masterpieces"althoughtheyarenotdirectlyassociatedwitheachof thethree"momentsof
authenticity"arethe groupPinkFloydwiththeiralbumDarkSide of theMoon(1973;as an
or "art"rockgenre),the groupLed Zeppelinwith
exponentof the so-called "progressive"
theirfourthuntitledalbum(1971) andBruceSpringsteenandhis albumBornto Run(1975).
It shouldbe stressedherethattheaboveschemepresentsrockas mostly"white"music.A
exists for "black"musicwhichis usuparallelhistory,with a slightlydifferentperiodization,
of "black"
The
most
under
the
umbrella
of
rock.
subsumed
distinguishedcontribrutions
ally
music to the classic corpus of rock includeOtis Blue (1965, Otis Redding),Live at the
Apollo (1963, JamesBrown),Anthology(1977, thesong compilationby TheTemptations),
What's Going On (1970, Marvin Gaye) and Songs in the Key ofLife (1976, Stevie Wonder).

Also significantis the fact that women are rarelyaccordedthe statusof "great"rock
artist-rock music has been a reflectionof male hegemony(Shepherd1991). In addition
to PattiSmith, some of the few femalemusiciansin rockwhose workis granted"classic"
status includeJoni Mitchell (Courtand Spark 1974), Carole King (Tapestry,1971) and
Chrissie Hynde of the Pretenders(ThePretenders,1979).
The names listed above far fromexhaust the varietyof genres that exist within rock
music and they might also provokedisagreementbecause of inclusionsor omissions of
certainnames. The importantpointhereis thatthese namesrepresenta generalconsensus
within rock music's productionof meaningapparatus,and thatthey embodythe formula-

Producing Artistic Value

95

tion of a history of rock in termsof artisticevaluationand not necessarilyin terms of

commercial success. In other words, the belief in the cultural value of these names
representsthe claim of the believersin the meaningof rockmusic to recognizethatmusic
as an art form.
Aesthetic Genuineness
The consecrationof the abovementionedalbumsas "masterpieces"
and the evaluation
of albums in general involves pointing to componentsof the recordingas being the
carriersor signifiersof the meaningof the musicandof the musicians'committmentto it.
These componentsare thusconstructedas the genuineaestheticelementswith whichrock
artistscreatetheirart. Electricsound, studiowork, voice and lyrics, andstylistic eclecticism are fourtypicalandsalientcomponents.Consecrationof albumsrecurrentlyrefersto
theirsuccessfuland"authentic"
use as the tools withwhich"quality"is produced.This list
does not exhaust the aestheticcomponentsof rock, nor does it point to when and how
exactly theiruse produces"excellence".It does demonstratesthatby referringto themfor
assessing "authenticity",the evaluativediscourseof rock has implicitlyconstructedan
"aestheticgenuineness"conditionfor artistry.
ELECTRICSOUND.The volume, the noise level, the "dirty"anddistortedsoundthat
often emits from the soundsystemsof rock bandsor domesticequipmentare interpreted
by rock music's producersof meaningas the quintessentialexpressionof the anger,rage
and negation that this music embodies. Great musicians and masterpiecesare often
measuredaccording to their ability to create with their instrumentsand the attached
devices uniqueandsublimeemotionalthrill.Sound,and not harmonyor melodyis in fact
"thecentralaestheticcategoryof rock music"(Wicke 1987, p. 13). This is especiallythe
case with regardto the electricguitar,the instrumentclosely identifiedwith rock music.
The typicalrockgrouphas at leastone electricguitarist,andoften two. Jimi Hendrix,for
example, is consideredone of the greatestrock artistsever because of his talent and
accomplishmentsas a creatorof electricguitarsounds:
Hendrixis ... invitingyou to takea greatleapforward,to followhimintoa fourth
is a paintbrush,
wherefeedbackcan sing and
dimensionwhereFenderStratocaster
shriekwithpain(RollingStone507, August27, 1987,unsigned).
amplifiers
Organistsand synthesizersplayersarehailedfor theircompetenceas well. In the 1980s
sampler-playersand even record-playeroperators(DJ's) have also gained artisticstatus,
mostly in the contextof rapand otherdance music (Goodwin 1988).
STUDIO WORK.Already in the early stages of rock'n'roll, the musiciansdid not
perceive the studio merely as a technicalsite for the reproducionand recordingof the
"live" performance.They used it as a kind of laboratoryfor inventingsound and as a
workplacefor the carefulandrefinedconstructionof the sonic packagewhich is the song.
Elvis Presley'sfirstrecordingswere in fact such "inventions"of a new soundby producer
Sam Philips (see Marcus 1975). These practicesresult in recordedproductswhich are
hardlyreproducibleon stage.
of studioworkas an artisticendeavorbecamemorefocused followThe interpretation
ing the Beatles' recordings,and especially after the release of the Sgt. Pepper album:

