Toxicological Profiles - Chlorine Dioxide and Chlorite-U.S. Public Health Service

DRAFT
TOXICOLOGICAL PROFILE FOR

CHLORINE DIOXIDE AND CHLORITE
Prepared by:
Syracuse Research Corporation
Under Contract No. 205-1999-00024
Prepared for:
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES

Public Health Service
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
September 2002
***DRAFT FOR PUBLIC COMMENT***
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DISCLAIMER
The use of company or product name(s) is for identification only and does not imply endorsement by the
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry.
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UPDATE STATEMENT
Toxicological profiles are revised and republished as necessary, but no less than once every three years.
For information regarding the update status of previously released profiles, contact ATSDR at:
Division of Toxicology/Toxicology Information Branch
1600 Clifton Road NE, E-29
Atlanta, Georgia 30333
FOREWORD
This toxicological profile is prepared in accordance with guidelines developed by the Agency for
Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The
original guidelines were published in the Federal Register on April 17, 1987. Each profile will be revised
and republished as necessary.
The ATSDR toxicological profile succinctly characterizes the toxicologic and adverse health
effects information for the hazardous substance described therein. Each peer-reviewed profile identifies
and reviews the key literature that describes a hazardous substances toxicologic properties. Other
pertinent literature is also presented, but is described in less detail than the key studies. The profile is not
intended to be an exhaustive document; however, more comprehensive sources of specialty information are
referenced.
The focus of the profiles is on health and toxicologic information; therefore, each toxicological
profile begins with a public health statement that describes, in nontechnical language, a substances
relevant toxicological properties. Following the public health statement is information concerning levels of
significant human exposure and, where known, significant health effects. The adequacy of information to
determine a substances health effects is described in a health effects summary. Data needs that are of
significance to protection of public health are identified by ATSDR and EPA.
Each profile includes the following:
(A) The examination, summary, and interpretation of available toxicologic information and
epidemiologic evaluations on a hazardous substance to ascertain the levels of significant
human exposure for the substance and the associated acute, subacute, and chronic health
effects;
(B) A determination of whether adequate information on the health effects of each substance is
available or in the process of development to determine levels of exposure that present a
significant risk to human health of acute, subacute, and chronic health effects; and
(C) Where appropriate, identification of toxicologic testing needed to identify the types or levels
of exposure that may present significant risk of adverse health effects in humans.
The principal audiences for the toxicological profiles are health professionals at the Federal, State,
and local levels; interested private sector organizations and groups; and members of the public. We plan to
revise these documents in response to public comments and as additional data become available.
Therefore, we encourage comments that will make the toxicological profile series of the greatest use.
Comments should be sent to:
Division of Toxicology
1600 Clifton Road, N.E.
Mail Stop E-29
Atlanta, Georgia 30333
Background Information
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The toxicological profiles are developed in response to the Superfund Amendments and
Reauthorization Act (SARA) of 1986 (Public Law 99-499) which amended the Comprehensive
Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA or Superfund). This public
law directed ATSDR to prepare toxicological profiles for hazardous substances most commonly found at
facilities on the CERCLA National Priorities List and that pose the most significant potential threat to
human health, as determined by ATSDR and the EPA. The availability of the revised priority list of 275
hazardous substances was announced in the Federal Register on November 17, 1997 (62 FR 61332). For
prior versions of the list of substances, see Federal Register notices dated April 17, 1987 (52 FR 12866);
October 20, 1988 (53 FR 41280); October 26, 1989 (54 FR 43619); October 17, 1990 (55 FR 9486) and
April 29, 1996 (61 FR 18744). Section 104(i)(3) of CERCLA, as amended, directs the Administrator of
ATSDR to prepare a toxicological profile for each substance on the list.
This profile reflects ATSDRs assessment of all relevant toxicologic testing and information that
has been peer-reviewed. Staff of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and other Federal
scientists have also reviewed the profile. In addition, this profile has been peer-reviewed by a
nongovernmental panel and was made available for public review. Final responsibility for the contents and
views expressed in this toxicological profile resides with ATSDR.
Jeffrey P. Koplan, M.D., M.P.H.

Administrator
Agency for Toxic Substances and
Disease Registry
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QUICK REFERENCE FOR HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS

Toxicological Profiles are a unique compilation of toxicological information on a given hazardous
substance. Each profile reflects a comprehensive and extensive evaluation, summary, and interpretation of
available toxicologic and epidemiologic information on a substance. Health care providers treating patients
potentially exposed to hazardous substances will find the following information helpful for fast answers to
often-asked questions.
Primary Chapters/Sections of Interest

Chapter 1: Public Health Statement: The Public Health Statement can be a useful tool for educating
patients about possible exposure to a hazardous substance. It explains a substances relevant
toxicologic properties in a nontechnical, question-and-answer format, and it includes a review of
the general health effects observed following exposure.
Chapter 2: Relevance to Public Health: The Relevance to Public Health Section evaluates, interprets,
and assesses the significance of toxicity data to human health.
Chapter 3: Health Effects: Specific health effects of a given hazardous compound are reported by type of
health effect (death, systemic, immunologic, reproductive), by route of exposure, and by length of
exposure (acute, intermediate, and chronic). In addition, both human and animal studies are
reported in this section.
NOTE: Not all health effects reported in this section are necessarily observed in
the clinical setting. Please refer to the Public Health Statement to identify general
health effects observed following exposure.
Pediatrics: Four new sections have been added to each Toxicological Profile to address child health
issues:
Section 1.6
How Can (Chemical X) Affect Children?
Section 1.7
How Can Families Reduce the Risk of Exposure to (Chemical X)?
Section 3.7
Childrens Susceptibility
Section 6.6
Exposures of Children
Other Sections of Interest:
Section 3.8
Biomarkers of Exposure and Effect
Section 3.11 Methods for Reducing Toxic Effects
ATSDR Information Center
Phone: 1-888-42-ATSDR or (404) 498-0110
E-mail: atsdric@cdc.gov
Fax:
(404) 498-0057
Internet: http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov
The following additional material can be ordered through the ATSDR Information Center:
Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Taking an Exposure HistoryThe importance of taking an
exposure history and how to conduct one are described, and an example of a thorough exposure
history is provided. Other case studies of interest include Reproductive and Developmental
Hazards; Skin Lesions and Environmental Exposures; Cholinesterase-Inhibiting Pesticide
Toxicity; and numerous chemical-specific case studies.
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Managing Hazardous Materials Incidents is a three-volume set of recommendations for on-scene

(prehospital) and hospital medical management of patients exposed during a hazardous materials incident.
Volumes I and II are planning guides to assist first responders and hospital emergency department
personnel in planning for incidents that involve hazardous materials. Volume IIIMedical Management
Guidelines for Acute Chemical Exposuresis a guide for health care professionals treating patients
exposed to hazardous materials.
Fact Sheets (ToxFAQs) provide answers to frequently asked questions about toxic substances.
Other Agencies and Organizations

The National Center for Environmental Health (NCEH) focuses on preventing or controlling disease,
injury, and disability related to the interactions between people and their environment outside the
workplace. Contact: NCEH, Mailstop F-29, 4770 Buford Highway, NE, Atlanta, GA 303413724 Phone: 770-488-7000 FAX: 770-488-7015.
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) conducts research on occupational
diseases and injuries, responds to requests for assistance by investigating problems of health and
safety in the workplace, recommends standards to the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) and the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA), and trains
professionals in occupational safety and health. Contact: NIOSH, 200 Independence Avenue, SW,
Washington, DC 20201 Phone: 800-356-4674 or NIOSH Technical Information Branch, Robert
A. Taft Laboratory, Mailstop C-19, 4676 Columbia Parkway, Cincinnati, OH 45226-1998
Phone: 800-35-NIOSH.
The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) is the principal federal agency for
biomedical research on the effects of chemical, physical, and biologic environmental agents on
human health and well-being. Contact: NIEHS, PO Box 12233, 104 T.W. Alexander Drive,
Research Triangle Park, NC 27709 Phone: 919-541-3212.
Referrals
The Association of Occupational and Environmental Clinics (AOEC) has developed a network of clinics
in the United States to provide expertise in occupational and environmental issues. Contact:
AOEC, 1010 Vermont Avenue, NW, #513, Washington, DC 20005 Phone: 202-347-4976
FAX: 202-347-4950 e-mail: AOEC@AOEC.ORG Web Page: http://www.aoec.org/.
The American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine (ACOEM) is an association of
physicians and other health care providers specializing in the field of occupational and
environmental medicine. Contact: ACOEM, 55 West Seegers Road, Arlington Heights, IL 60005
Phone: 847-818-1800 FAX: 847-818-9266.
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CONTRIBUTORS
CHEMICAL MANAGER(S)/AUTHORS(S):
Jessilynn B. Taylor, M.S.
ATSDR, Division of Toxicology, Atlanta, GA
David Wohlers, Ph.D.
Syracuse Research Corporation, Syracuse, NY
Richard Amata, Ph.D.
Syracuse Research Corporation, Syracuse, NY
THE PROFILE HAS UNDERGONE THE FOLLOWING ATSDR INTERNAL REVIEWS:

1.
Health Effects Review. The Health Effects Review Committee examines the health effects chapter
of each profile for consistency and accuracy in interpreting health effects and classifying end
points.
2.
Minimal Risk Level Review. The Minimal Risk Level Workgroup considers issues relevant to
substance-specific minimal risk levels (MRLs), reviews the health effects database of each profile,
and makes recommendations for derivation of MRLs.
3.
Data Needs Review. The Research Implementation Branch reviews data needs sections to assure
consistency across profiles and adherence to instructions in the Guidance.
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PEER REVIEW
A peer review panel was assembled for chlorine dioxide and chlorite. The panel consisted of the following
members:
1.
Dr. Mohamed S. Abdel-Rahman, Professor of Pharmacology and Physiology, Director of

Toxicology, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ.
2.
Dr. Syed M. GhiasUddin, Toxicologist and Section Chief, Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry
Section, Indiana Department of Environmental Management, Indianapolis, IN.
3.
Dr. John S. Reif, Professor and Chairman, Department of Environmental Health, Colorado State
University, Ft. Collins, CO.
These experts collectively have knowledge of chlorine dioxide and chlorite's physical and chemical
properties, toxicokinetics, key health end points, mechanisms of action, human and animal exposure, and
quantification of risk to humans. All reviewers were selected in conformity with the conditions for peer
review specified in Section 104(I)(13) of the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and
Liability Act, as amended.
Scientists from the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) have reviewed the peer
reviewers' comments and determined which comments will be included in the profile. A listing of the peer
reviewers' comments not incorporated in the profile, with a brief explanation of the rationale for their
exclusion, exists as part of the administrative record for this compound. A list of databases reviewed and a
list of unpublished documents cited are also included in the administrative record.
The citation of the peer review panel should not be understood to imply its approval of the profile's final
content. The responsibility for the content of this profile lies with the ATSDR.
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CONTENTS
FOREWORD
QUICK REFERENCE FOR HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS
CONTRIBUTORS
PEER REVIEW
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES
1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT
1.1 WHAT ARE CHLORINE DIOXIDE AND CHLORITE?
1.2 WHAT HAPPENS TO CHLORINE DIOXIDE AND CHLORITE WHEN THEY ENTER THE
ENVIRONMENT?
1.3 HOW MIGHT I BE EXPOSED TO CHLORINE DIOXIDE AND CHLORITE?
1.4 HOW CAN CHLORINE DIOXIDE AND CHLORITE ENTER AND LEAVE MY BODY?
1.5 HOW CAN CHLORINE DIOXIDE AND CHLORITE AFFECT MY HEALTH?
1.6 HOW CAN CHLORINE DIOXIDE AND CHLORITE AFFECT CHILDREN?
1.7 HOW CAN FAMILIES REDUCE THE RISK OF EXPOSURE TO CHLORINE DIOXIDE
AND CHLORITE?
1.8 IS THERE A MEDICAL TEST TO DETERMINE WHETHER I HAVE BEEN EXPOSED TO
CHLORINE DIOXIDE AND CHLORITE?
1.9 WHAT RECOMMENDATIONS HAS THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT MADE TO
PROTECT HUMAN HEALTH?
1.10 WHERE CAN I GET MORE INFORMATION?
2. RELEVANCE TO PUBLIC HEALTH
2.1 BACKGROUND AND ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES TO CHLORINE DIOXIDE AND
CHLORITE IN THE UNITED STATES
2.2 SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS
2.3 MINIMAL RISK LEVELS (MRLs)
3. HEALTH EFFECTS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 DISCUSSION OF HEALTH EFFECTS BY ROUTE OF EXPOSURE
3.2.1
Inhalation Exposure
3.2.1.1 Death
3.2.1.2 Systemic Effects
3.2.1.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects
3.2.1.4 Neurological Effects
3.2.1.5 Reproductive Effects
3.2.1.6 Developmental Effects
3.2.1.7 Cancer
3.2.2
Oral Exposure
3.2.2.1 Death
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3.2.2.7 Cancer
3.2.3
Dermal Exposure
3.2.3.1 Death
3.2.3.7 Cancer
3.3 GENOTOXICITY
3.4 TOXICOKINETICS
3.4.1
Absorption
3.4.1.1 Inhalation Exposure
3.4.1.2 Oral Exposure
3.4.1.3 Dermal Exposure
3.4.2
Distribution
3.4.3
Metabolism
3.4.4
Elimination and Excretion
3.4.5
Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic (PBPK)/Pharmacodynamic (PD)
Models
3.5 MECHANISMS OF ACTION
3.5.1
Pharmacokinetic Mechanisms
3.5.2
Mechanisms of Toxicity
3.5.3
Animal-to-Human Extrapolations
3.6 TOXICITIES MEDIATED THROUGH THE NEUROENDOCRINE AXIS
3.7 CHILDRENS SUSCEPTIBILITY
3.8 BIOMARKERS OF EXPOSURE AND EFFECT
3.8.1
Biomarkers Used to Identify or Quantify Exposure to Chlorine Dioxide
and Chlorite
3.8.2
Biomarkers Used to Characterize Effects Caused by Chlorine Dioxide
and Chlorite
3.9 INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER CHEMICALS
3.10 POPULATIONS THAT ARE UNUSUALLY SUSCEPTIBLE
3.11 METHODS FOR REDUCING TOXIC EFFECTS
3.11.1 Reducing Peak Absorption Following Exposure
3.11.2 Reducing Body Burden
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3.11.3 Interfering with the Mechanism of Action for Toxic Effects

3.12 ADEQUACY OF THE DATABASE
3.12.1 Existing Information on Health Effects of Chlorine Dioxide and Chlorite
3.12.2 Identification of Data Needs
3.12.3 Ongoing Studies
4. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL INFORMATION
4.1 CHEMICAL IDENTITY
4.2 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
5. PRODUCTION, IMPORT/EXPORT, USE, AND DISPOSAL
5.1 PRODUCTION
5.2 IMPORT/EXPORT
5.3 USE
5.4 DISPOSAL
6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE
6.1 OVERVIEW
6.2 RELEASES TO THE ENVIRONMENT
6.2.1
Air
6.2.2
Water
6.2.3
Soil
6.3 ENVIRONMENTAL FATE
6.3.1
Transport and Partitioning
6.3.2
Transformation and Degradation
6.3.2.1 Air
6.3.2.2 Water
6.3.2.3 Sediment and Soil
6.3.2.4 Other Media
6.4 LEVELS MONITORED OR ESTIMATED IN THE ENVIRONMENT
6.4.1
Air
6.4.2
Water
6.4.3
Sediment and Soil
6.4.4
Other Environmental Media
6.5 GENERAL POPULATION AND OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE
6.6 EXPOSURES OF CHILDREN
6.7 POPULATIONS WITH POTENTIALLY HIGH EXPOSURES
6.8.1
Identification of Data Needs
6.8.2
Ongoing Studies
7. ANALYTICAL METHODS
7.1 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS
7.2 ENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLES
7.3.1
7.3.2
Ongoing Studies
8. REGULATIONS AND ADVISORIES
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9. REFERENCES
10. GLOSSARY
APPENDICES
A.
ATSDR MINIMAL RISK LEVELS AND WORKSHEETS
B.
USERS GUIDE
C.
ACRONYMS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND SYMBOLS
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LIST OF FIGURES
3-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to Chlorine Dioxide and ChloriteInhalation
3-2 Levels of Significant Exposure to Chlorine Dioxide and ChloriteOral
3-3 Conceptual Representation of a Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic (PBPK) Model for a
Hypothetical Chemical Substance
3-4 Existing Information on Health Effects of Chlorine Dioxide and Chlorite
6-1 Frequency of NPL Sites with Chlorine Dioxide and Chlorite Contamination
6-2 Percentage of POTW Facilities Reporting to ICR vs. Level of Chlorite in Distribution System Water
96
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LIST OF TABLES
3-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to Chlorine Dioxide and ChloriteInhalation
3-2 Levels of Significant Exposure to Chlorine Dioxide and ChloriteOral
4-1 Chemical Identity of Chlorine Dioxide and Sodium Chlorite
4-2 Physical and Chemical Properties of Chlorine Dioxide and Sodium Chlorite
5-1 Facilities that Produce, Process, or Use Chlorine Dioxide
5-2 Publically Owned Treatment Works (POTW) Utilizing Chlorine Dioxide for Water Treatment in
1995
6-1 Releases to the Environment from Facilities that Produce, Process, or Use Chlorine Dioxide
6-2 Occurrence of Chlorite and Chlorate Ions in Finished Water From Utilities That Use Chlorine
Dioxide
6-3 Chlorine Speciation in Aqueous Solutions
7-1 Analytical Methods for Determining Chlorine Dioxide and Chlorite in Environmental
Samples
7-2 Ongoing Studies on Analytical Methods for Chlorine Dioxide and Chlorite
8-1 Regulations and Guidelines Applicable to Chlorine Dioxide and Chlorite