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THESOCIOLOGICAL
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The Beatles' work came to be conceivedwith the studio in mind-all the production
valuesa mixing boardhadto offerwereusedto servethe ideasconveyedin theirmusic
...As time went on, the Beatles weren't so much songwritersas they were recordwriters,the studiobecamethe labwheremusicalideaswereexchanged,re-workedand
re-structuredfor tape (Riley 1987, p. 266).

The Beach Boys too, primarilywith their album Pet Sounds and their song "Good
Vibrations"(1966) have gainedhigh regardbecauseof the studio work investedin them
(Gillett 1983, p. 329).
As the site where sound is manipulated,constructedand moulded,the studioevolved
into a complex and key instrumentin the writingandcreationof rockmusic, renderingit
an "art of recording" (Clarke 1983).
LYRICS AND THE GRAIN OF THE VOICE. This term, generally associated with

Barthes'article(1977), refersto the idiosyncraticqualitiesof a singer'svoice, whichgive

his or her singing its uniquefeeling. In the contextof rock music, the grainof the voice
has become a prominentaestheticcomponentin the evaluationof music. The interpretation of singing as credibleand authentic,as reflectingthe performer'sgenuine emotions,
points to the singer's voice as evidence. Singing patternswhich use a uniquegrain of
voice, often one which traditionallywould not be acceptedas "singing"at all, mightbe
accepted in rock music as a pivotalcontributionto the qualityof the music. In the same
way sighs, whispers, screamsand shouts, gruntingand other vocal practicesmight be
interpretedin the contextof rockas signs of theperformer'semotionalcommitmentto the
meaningof the music. VanMorrison,for example,is generallyconsideredone of themost
importantrock musiciansever, due in largepartto the emotionalcommitmentperceived
by critics in his singing:
VanMorrison
hastheyarrrrragh.
Hiscareer,especiallysinceAstralWeeks,
canbeseen
as an attemptto deal withthe yarragh:to findmusicappropiateto it; to buryit; to dig it
out; to drawfromthatsound,thataesthetic,new tales to tell, or old tales to tell in new

ways.(Marcus1980,p. 322).
The grainof the voice becomesa muchmoresignificantfactorwhen it is coupledwith
words which might be interpretedas "serious".That is, when the wordscan be isolated
from theirperformanceand analyzedas writtentext, then rock lyrics might be presented
as "poetry"(Christgau1969). Bob Dylan is the preeminentexamplehere. His lyricsarea
majorcomponentin the attributionof his "greatness"and his contributionto the moulding
of rock as an artform. His songs aregenerallyconsideredas social andpoliticalcritiques,
and as complex and sophisticatedpersonalpoetry.Analysesof Dylan have depictedhim
not only as a personal talent, but as a masterof dispositions which place him in the
traditionsof Americanpoetryand high culture(Monaghan1973).
However,even with Dylan, it is generallyagreedamongcriticsandothersthatthevocal
presentationshould not be separatedfrom the words (Thomsonand Gutman1990). The
prevailingapproachamong producersof meaningis that isolatingrock lyrics fromtheir
performanceand subjectingthem to any form of content analysis, reduces theircompoundness of meaning. Rock lyrics should be examined, accordingto this view, in
conjunction with their performance and the sonic package of which they are a component

(Frith 1988a). Analyzed in this way, even simple and "banal"lyrics might be interpreted
as "sung poetry",as in the case of Buddy Holly (Laing 1971).
"banal"lyrics mightbe interpretedas "sungpoetry",as in the case of BuddyHolly (Laing
1971).