This public health statement tells you about chlorine dioxide and chlorite and the effects of
exposure.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) identifies the most serious hazardous waste sites in
the nation. These sites make up the National Priorities List (NPL) and are the sites targeted for
long-term federal cleanup activities. Chlorine dioxide and chlorite have not been found in any of
the 1,613 current or former NPL sites. However, the total number of NPL sites evaluated for
chlorine dioxide and chlorite is not known. As more sites are evaluated, the sites at which
chlorine dioxide and chlorite are found may increase. This information is important because
exposure to chlorine dioxide and chlorite (or chlorine dioxide by-products or derivatives) may
harm you and because these sites may be sources of exposure.
When a substance is released from a large area, such as an industrial plant, or from a container,
such as a drum or bottle, it enters the environment. This release does not always lead to
exposure. You are exposed to a substance only when you come in contact with it. You may be
exposed by breathing, eating, or drinking the substance, or by skin contact.
If you are exposed to chlorine dioxide and chlorite, many factors determine whether youll be
harmed. These factors include the dose (how much), the duration (how long), and how you come
in contact with them. You must also consider the other chemicals youre exposed to and your
age, sex, diet, family traits, lifestyle, and state of health.
1.1 WHAT ARE CHLORINE DIOXIDE AND CHLORITE?
Chlorine dioxide is a yellow to reddish-yellow gas that can decompose rapidly in air. Because it is
a hazardous gas, chlorine dioxide is always made at the place where it is used. Chlorine dioxide is
used as a bleach at pulp mills, which make paper and paper products, and in public water
treatment facilities, to make water safe to drink. In 2001, chlorine dioxide was used to
decontaminate a number of public buildings following the release of anthrax spores in the United
States. Chlorine dioxide is soluble in water and will rapidly react with other compounds. When it
reacts in water, chlorine dioxide will form chlorite ion, which is also a very reactive compound.
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Because chlorine dioxide is a very reactive chemical, it is able to kill bacteria and microorganisms
in water. About 5% of large water treatment facilities (serving more than 100,000 people) in the
United States use chlorine dioxide to treat drinking water. It is estimated that about 12 million
people may be exposed in this way to chlorine dioxide and chlorite ions. In communities that use
chlorine dioxide to treat water for drinking uses, chlorine dioxide and its by-product, chlorite ions,
may be present at low levels in tap water.
In this profile, the term chlorite will be used to refer to chlorite ion, which is a water-soluble
ion. Chlorite ion will combine with metal ions to form solid salts, (e.g., sodium chlorite). In
water, sodium chlorite is soluble and will dissolve to form chlorite ions and sodium ions. More
than 80% of all chlorite (as sodium chlorite) is used to make chlorine dioxide to disinfect drinking
water. Sodium chlorite is also used as a disinfectant to kill germs.
1.2 WHAT HAPPENS TO CHLORINE DIOXIDE AND CHLORITE WHEN THEY
ENTER THE ENVIRONMENT?
Chlorine dioxide is a very reactive compound and will not exist in the environment for long
periods of time. In air, sunlight will quickly break apart chlorine dioxide into chlorine gas and
oxygen. In water, chlorine dioxide will react quickly to form chlorite ions. In water treatment
systems, chlorine dioxide will not form certain harmful compounds (e.g., trihalomethanes) when it
reacts with dissolved organic compounds. Chlorine dioxide does form other disinfection byproducts, such as chlorite and chlorate ions.
Like chlorine dioxide, chlorite is a very reactive compound. Since chlorite is an ion, it will not
exist in air. In water, chlorite ions will be mobile and may move into groundwater. However,
reaction with soils and sediments may reduce the concentration of chlorite ions capable of
reaching groundwater. For additional information about what happens to chlorine dioxide and
chlorite when they enter the environment, see Chapter 6.
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1.3 HOW MIGHT I BE EXPOSED TO CHLORINE DIOXIDE AND CHLORITE?

Chlorine dioxide is added to drinking water to protect people from harmful bacteria and other
microorganisms. Most people will be exposed to chlorine dioxide and its disinfection by-product,
chlorite ions, when they drink water that has been treated with chlorine dioxide. The EPA has set
the maximum concentration of chlorine dioxide and chlorite ion in drinking water at 0.8 and
1.0 milligrams per liter (mg/L), respectively. However, the concentrations of chlorine dioxide and
chlorite ion in your drinking water may be lower or higher than these levels. For additional
information about how you might be exposed to chlorine dioxide and chlorite, see Chapter 6.
1.4 HOW CAN CHLORINE DIOXIDE AND CHLORITE ENTER AND LEAVE MY
BODY?
Chlorine dioxide and chlorite usually enter the body when people drink water that has been
disinfected with chlorine dioxide. It is not likely that you would breathe air containing dangerous
levels of chlorine dioxide, but if you did, it could be absorbed across your lungs. You are not
likely to encounter chlorite in the air you breathe. It is not known whether chlorine dioxide or
chlorite on your skin would be absorbed to any great extent.
Both chlorine dioxide and chlorite act quickly when they enter the body. Chlorine dioxide quickly
changes to chlorite ions, which are broken down further into chloride ions. These ions are used
by the body for many normal purposes. Some of these chloride ions leave the body within hours
to days, mainly in the urine. Most of the chlorite that is not broken down also leaves the body in
the urine within a few days following exposure to chlorine dioxide or chlorite.
1.5 HOW CAN CHLORINE DIOXIDE AND CHLORITE AFFECT MY HEALTH?
Both chlorine dioxide and chlorite react quickly in water or moist body tissues. If you were to
breathe air containing chlorine dioxide gas, you might experience irritation in your nose, throat,
and lungs. If you were to eat or drink large amounts of chlorine dioxide or chlorite, you might
experience irritation in the mouth, esophagus, or stomach. Most people will not be exposed to
chlorine dioxide or chlorite in amounts large enough to damage other parts of the body, but if you
4
were, you might experience shortness of breath and other respiratory problems from damage to
substances in the blood that move oxygen throughout the body.
To protect the public from the harmful effects of toxic chemicals and to find ways to treat people
who have been harmed, scientists use many tests.
One way to see if a chemical will hurt people is to learn how the chemical is absorbed, used, and
released by the body; for some chemicals, animal testing may be necessary. Animal testing may
also be used to identify health effects such as cancer or birth defects. Without laboratory animals,
scientists would lose a basic method to get information needed to make wise decisions to protect
public health. Scientists have the responsibility to treat research animals with care and
compassion. Laws today protect the welfare of research animals, and scientists must comply with
strict animal care guidelines.
Animal studies show effects of chlorine dioxide and chlorite that are similar to those seen in
people exposed to very high amounts of these chemicals. In addition, exposure to chlorine
dioxide and chlorite in animals both before birth and during early development after birth may
cause delays in the development of the brain.
1.6 HOW CAN CHLORINE DIOXIDE AND CHLORITE AFFECT CHILDREN?
This section discusses potential health effects from exposures during the period from conception
to maturity at 18 years of age in humans.
Children exposed to large amounts of chlorine dioxide or chlorite would be expected to be
affected in the same manner as adults. Exposure to chlorine dioxide gas might more quickly
reduce the ability of the blood to carry oxygen in young children than adults, making breathing
more difficult. If infants or babies still in their mothers womb were exposed to large amounts of
chlorine dioxide, it might cause parts of their brains to develop more slowly. This has been seen
in young animals, but has not actually been seen in humans.
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1.7 HOW CAN FAMILIES REDUCE THE RISK OF EXPOSURE TO CHLORINE

DIOXIDE AND CHLORITE?
If your doctor finds that you have been exposed to significant amounts of chlorine dioxide and
chlorite, ask whether your children might also be exposed. Your doctor might need to ask your
state health department to investigate.
Families that drink water treated with chlorine dioxide may reduce the risk of exposure to chlorine
dioxide and chlorite ions by drinking bottled water that has not been treated with chlorine dioxide
or chlorite ions.
1.8 IS THERE A MEDICAL TEST TO DETERMINE WHETHER I HAVE BEEN
EXPOSED TO CHLORINE DIOXIDE AND CHLORITE?
Although no medical tests are available to determine whether you have been exposed to chlorine
dioxide or chlorite, exposure to very large amounts may result in damage to red blood cells that
may be observed through routine blood tests.
1.9 WHAT RECOMMENDATIONS HAS THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT MADE TO
PROTECT HUMAN HEALTH?
The federal government develops regulations and recommendations to protect public health.
Regulations can be enforced by law. Federal agencies that develop regulations for toxic
substances include the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA), and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA).
Recommendations provide valuable guidelines to protect public health but cannot be enforced by
law. Federal organizations that develop recommendations for toxic substances include the
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) and the National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).
Regulations and recommendations can be expressed in not-to-exceed levels in air, water, soil, or
food that are usually based on levels that affect animals; then they are adjusted to help protect
people. Sometimes these not-to-exceed levels differ among federal organizations because of
6
different exposure times (an 8-hour workday or a 24-hour day), the use of different animal
studies, or other factors.
Recommendations and regulations are also periodically updated as more information becomes
available. For the most current information, check with the federal agency or organization that
provides it. Some regulations and recommendations for chlorine dioxide and chlorite include the
following:
OSHA regulates the level of chlorine dioxide in workplace air. The occupational exposure limit
for an 8-hour workday, 40-hour workweek is 0.1 parts per million (0.28 milligrams per cubic
meter [mg/m3]). The EPA has set a maximum contaminant level of 1 milligram per liter (mg/L)
for chlorite in drinking water and a goal of 0.8 mg/L for both the maximum residual disinfectant
level for chlorine dioxide and the maximum contaminant level for chlorite in drinking water
treated with chlorine dioxide as a disinfectant.
For more information on regulations and guidelines, see Chapter 8.
1.10
WHERE CAN I GET MORE INFORMATION?
If you have any more questions or concerns, please contact your community or state health or
environmental quality department or
Division of Toxicology
1600 Clifton Road NE, Mailstop E-29
Atlanta, GA 30333
Web site: http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov
* Information line and technical assistance
Phone: 1-888-42-ATSDR (1-888-422-8737)
Fax: 1-404-498-0057
ATSDR can also tell you the location of occupational and environmental health clinics. These
clinics specialize in recognizing, evaluating, and treating illnesses resulting from exposure to
hazardous substances.
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* To order toxicological profiles, contact

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2.1 BACKGROUND AND ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES TO CHLORINE DIOXIDE AND
CHLORITE IN THE UNITED STATES
Chlorine dioxide is a yellow to reddish-yellow gas that can decompose rapidly in air if it is present at high
concentrations. Because it is a hazardous gas, chlorine dioxide is always made at the place where it is
used. Chlorine dioxide is used as a bleach at pulp mills to make paper and paper products, and in publiclyowned treatment works (POTW) as a disinfectant for drinking water. In 2001, chlorine dioxide was used
to decontaminate a number of public buildings following the release of anthrax spores in the United States.
Chlorine dioxide is a very reactive compound and will not exist in the environment for long periods of time.
In air, chlorine dioxide will dissociate in sunlight into chlorine gas and oxygen. Chlorine dioxide, a strong
oxidizer, will react quickly in water to form by-products such as chlorite ions.
EPA has set the maximum concentration of chlorine dioxide and chlorite ion for drinking waters at 0.8 and
1.0 mg/L, respectively. However, the concentrations of chlorine dioxide and chlorite ion in drinking water
may be higher or lower than these levels.
Human exposure to chlorine dioxide and its by-products (e.g., chlorite ion) occurs primarily by ingestion of
drinking water. People who live in communities where chlorine dioxide is used in drinking water treatment
have a greater probability of exposure to chlorine dioxide and chlorite ions than individuals who do not.
About 5% of the water treatment facilities serving more than 100,000 people in the United States use
chlorine dioxide to treat drinking water. This would translate to about 12 million people who may be
exposed to chlorine dioxide and chlorite ions in the United States. However, the total number people
exposed will be higher if smaller facilities (i.e., those serving less than 50,000 people) are also included in
this value.
2.2 SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS
Available human and animal data indicate that airborne chlorine dioxide (ClO2) primarily acts as a
respiratory tract and ocular irritant. Chlorite (ClO2-) does not persist in the atmosphere either in ionic form
or as chlorite salt, and is not likely to be inhaled. Potential for human exposure to chlorine dioxide or
chlorite may be greatest via the oral exposure route because chlorine dioxide is sometimes used as a
10
disinfectant for drinking water. Available human and animal data indicate that oral exposure to relatively
large amounts of chlorine dioxide or chlorite may result in irritation of the digestive tract, the severity of
which is likely to be dose-dependent. In addition, high-level oral exposure results in increased levels of
methemoglobin in the blood, which reduces the ability of oxygen to bind with hemoglobin.
Other hematological changes have been observed in animals exposed to chlorine dioxide and chlorite.
However, the degree of reported changes does not appear to be dependent upon the amount of exposure,
and the toxicological significance of such changes is not clear. Nor has the toxicological significance of
changes in thyroid hormone levels in the blood been established.
Both chlorine dioxide and chlorite appear to induce delays in neurodevelopment, as evidenced by delayed
brain growth, decreased locomotor and exploratory behavior, and altered auditory startle response in
animals exposed during critical periods of neurodevelopment. It is not known whether similar chlorine
dioxide- or chlorite-induced neurodevelopmental effects might occur in humans.
Limited carcinogenicity data for chlorine dioxide and chlorite do not indicate a particular cancer concern,
but adequate animal cancer bioassays have not been performed. Genotoxicity testing has produced mixed
results. Chlorine dioxide and chlorite do not appear to be reproductive toxicants.
Neurodevelopmental effects appear to be of greatest toxicological concern, particularly in light of the fact
that chlorine dioxide and chlorite may be used as disinfectants for drinking water. Therefore, the following
brief discussion includes only developmental effects. The reader is referred to Section 3.2, Discussion of
Health Effects by Route of Exposure, for additional information regarding the potential for other chlorine
dioxide- or chlorite-induced health effects.
Developmental Effects.
Neurodevelopmental effects, such as decreases in brain weight, brain cell
number, exploratory behavior, and locomotor activity, have been observed in rat pups whose mothers were
exposed to chlorine dioxide before mating and during gestation and lactation and other rat pups that were
directly exposed via oral gavage only during postnatal development. Decreases in exploratory behavior and
amplitude of auditory startle response have been reported in rat pups whose mothers were orally exposed to
chlorite during gestation and lactation. Perinatal exposure to chlorine dioxide or chlorite has also resulted
in altered serum thyroid hormone levels or activity. Although mechanisms of action responsible for
mediating these chlorine dioxide- and chlorite-mediated thyroid hormone effects have not been identified, it
11
is widely understood that the thyroid hormone, T3, is essential for normal development of the nervous
system, and that T3 is synthesized from the deiodination of T4.
2.3 MINIMAL RISK LEVELS (MRLs)
Inhalation MRLs
An acute-duration inhalation MRL was not derived for chlorine dioxide because adequate human or animal
data are not available.
No inhalation MRLs were derived for chlorite. The only available information regarding health effects
following inhalation exposure to chlorite was limited to a single study of lethality in rats exposed to
aerosols of sodium chlorite, an exposure scenario not likely to be encountered in environmental or
occupational settings. Furthermore, lethality is a serious effect, and therefore cannot be used as the basis
for deriving an MRL.
An MRL of 0.001 ppm (0.003 mg/m3) has been derived for intermediate-duration inhalation
exposure (15365 days) to chlorine dioxide.
This MRL is based on a lowest-observed-adverse-effect-level (LOAEL) of 1 ppm for respiratory effects in

rats. Paulet and Desbrousses (1970) exposed groups of 10 rats/sex (strain not specified) to chlorine
dioxide vapors at concentrations of 0 or 2.5 ppm, 7 hours/day for 30 days. The weekly exposure frequency
was not reported. Chlorine dioxide-exposed rats exhibited respiratory effects that included lymphocytic
infiltration of the alveolar spaces, alveolar vascular congestion, hemorrhagic alveoli, epithelial erosions,
and inflammatory infiltrations of the bronchi. The study authors also reported slightly decreased body
weight gain, decreased erythrocyte levels, and increased leukocyte levels, relative to controls. Recovery
from the pulmonary lesions was apparent in rats examined after a 15-day recovery period. In a follow-up
study designed to examine a lower exposure level (Paulet and Desbrousses 1972), eight Wistar rats (sex
not reported) were exposed to chlorine dioxide vapors at a concentration of 1 ppm, 5 hours/day,
5 days/week for 2 months. The authors stated that weight gain and erythrocyte and leukocyte levels were
not affected, but concurrent control data were not presented. Chlorine dioxide-induced respiratory effects
included peribronchiolar edema and vascular congestion in the lungs. No alterations in epithelium or
parenchyma were seen.
12
Collectively, these studies adequately identify a LOAEL for respiratory effects associated with
intermediate-duration inhalation exposure to chlorine dioxide. The intermediate-duration inhalation MRL
for chlorine dioxide was based on the LOAEL of 1 ppm identified in the Paulet and Desbrousses (1972)
study, which was adjusted to 0.15 ppm (LOAELADJ) to compensate for intermittent exposure, converted to
the human equivalent concentration (LOAELHEC) of 0.3 ppm, and then divided by an uncertainty factor of
300 (3 for interspecies extrapolation using dosimetric adjustments, 10 for the use of a LOAEL, and 10 to
account for sensitive populations).
A chronic-duration inhalation MRL was not derived for chlorine dioxide because chronic inhalation
exposure studies in humans or animals are not available. An approach using an uncertainty factor for
extrapolating from intermediate- to chronic-duration exposure was not used because it is not known
whether respiratory irritation, observed during intermediate-duration inhalation exposure to chlorine
dioxide, might result in more persistent effects in cases of chronic-duration exposure. Furthermore, it is not
likely that humans would be chronically exposed to significant concentrations of chlorine dioxide vapors in
environmental or occupational settings.
Oral MRLs
Acute-duration oral MRLs were not derived for chlorine dioxide or chlorite because adequate human or
animal data are not available.
An MRL of 0.1 mg/kg/day has been derived for intermediate-duration oral exposure
(15364 days) to chlorite.
This MRL is based on a no-observed-adverse-effect-level (NOAEL) of 2.9 mg chlorite/kg/day and a