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Producing Artistic Value

1987). However, from the momentthat a typical rock sound was established,based on
electric instrumentsandtypicaldrumbeatpatterns,a kindof musicalcolonialismbeganto
take place, where differentmusicalgenres underwenta process of "rockization":their
adoption of and adaptationto rock patterns.Based on these adaptations,several subgenresof rockmusicevolved, eachcontributingits own "greatartists"and"masterpieces"
to the generalcorpusof rock.Thus, forexample,thealbumShootout theLights(1982) by
Richardand LindaThompsonis considereda rock"masterpiece"
becauseof its successful
combinationof folk music and rock into "folk rock".The same holds truefor the group
King Crimson(Red, 1974), for its successfulcombination-in rockterms-of traditional
and contemporaryclassical music,jazz and rock ("artrock"or "progressiverock").
Stylistic eclecticism, in otherwords, is a virtuein rockmusic. The abilityof musicians
to cross genres and musicallanguages,sometimeswithinthe same piece of music, while
preservingan authenticrock"drive"(as judged by critics)has becomean aestheticvalue
in rock music.
A recent developmentin rock electicism is the adoptionof non-Westernmusical languages by leadingrock musicians(PeterGabriel,TalkingHeads, Paul Simon) and adoption of rock patternsby local musiciansaroundthe globe (WallisandMalm 1984;Manuel
1988; Frith 1989; Campbell-Robinson,Buck, and Cuthbert1991; Regev 1992). The
resultingoutcomeof thesemergesis called "worldmusic"or "ethnicrock";the pioneering
example here is Jamaica'sreggaemusic, and the crowningof its leadingexponent, Bob
Marley,as an influentalrock musicianin the 1970s.
THECULTURAL
STATUSOF ROCK
In the last threedecades,then,the producersof meaninghavebeen applyingto rockmusic
the accepted parametersof artistry,formulatingtherebya claim for the recognitionof
popularmusic as an artform, withrockmusicas its artisticvanguard.The extentto which
this claim has been validatedshould be examinedin two contexts:the field of popular
music and the larger-fieldof culturalproduction.
In the field of popularmusic, rock music's claim for artistic supremacyhas been
realized, with the emergenceof rock aestheticas a majorcreativeforce and structuring
principle. An everpresentand constantlychangingfrontierof authenticityand artistryis
being nurturedby the critics. These frontiersare the mainsourcefor innovationsin style
and sound for the whole field of popularmusic. Musiciansand worksare definedas such
frontiersbecause in the sonic texturesthey create, in the lyrics they write, in theirability
as instrumentalistsand in the generaldrive of theirmusic, they express-with genuine
commitmentandemotionalintensity, accordingto the critics-meanings of negationand
refusal, celebrationsof immediatefun and pleasure.
scene
The enhancementof new frontiersduringthe 1980s (the American"alternative"
with groups like R.E.M and Sonic Youth,Britishgroupslike the Smiths and the Cure,
rap-musicwith groupslike PublicEnemyandRun-D.M.C)has thrustoccupantsof earlier
frontiersup to a definitive"classic"position. The logic andpracticeof the rock aesthetic
has thusconstructedan artistichierarchyof "old"and"new","high"and"low"in the field
on popularmusic. And as the recent phenomenonof "ethnicrock"demonstrates,the
emergentfield is an internationalone.
Recognitionof a culturalform as an art form in the field of culturalproductionmeans
the penetrationof the habitusof that form into the dominantculturalcapital (Bourdieu
1984; Lamontand Lareau1988).The traditionalcontentsof the dominantculturalcapital

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are embodied in the institutionsof art and academia. It follows that penetrationof the
cultural capital means the presenceof the particularculturalform in museums,performances in concerthalls, public fundingand referencesin "quality"magazinesandjournals. It also implies the emergenceof organizationalframeworksand "scientific"discourse in academia,which usually includesassessmentof the value of that form.
In this regard,the recognitionof rockmusicas an artformin the largerculturalfieldhas
been partial.Discourseaboutrock does exist in the art and culturecolumnsof "quality"
press and sophisticatedmagazines(see abovecitationfromArtforum).Rock musicis also
representedin the soundtracksof "art"films (see Wim Wenders'Wingsof Desire, for
example). However, except for a handfulof occasions, performancesof rock music in
classical-musicconcerthallsarea rarephenomenon,andpublicfundingof rock musicians
is almost unthinkable(these are estimationswhich shouldbe examinedempirically).The
academic discussion of popularand rock music is not autonomous.Althoughsuch a
discussion, theoreticalandempirical,did emerge, it is carriedout in "hosting"disciplines
and universitydepartments.
The culturalstatusof the music of the Beatles, the RollingStones, Bob Dylan andJimi
Hendrixin the last decadeof the twentiethcenturymightnot equalthatof Beethoven'sor
Mozart's, but it is relativelyhigh.
CONCLUSION
In this analysis, rockandpopularmusicjoin a list which also includesfilm and photography in the recent past, and literaturein the more distant past. When they originally
appeared,these culturalforms were traditionallyregarded-by the dominantpositionin
the cultural field-as inferiorand "non artistic".The struggle of their producersand
interpretershas enabled their recognitionas art and the consequentemergenceof their
specific fields, structuredby an artisticheirarchy.
At the root of these struggles, and at the bottom of the institutionalizedhierarchies,
stands the ideology of autonomousart. The belief in this ideology has been the central
motive behindthe culturalproducers'claim thatcertainformsare "art".Recentdevelopments in otherfields-advertising andfurniture-design
arerevelatoryexamples-suggest
that the belief in the ideology of autonomousart has been adoptedby theirproducersas
well. The implicationhere is thatit mightbe hypothesizedthatartistichierarchies,which
rankproducersaccordingto theiraestheticor expressivevalue, as judgedby "experts"in
the field, are becoming a central structuringforce in a growing numberof fields of
production.In light of thisexaminationof popularmusic, it seems thattheculturalfield is
currentlycharacterizednot so muchby an abandonmentof the belief in hierarchiesbased
on this ideology,but ratherby a struggleoverthe contentof the hierarchies.It is a struggle
to redefineaestheticcriteria.
In other words, the ideologyof autonomousart, which ranksculturalproductsaccording to their"expressivetruth"is still a structuringforce in the culturalfield. Its spreadto
fields where it has not been such a force, and its adoptionby producersin such fields,
might suggest thatthe belief in this ideologyhas become even morewidespread.Production of meaning apparatusesemerge and conduct struggles for the constitutionof new
aestheticcriteria,some of themeclectic, andfor the recognitionof culturalformsas "art".
The postmodernattackon traditionalaestheticcriteriaand on existing hierarchiesmight
be understoodas a strategyin these struggles.At the bottom, a belief in hierarchies,in
"high"and "low", in "valuable"and "valueless"still exists.

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Producing Artistic Value

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
A Post-Doctoralfellowship from the Ginsbergfoundationat the HebrewUniversityis
gratefullyacknowledged.The authorthanksTamarEl-Or, Eric Cohen, Paul DiMaggio,
Simon Frith, Zali Gurevitch,Ronen Shamir,Sasha Weitmanand three anonymousreviewers for their commentsand criticism.
APPENDIX
OF RECORDALBUMSMENTIONEDIN THEARTICLE
DISCOGRAPHY--LIST
BY NAMEOF PERFORMER
The Band. 1969. The Band. Capitol.
The Beach Boys. 1967. Pet Sounds.Capitol.
The Beatles. 1967. Sgt. Pepper'sLonelyHearts Club Band. Capitol.
JamesBrown. 1963. Live at the Apollo. King.
The Clash. 1977. The Clash. CBS(U.K.).
Elvis Costello. 1978. This Year'sModel. Columbia.
Bob Dylan. 1965. Highway61 Revisted.Columbia.
MarvinGaye. 1970. What'sGoing On. Tamla.
Jimi Hendrix. 1967. Are you Experiences?Reprise.
CaroleKing. 1971. Tapestry.Ode.
King Crimson. 1974. Red. Atlantic.
Led Zeppelin. 1971. (Untitled).Atlantic.
Joni Mitchell. 1974. Courtand Spark.Asylum.
VanMorrison. 1968. Astral Weeks.WarnerBrothers.
Pink Floyd. 1973. Dark Side of the Moon. Harvest.
Elvis Presley. 1976. The Sun Collection.RCA.
The Pretenders.1979. The Pretenders.Sire.
Otis Redding. 1965. Otis Blue. Volt.
The Rolling Stones. 1966. Aftermath.London.
The Rolling Stones. 1972. Exile on Main Street. Rolling Stones.
The Sex Pistols. 1977. Never Mindthe BollocksHere's the Sex Pistols. WarnerBrothers.
PattiSmith. 1975. Horses. Arista.
Bruce Springsteen. 1975. Bronto Run. Columbia.
The Temptations.1977. Anthology.Motown.
Richardand LindaThompson. 1982. Shoot Out the Lights. Hannibal.
The Velvet Underground.1967. The VelvetUndergroundand Nico. Verve.
The Who. 1971 Who'sNext. Decca.
Stevie Wonder. 1976. Songs in the Keyof Life. Tamla.

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