LOAEL of 5.7 mg chlorite/kg/day for neurodevelopmental effects (lowered auditory startle amplitude) in
rat pups that had been exposed throughout gestation and lactation via their mothers (Gill et al. 2000).
Groups of 30 male and 30 female Sprague-Dawley rats (F0) received sodium chlorite in the drinking water
at concentrations of 35, 70, or 300 mg/L (approximate chlorite doses of 3, 5.7, and 21 mg/kg/day for males
and 3.9, 7.6, and 29 mg/kg/day for females) for 10 weeks prior to mating and during mating, after which
exposure of females continued throughout gestation and lactation. Groups of F1 pups were continued on
the same treatment regimen as their parents (chlorite doses of 2.9, 6, and 23 mg/kg/day and 3.9, 7.6, and
29 mg/kg/day for F1 males and females, respectively). Low-dose female pups exhibited slight, but
statistically significant differences in some hematological parameters, relative to controls. No other effects
13
were seen in pups of this exposure level, and the hematological effects were not considered to be adverse.
A significant decrease in maximum response to an auditory startle stimulus was noted in mid-dose pups on
postnatal day 24, but not on postnatal day 60. Mid-dose F1 pups also exhibited reduced liver weight.
Significant effects at high dose included reduced absolute and relative liver weight in F1 males and females,
reduced pup survival, reduced body weight at birth and throughout lactation in F1 and F2 rats, lower
thymus and spleen weight in both generations, lowered incidence of pups exhibiting normal righting reflex
and with eyes open on postnatal day 15, decreased in absolute brain weight for F1 males and F2 females,
delayed sexual development in F1 and F2 males (preputial separation) and F1 and F2 females (vaginal
opening), and lowered red blood cell parameters in F1 rats. The NOAEL of 2.9 mg/kg/day was divided by
an uncertainty factor of 30 (10 for interspecies extrapolation and 3 to account for sensitive populations).
An uncertainty factor of 3 rather than 10 was used for sensitive populations because the critical effect
(neurodevelopmental delay) occurred in a sensitive population (perinatal rat pups).
Chlorine dioxide in drinking water rapidly degrades to chlorite (Michael et al. 1981). In laboratory
animals, orally administered chlorine dioxide is rapidly converted to chlorite and chloride ion (AbdelRahman et al. 1980b). Being both a strong oxidizer and water soluble, chlorine dioxide is not likely
absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract to any great extent. Chlorite is the most likely source of systemic
toxicity resulting from oral exposure to either chlorine dioxide or chlorite. Therefore, the intermediateduration oral MRL derived for chlorite should also be applicable to chlorine dioxide.
Chronic-duration oral MRLs were not derived for chlorine dioxide or chlorite. No human studies were
available in which chronic oral exposure to chlorine dioxide or chlorite were evaluated, and available
chronic-duration oral studies in animals identified LOAELs that were higher than those observed for
developmental effects following exposures of significantly shorter duration.
15
3. HEALTH EFFECTS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The primary purpose of this chapter is to provide public health officials, physicians, toxicologists, and
other interested individuals and groups with an overall perspective on the toxicology of chlorine dioxide and
chlorite. It contains descriptions and evaluations of toxicological studies and epidemiological investigations
and provides conclusions, where possible, on the relevance of toxicity and toxicokinetic data to public
health.
A glossary and list of acronyms, abbreviations, and symbols can be found at the end of this profile.
3.2 DISCUSSION OF HEALTH EFFECTS BY ROUTE OF EXPOSURE
To help public health professionals and others address the needs of persons living or working near
hazardous waste sites, the information in this section is organized first by route of exposure (inhalation,
oral, and dermal) and then by health effect (death, systemic, immunological, neurological, reproductive,
developmental, genotoxic, and carcinogenic effects). These data are discussed in terms of three exposure
periods: acute (14 days or less), intermediate (15364 days), and chronic (365 days or more).
Levels of significant exposure for each route and duration are presented in tables and illustrated in figures.
The points in the figures showing no-observed-adverse-effect levels (NOAELs) or lowest-observedadverse-effect levels (LOAELs) reflect the actual doses (levels of exposure) used in the studies. LOAELS
have been classified into "less serious" or "serious" effects. "Serious" effects are those that evoke failure in
a biological system and can lead to morbidity or mortality (e.g., acute respiratory distress or death). "Less
serious" effects are those that are not expected to cause significant dysfunction or death, or those whose
significance to the organism is not entirely clear. ATSDR acknowledges that a considerable amount of
judgment may be required in establishing whether an end point should be classified as a NOAEL, "less
serious" LOAEL, or "serious" LOAEL, and that in some cases, there will be insufficient data to decide
whether the effect is indicative of significant dysfunction. However, the Agency has established guidelines
and policies that are used to classify these end points. ATSDR believes that there is sufficient merit in this
approach to warrant an attempt at distinguishing between "less serious" and "serious" effects. The
distinction between "less serious" effects and "serious" effects is considered to be important because it helps
16
3. HEALTH EFFECTS
the users of the profiles to identify levels of exposure at which major health effects start to appear.
LOAELs or NOAELs should also help in determining whether or not the effects vary with dose and/or
duration, and place into perspective the possible significance of these effects to human health.
The significance of the exposure levels shown in the Levels of Significant Exposure (LSE) tables and
figures may differ depending on the user's perspective. Public health officials and others concerned with
appropriate actions to take at hazardous waste sites may want information on levels of exposure associated
with more subtle effects in humans or animals (LOAELs) or exposure levels below which no adverse
effects (NOAELs) have been observed. Estimates of levels posing minimal risk to humans (Minimal Risk
Levels or MRLs) may be of interest to health professionals and citizens alike.
Estimates of exposure levels posing minimal risk to humans (MRLs) have been made for chlorine dioxide
and chlorite. An MRL is defined as an estimate of daily human exposure to a substance that is likely to be
without an appreciable risk of adverse effects (noncarcinogenic) over a specified duration of exposure.
MRLs are derived when reliable and sufficient data exist to identify the target organ(s) of effect or the most
sensitive health effect(s) for a specific duration within a given route of exposure. MRLs are based on
noncancerous health effects only and do not consider carcinogenic effects. MRLs can be derived for acute,
intermediate, and chronic duration exposures for inhalation and oral routes. Appropriate methodology does
not exist to develop MRLs for dermal exposure.
Although methods have been established to derive these levels (Barnes and Dourson 1988; EPA 1990),
uncertainties are associated with these techniques. Furthermore, ATSDR acknowledges additional
uncertainties inherent in the application of the procedures to derive less than lifetime MRLs. As an
example, acute inhalation MRLs may not be protective for health effects that are delayed in development or
are acquired following repeated acute insults, such as hypersensitivity reactions, asthma, or chronic
bronchitis. As these kinds of health effects data become available and methods to assess levels of
significant human exposure improve, these MRLs will be revised.
A User's Guide has been provided at the end of this profile (see Appendix B). This guide should aid in the
interpretation of the tables and figures for Levels of Significant Exposure and the MRLs.
17
3. HEALTH EFFECTS
3.2.1
Inhalation Exposure
Available human and animal data indicate that airborne chlorine dioxide (ClO2) primarily acts as a
respiratory tract and ocular irritant. Chlorite (ClO2-) does not persist in the atmosphere either in ionic form
or as chlorite salt. Available information concerning health effects associated with inhalation exposure is
limited to chlorine dioxide.
3.2.1.1 Death
Information regarding death in humans exposed to atmospheres of chlorine dioxide is limited to a single
case in which a bleach tank worker died after being exposed to an airborne chlorine dioxide concentration
of 52 mg/m3 (18.5 ppm) for an unspecified amount of time (Elkins 1959).
Limited information is available regarding death in laboratory animals exposed to atmospheres of chlorine
dioxide. Death resulted from the exposure of a single guinea pig for 44 minutes to an airborne chlorine
dioxide concentration of 150 ppm (420 mg/m3); at the same concentration, exposure for 5 or 15 minutes
was not lethal (Haller and Northgraves 1955).
Dalhamn (1957) exposed four rats to approximately 260 ppm (728 mg/m3) of chlorine dioxide for 2 hours.
One of the rats died during exposure and the remaining three rats were sacrificed immediately following the
2-hour exposure period. Microscopic examination revealed pulmonary edema and circulatory
engorgement. Dalhamn (1957) also reported death in three of five rats exposed to approximately 10 ppm
(28 mg/m3) of chlorine dioxide, 4 hours/day for up to nine exposures in a 13-day period; clinical signs of
toxicity included rhinorrhea and altered respiration.
In another study, rats were repeatedly exposed for 1 month (15 minutes/exposure, 2 or 4 times/day) to
atmospheres containing 15 ppm (42 mg/m3) of chlorine dioxide (Paulet and Desbrousses 1974). Death was
noted in 1/10 and 1/15 rats exposed 2 or 4 times/day, respectively. Histological examination of the
exposed rats revealed nasal and ocular inflammation, bronchitis, and alveolar lesions. No deaths occurred
in rats similarly exposed to 10 ppm (28 mg/m3) of chlorine dioxide.
18
3. HEALTH EFFECTS

The highest NOAEL values and all LOAEL values from each reliable study for each systemic effect in
each species and duration are recorded in Table 3-1 and plotted in Figure 3-1.
No reports were located in which gastrointestinal, musculoskeletal, endocrine, dermal, or metabolic effects
were associated with inhalation exposure of humans or animals to chlorine dioxide or chlorite.
Respiratory Effects.
Limited human data indicate that airborne chlorine dioxide is a primary
respiratory tract irritant. In a case of accidental inhalation exposure to chlorine dioxide in the paper
industry, exposure to 5 ppm (14 mg/m3) for an unspecified amount of time resulted in signs of respiratory
irritation (Elkins 1959). In another case report, a woman experienced coughing, pharyngeal irritation, and
headache while mixing a bleach solution that was then used to bleach dried flowers (Exner-Freisfeld et al.
1986). The mixing process resulted in the release of chlorine dioxide. Increasing cough caused the woman
to abandon the bleaching process. Seven hours later, the woman began experiencing intensified coughing
and dyspnea that resulted in hospitalization (16 hours after the exposure) with clinical findings of cough,
dyspnea, tachypnea, and rales. Pulmonary function tests revealed reduced VC (vital capacity) and FEV1
(forced expiratory volume in 1 second) values and increased resistance. Blood gas analysis and blood
chemistry revealed hypoxemia and leukocytosis, respectively. Corticosteroid treatment resulted in the
alleviation of clinical signs and improved lung function, which was in the normal range at the 2-year
follow-up examination.
Nasal abnormalities (including injection, telangectasia, paleness, cobblestoning, edema, and thick mucus)
were observed in 13 individuals (1 man and 12 women) who had been accidently exposed to chlorine
dioxide from a leak in a water purification system pipe 5 years earlier (Meggs et al. 1996). These
individuals also exhibited sensitivity to respiratory irritants. Nasal biopsies revealed chronic inflammation
in the lamina propria of 11/13 chlorine dioxide-exposed individuals, compared with 1/3 control individuals.
The severity of inflammation was significantly increased in the chlorine dioxide exposed group, compared
to controls.
Several investigators examined the respiratory health of workers who had been occasionally exposed to
increased levels of chlorine dioxide resulting from equipment failure (Ferris et al. 1967, 1979; Gloemme
and Lundgren 1957; Kennedy et al. 1991). Since the results of these studies are confounded by
Table 3-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to Chlorine Dioxide
Key toa Species

figure (Strain)
Exaosurel
Duration/
Frequency
(Specific Route)
- Inhalation
LOAEL
NOAEL
System
(PPm)
Less Serious
Keierence
Serious
(PPm)
Chemical Form
(PPm)
ACUTE EXPOSURE
1
Death
Rat
Systemic
Rat
Rat
2 hrld for 9 of 13 d
2 hrld for 9 of 13 d
3 minld. Idlwk, for 3 wk
10
100% mortality by day 14
Dalhamn 1957
Chlorine Dioxide
Dalhamn 1957
Resp
10
Resp
760
rhinorrhea and embarrased

respiration
Chlorine Dioxide
Dalhamn 1957
Chlorine Dioxide
w
I
Rat
5 hdd for 10 wk
Dalhamn 1957
Resp
0.1
Chlorine Dioxide
rn
-n
-n
rn
INTERMEDlATE EXPOSURE
5
Systemic
Rat
Rat
Rat
Rat
(Wistar)
2 hrld for 30 d
2 hrld for 30 d
7 hrld for 30 d
5 hrld 5 dlwk for 2 mo
r;
I
Paulet and Desbrousses 1970

Resp
10
bronchopneumonia
Hemato
10
increased RBC and WBC

counts
Ocular
10
irritation
Resp
Resp
2.5
Resp
0
-1
(I)
Chlorine dioxide

bronchopneumonia
Chlorine dioxide
slight respiratory irritation
Chlorine dioxide
peribronchiolaredema and
vascular congestion in the lungs
Chlorine dioxide
A
co
Table 3-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to Chlorine Dioxide
Key toa Species

figure
(Strain)
Exposure1
Duration1
Frequency
(Specific Route)
- Inhalation
(continued)
zz
LOAEL
NOAEL
System
(PPm)
Less Serious
(PPW
Serious
(PPW
Reference
Chemical Form
9
z
0
Systemic
Rat
15 min 2 x/d (or 4 xld) for

1 mo
Resp
10
alveolar irritation
Chlorine dioxide
6
;o
10 Rabbit
2 hrld for 30 d
Resp
slight bronchopneumonia

Chlorine dioxide
11 Rabbit
4 hr/d for 45 d
Resp
2.5
slight pulmonary irritation

Chlorine dioxide
~~~
I
m
9
a The number corresponds to entries in Figure 3-1.
5
I
b An intermediate-durationinhalation MRL of 0.001 ppm was derived from a LOAEL of 1 ppm and adjusted to 0.15 ppm (LOAELADJ) to compensate for intermittent exposure,
converted to the human equivalent concentration (LOAELHEC) of 0.3 ppm, and then divided by an uncertainty factor of 300 (3 for interspecies extrapolation using dosimetric
adjustments, 10 for the use of a LOAEL, and I 0 to account for sensitive populations).
-n
d = day(s); hemato = hematological; hr = hour(s); LOAEL = lowest-obsetved-adverse-effectlevel; rno = month(s); NOAEL = no-observed-adverse-effectlevel; Resp = respiratory;
wk = week(s)
rn
n
I
0)
h,
Figure 3-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to Chlorine Dioxide - Inhalation

Intermediate (15-364 days)
Acute (<I4 days)
zz
Systemic
Systemic
rn
0
0
PPrn
rn
1000
Q3r
b
e
-I
rn
100
10
Q5r
Q9r
@6r
09r
Q7r
Q5r
Q5r
u
I
rn
@10h
Qllh
rn
n
n
rn
0
-1
v)
04r
0.1
0.01
0.001
c-Cat
d-Dog
r-Rat
p-Pig
q-Cow
-Humans
k-Monkey
m-Mouse
h-Rabbit
a-Sheep
f-Ferret
n-Mink
j-Pigeon
o-Other
e-Gerbil
s-Hamster
g-Guinea Pig
Cancer Effect Level-Animals
0 LOAEL, More Serious-Animals
LOAEL, Less Serious-Animals
0NOAEL -Animals
V Cancer Effect Level-Humans
A LOAEL, More Serious-Humans

A LOAEL, Less Serious-Humans
A NOAEL - Humans
LD50lLC50
: Minimal Risk Level

: for effects
A other than
Cancer
22
3. HEALTH EFFECTS
concurrent exposure to chlorine gas and/or sulfur dioxide, the reported respiratory effects (such as
coughing, wheezing, shortness of breath, and excess phlegm) could not be specifically attributed to chlorine
dioxide.
Animal studies also indicate that the respiratory system is a major target of toxicity following inhalation
exposure to chlorine dioxide. Dalhamn (1957) reported the results of several inhalation studies in
laboratory animals. In one study, a single 2-hour inhalation exposure of four rats to a chlorine dioxide
concentration of 260 ppm (728 mg/m3) resulted in pulmonary edema and nasal bleeding. Respiratory
distress was reported in three other rats subjected to 3 weekly 3-minute exposures to decreasing concentrations of airborne chlorine dioxide from 3,400 to 800 ppm (from 9,520 to 2,240 mg/m3); bronchopneumonia was observed in two of these rats. In a third rat study, repeated exposure to approximately
10 ppm (28 mg/m3) of chlorine dioxide (4 hours/day for 9 days in a 13-day period) resulted in rhinorrhea,
altered respiration, and respiratory infection. No indications of adverse effects were seen in rats exposed to
approximately 0.1 ppm (0.28 mg/m3) of chlorine dioxide 5 hours /day for 10 weeks.
Paulet and Desbrousses (1970, 1972, 1974) conducted a series of studies in which laboratory animals were
exposed to atmospheres of chlorine dioxide. Nasal discharge and localized bronchopneumonia (with
desquamation of alveolar epithelium) were noted in rats exposed to an airborne concentration of 10 ppm
(28 mg/m3), 2 hours/day for 30 days. Another group of rats exposed to a concentration of 5 ppm
(14 mg/m3) exhibited similar, but less severe, respiratory tract effects. Bronchial inflammation and
alveolar congestion and hemorrhage were observed in rats exposed to 2.5 ppm (7 mg/m3), 7 hours/day for
30 days. Alveolar congestion and hemorrhage were also seen in rabbits following inhalation exposure to
2.5 ppm (7 mg/m3), 4 hours/day for 45 days. In a group of rats and rabbits sacrificed 15 days after
exposure termination, recovery from the pulmonary lesions was apparent (Paulet and Desbrousses 1970).
Vascular congestion and peribronchiolar edema were noted in the lungs of rats exposed to a concentration
of 1 ppm (2.8 mg/m3), 5 hours/day, 5 days/week for 2 months (Paulet and Desbrousses 1972). The
LOAEL of 1 ppm for respiratory effects, identified in this study, served as the basis for the derivation of an
intermediate-duration inhalation MRL for chlorine dioxide. In another rat study, exposure to concentrations of 10 or 15 ppm (28 or 42 mg/m3) for periods as short as 15 minutes (2 or 4 times/day for
1 month) resulted in nasal, bronchial, and alveolar inflammation. These effects had subsided in a 15 ppm
(42 mg/m3) group of rats sacrificed 15 days following exposure termination. This study identified a
NOAEL of 5 ppm (14 mg/m3) for respiratory effects (Paulet and Desbrousses 1974).
23
3. HEALTH EFFECTS
Cardiovascular Effects.
Information regarding cardiovascular effects in humans following inhalation
exposure to chlorine dioxide is limited to a single account of tachycardia that developed in a woman several
hours after having been exposed to an unknown concentration of chlorine dioxide that had triggered
respiratory effects severe enough to force her to leave the area where she had been bleaching dried flowers
(Elkins 1959). The tachycardia was likely secondary to the primary respiratory effects.
Circulatory engorgement was observed in rats that had been exposed to atmospheres containing a chlorine
dioxide concentration of approximately 260 ppm (728 mg/m3) for 2 hours (Dalhamn 1957). This effect
was likely secondary to respiratory distress.
Hematological Effects.
Information regarding hematological effects in humans following inhalation
exposure to chlorine dioxide is limited to a single account of marked leukocytosis diagnosed in a woman
several hours after she had been exposed to an unknown concentration of chlorine dioxide that triggered
respiratory effects severe enough to force her to leave the area where she had been bleaching dried flowers
(Elkins 1959).
Significantly increased blood erythrocyte and leukocyte levels were reported in rats exposed to atmospheres
containing a chlorine dioxide level of approximately 10 ppm (28 mg/m3), 2 hours/day for 30 days (Paulet
and Desbrousses 1970). These effects were not seen in a group of rats similarly exposed to 5 ppm
(14 mg/m3).
Hepatic Effects.
No information was located regarding hepatic effects in humans following inhalation
exposure to chlorine dioxide.

Paulet and Desbrousses (1974) found no signs of liver effects in rats exposed to atmospheres containing
chlorine dioxide levels as high as 10 ppm (28 mg/m3), 2 hours/day for 30 days. On the other hand,
Dalhamn (1957) reported acute liver congestion in rats that had been exposed for 4 hours/day over 9 days
in a 13-day period. However, the liver congestion may have been secondary to primary respiratory effects.
Renal Effects.
No information was located regarding renal effects in humans following inhalation
exposure to chlorine dioxide.
24
3. HEALTH EFFECTS
Evidence of renal effects in animals is limited to a single report of renal hyperemia in two of three rats
subjected to 3 weekly 3-minute exposures to decreasing concentrations of airborne chlorine dioxide from
3,400 to 800 ppm (from 9,520 to 2,240 mg/m3); however, two of three control rats similarly exhibited renal
hyperemia (Dalhamn 1957).
Ocular Effects.
Workers employed at a sulfite-cellulose production facility reported ocular discomfort
that was associated with periods when equipment failure resulted in relatively high air concentrations of
chlorine dioxide (Gloemme and Lundgren 1957). However, this finding was confounded by concurrent
exposure to chlorine gas and sulfur dioxide.
Animal studies indicate that exposure to chlorine dioxide at airborne concentrations $10 ppm (28 mg/m3)
may result in ocular irritation (Dalhamn 1957; Paulet and Desbrousses 1970, 1974).
Body Weight Effects.
No information was located regarding body weight effects in humans following
inhalation exposure to chlorine dioxide.

Limited animal data indicate that repeated inhalation exposure to chlorine dioxide concentrations $10 ppm
(28 mg/m3) may result in depressed body weight gain (Dalhamn 1957; Paulet and Desbrousses 1970);
however, this effect may be secondary to primary respiratory effects.
No reports were located in which the following health effects in humans or animals could be associated
with inhalation exposure to chlorine dioxide:
3.2.1.7 Cancer
25
3. HEALTH EFFECTS
3.2.2
Oral Exposure
3.2.2.1 Death
No information was located regarding death in humans following oral exposure to chlorine dioxide or
chlorite.
Shi and Xie (1999) indicated that an acute oral LD50 value (a dose expected to result in death of 50% of the
dosed animals) for stable chlorine dioxide was >10,000 mg/kg in mice. In rats, acute oral LD50 values for
sodium chlorite (NaClO2) ranged from 105 to 177 mg/kg (equivalent to 79133 mg chlorite/kg) (Musil et
al. 1964; Seta et al. 1991; Sperling 1959).
No exposure-related deaths were observed in rats receiving chlorine dioxide in the drinking water for
90 days at concentrations that resulted in approximate doses as high as 11.5 mg/kg/day in males and
14.9 mg/kg/day in females (Daniel et al. 1990).
In a 14-day range-finding study of rats administered gavage doses of sodium chlorite in the range of
25200 mg/kg/day (equivalent to 18.6149.2 mg chlorite/kg/day), one exposure-related death was observed
in each sex (Harrington et al. 1995a). The deaths occurred on treatment days 2 and 3. No treatmentrelated deaths occurred in the groups receiving chlorite doses #56 mg/kg/day. In the 13-week main study
performed by these investigators, treatment-related mortality was noted between exposure weeks 10 and 13
in 4/30 rats (3 males and 1 female) receiving sodium chlorite by gavage at a level resulting in a chlorite
dose of 80 mg/kg/day. No treatment-related mortality was observed at chlorite dose levels
#18.6 mg/kg/day. Death was noted in all four female rats that were administered sodium chlorite by
gavage at a dose level of 200 mg/kg/day (equivalent to 150 mg chlorite/kg/day) on gestation
days 810 (Couri et al. 1982b).
Haag (1949) exposed groups of rats to chlorine dioxide in the drinking water for 2 years at concentrations
that resulted in estimated doses of 0.07, 0.13, 0.7, 1.3, or 13 mg/kg/day. Survival was significantly
decreased during the second year of exposure at the 13 mg/kg/day dose level, but not in lower dose groups.
Survival was not significantly decreased in groups of rats exposed to chlorite (as sodium chlorite) in the
drinking water for 2 years at concentrations that resulted in estimated chlorite doses as high as
81 mg/kg/day (Haag 1949). In another chronic study (Kurokawa et al. 1986), survival was not adversely
26
3. HEALTH EFFECTS
affected in rats given sodium chlorite in the drinking water at concentrations that resulted in estimated
chlorite doses as high as 32.1 mg/kg/day in males and 40.9 mg/kg/day in females. However, this study was
terminated after 85 weeks of treatment, due to widespread Sendai viral infection in both treatment groups
and controls. Exposure of mice to sodium chlorite for up to 85 weeks at concentrations resulting in
estimated chlorite doses as high as 90 mg/kg/day did not appear to adversely affect survival. However,
control males exhibited markedly reduced survival after 30 weeks of exposure, which was attributed to
severe fighting (Kurokawa et al. 1986).
Selected LD50 values for chlorite are recorded in Table 3-2 and plotted in Figure 3-2.
The highest NOAEL values and all LOAEL values from each reliable study for each systemic effect in
No reports were located in which cardiovascular, musculoskeletal, dermal, ocular, or metabolic effects
were associated with oral exposure of humans or animals to chlorine dioxide or chlorite.
Respiratory Effects.
Extremely limited information is available regarding respiratory effects in
humans following oral exposure to chlorine dioxide or chlorite. Respiratory distress was diagnosed in a
patient who had ingested 10 g of sodium chlorite dissolved in 100 mL of water (Lin and Lim 1993).
However, the respiratory distress was likely secondary to other effects such as severe methemoglobinemia.
No adverse effects on respiration rate were seen in healthy adult males who ingested chlorine dioxide or
chlorite every 3 days at increasing doses of 0.1, 1, 5, 10, 18, and 24 mg/day or 0.01, 0.1, 0.5, 1.0, 1.8, or
2.4 mg/day, respectively (Lubbers et al. 1981). Assuming an average body weight of 70 kg, the individual
doses were approximately 0.0014, 0.014, 0.070, 0.140, 0.26, and 0.34 mg/kg/day, respectively, for
chlorine dioxide and a factor of 10 lower for respective chlorite doses. No adverse effects on respiration
rate were observed in other healthy adult males who ingested chlorine dioxide or chlorite in daily amounts
of 2.5 mg (0.04 mg/kg/day) for 12 weeks (Lubbers et al. 1981).
Table 3-2 Levels of Significant Exposure to Chlorine Dioxide And Chlorite
Key toa Species

figure (Strain)
Exposure/
Duration/
Frequency
(Specific Route)
- Oral
LOAEL
NOAEL
System
(rnglkglday)
Less Serious
(mglkglday)
Serious
Reference
(mglkg/day)
Chemical Form
ACUTE EXPOSURE
Death
140 M LD50
Musil et al. 1964

Chlorite
INTERMEDIATE EXPOSURE
2
Systemic
Mouse
NJ
12 hrs d
30 d
Hemato
Moore and Calabrese 1982
25
Chlorine Dioxide
(W)
Mouse
NJ
12 hrsld
30 d
Hemato
19
Increased average corpuscular

volume and osmotic fragility
Chlorite
(W)
4
Mouse
C57UJ
12 hrsld
30d
Hemato
19
Sodium Chlorite
(W)
Reproductive
Rat
66-76 d
(Long- Evans) (W)
Rat
Ixld for 9 wk
(Long- Evans) (GW)
Rat
16 wk
(SpragueDawley)
(W)
Rat
13 wk
(SpragueDawley)
(W)
0.9 M
Carlton et al. 1987
9 M decreased progressive sperm

movement
Chlorite
Carlton et al. 1991
10
Chlorine dioxide
Gill et al. 2000
29
1.3
Chlorite
13
decreased number of implants
Suh et al. 1983

Chlorine dioxide

Exposure/
Duration/
a
Key to Species
Frequency
figure
(Strain) (Specific Route)
- Oral
(continued)
LOAEL
NOAEL
System
(mglkglday)
Less Serious
(mglkglday)
Serious
Reference
(mgWday)
Chemical Form
9
Developmental
Rat
8 wk
(Long- Evans) (W)
10 Rat
(SpragueDawley)
0.9 M
2.$M
11 Rat
(SpragueDawley)
12 Rat
(SpragueDawley)
9 M decreased serum T3 and T4

levels
5.7 M lowered auditory startle

response amplitude on
postnatal day 24
Chlorite
Gill et al. 2000
$rn
Chlorite
Mobley et al. 1990
13 M decreased litter weight and

exploratory activity
2.6 M
0
0
Carlton et al. 1987
5.2 M decreased exploratory activity

on postnatal days 36-39
Chlorine dioxide
Mobley et al. 1990
Chlorite
I
rn
I
m
n
n
13 Rat
(SpragueDawley)
2.6 F
14 Rat
(SpragueDawley)
15 Rat
(SpragueDawley)
16 Rat
(SpragueDawley)
13 F altered serum thyroid hormone

levels
14
1.3
1.3
Orme et al. 1985

Chlorine dioxide
Orme et al. 1985
decreased activity, decreased

serum T4
Chlorine dioxide
13
decreased number of live

fetuses
Suh et al. 1983

Chlorine dioxide
Suh et al. 1983

Chlorite
a
Key to Species
figure
(Strain)
Exposure/
Duration/
Frequency
(Specific Route)
18 Rat
(SpragueDawley)
19 Rat
System
(W)
ppd 5-20
(GW)
ppd 1-20
(Long- Evans) (GW)

20 Mouse
6 wk
AIJ
(W)
(continued)
LOAEL
Developmental
17 Rat
8 wk
(SpragueDawley)
- Oral
NOAEL
(mglkglday)
Less Serious
(mglkglday)
Serious
(mg/kg/day)
13 M decreased activity, decreased

brain weight and cell number
14 M decreased activity, decreased

brain weight and DNA content
14
23
decreased brain weight and

protein content
decreased average pupweaning

weight and birth-to-weaning
growth rate
Reference
Chemical Form
Taylor and Pfohl 1985

Chlorine dioxide
Taylor and Pfohl1985

Chlorine dioxide
Toth et at. 1990

Chlorine dioxide
Moore et al. 1980b
F=!
Chlorite
I
rn
I
rn
n
n
m
0
-I
(I)
aThe number corresponds to entries in Figure 3-2.

b An intermediate-durationoral MRL of 0.1 mglkglday was derived from a NOAEL of 2.9 mglkglday and divided by an uncertainty factor of 30 (10 for interspecies extrapolation and
3 to account for sensitive populations).
d = day@); F = Female; G = gavage; hr = hour(s); GW = gavage in water; LOAEL = lowest-observed-adverse-effectlevel; M = male; NOAEL = no-observed-adverse-effectlevel; ppd
= post parturition day; (W) = drinking water; wk = week@)
Figure 3-2 Levels of Significant Exposure to Chlorine Dioxide And Chlorite - Oral
Intermediate (15-364 days)
Acute (114days)
Svstemic
mglkglday
1000
07r*
5
I
rn
8
.r
Q5r* 06r
08r
1
05r*
015
016r*
09r*
* Chlorite
0.1
c-Cat
d-Dog
-Humans
k-Monkey
f-Ferret
j-Pigeon
r-Rat
p-Pig
q-Cow
m-Mouse
h-Rabbit
a-Sheep
e-Gerbil
s-Hamster
g-Guinea Pig
n-Mink
o-Other
+Cancer Effect Level-Animals

LOAEL, More Serious-Animals
0 LOAEL, Less Serious-Animals
0NOAEL - Animals
V Cancer Effect Level-Humans

A LOAEL, More Serious-Humans
A LOAEL, Less Serious-Humans
A NOAEL - Humans
LD50/LC50
Minimal Risk Level
effects
A for
other than
Cancer
:
:
30
3. HEALTH EFFECTS
Information regarding respiratory effects in orally-exposed animals is limited to a report of a significantly

increased incidence of nasal lesions (goblet cell hyperplasia and inflammation of nasal turbinates) following
90 days of exposure to chlorine dioxide in the drinking water at concentrations that resulted in estimated
doses as low as 2 mg/kg/day in males and 8 mg/kg/day in females (Daniel et al. 1990). These nasal effects
were likely caused by inhalation of chlorine dioxide vapors released from the water rather than a systemic
respiratory effect following oral exposure.
Gastrointestinal Effects.
Information in humans is limited to a single account of abdominal cramps,
nausea, and vomiting within a few minutes after a 25-year-old Chinese male had consumed 10 g of sodium
chlorite dissolved in 100 mL of water in an apparent suicide attempt (Lin and Lim 1993).
Information regarding gastrointestinal effects in animals following oral exposure to chlorine dioxide or
chlorite is also limited. Bercz et al. (1982) reported erythema and ulceration of the oral mucosa in adult
African green monkeys exposed to chlorine dioxide in the drinking water for between 30 and 60 days at a
concentration that resulted in a dose of approximately 9 mg/kg/day. Dose-related increased severity of
salivation and histopathologic alterations in the stomach (including squamous epithelial hyperplasia, hyperkeratosis, ulceration, chronic inflammation, and edema) were observed in groups of rats administered
sodium chlorite in gavage doses of 25 or 80 mg/kg/day (equivalent to 19 or 60 mg chlorite/kg/day,
respectively) for 13 weeks; these effects were not seen at a dose level of 7.4 mg chlorite/kg/day (Harrington
et al. 1995a).
Hematological Effects.
Profound methemoglobinemia was diagnosed in a 25-year-old Chinese male
after he had consumed 10 g of sodium chlorite dissolved in 100 mL of water in an apparent suicide attempt
(Lin and Lim 1993). Other hematological effects, including ensuing intravascular coagulation, were likely
secondary to the methemoglobinemia that persisted despite treatment with methylene blue. No indications
of altered hematological parameters were seen in adult male subjects consuming chlorine dioxide in
aqueous solution that resulted in a single dose of approximately 0.34 mg/kg of chlorine dioxide (Lubbers et
al. 1981) or in other adult males consuming approximately 0.04 mg/kg/day for 12 weeks (EPA 1981;
Lubbers et al. 1984a). The same investigators tested chlorite for adverse effects in healthy adult males, and
found no evidence of hematological effects after each subject consumed of a total of 1,000 mL of a solution
containing 2.4 mg/L chlorite (approximately 0.068 mg/kg) in two doses (separated by 4 hours), or in other
healthy normal or glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficient male subjects who consumed
approximately 0.04 mg/kg/day for 12 weeks (Lubbers et al. 1984a, 1984b). No chlorine dioxide- or
31
3. HEALTH EFFECTS
chlorite-induced hematological effects were seen among the inhabitants of a rural village who were exposed
for 12 weeks via chlorine dioxide in the drinking water at weekly measured concentrations ranging from
0.25 to 1.11 mg/L (chlorine dioxide) or from 3.19 to 6.96 mg/L (chlorite) (Michael et al. 1981). In this
epidemiological study, levels of chlorine dioxide in the drinking water before and after the treatment period
were <0.05 mg/L. The chlorite level in the drinking water was 0.32 mg/L prior to chlorine dioxide
treatment. At 1 and 2 weeks following cessation of treatment, chlorite levels dropped to 1.4 and 0.5 mg/L,
respectively.
Some animal studies include reports of hematological effects following oral exposure to chlorine dioxide or
chlorite. Abdel-Rahman and coworkers (Abdel-Rahman et al. 1984b; Couri and Abdel-Rahman 1980)
exposed groups of male rats to chlorine dioxide in the drinking water, 20 hours/day for 11 or 12 months, at
concentrations that resulted in estimated doses of 0.1, 1, 10, and 100 mg/kg/day. Abdel-Rahman et al.
(1984b) noted that several hematological parameters were significantly altered in exposed rats, relative to
controls, and included decreased osmotic fragility in the 10 and 100 mg/kg/day groups after 2, 4, 7, or
9 months of exposure, and in the 1 mg/kg/day group after 9 months of exposure; decreased erythrocyte
counts in the 0.1 mg/kg/day and 100 mg/kg/day groups after 9 months of exposure, but not after 7 months;
reduced hematocrit and hemoglobin levels in all groups at 9 months that did not exhibit clear dose-response
patterns; increased hematocrit levels in the 10 and 100 mg/kg/day groups at 7 months; and increased mean
corpuscular hemoglobin concentrations in the 10 and 100 mg/kg/day groups after 9 months. The study
authors suggested that the decreased osmotic fragility may have been related to the disulfide bond between
hemoglobin and the cell membrane as the result of oxidative stress. Couri and Abdel-Rahman (1980)
found significant increases in blood glutathione reductase levels in rats of the 1, 10, and 100 mg/kg/day
groups after 6 months of exposure. At 12 months of exposure, the blood glutathione reductase levels in all
exposure groups were similar to those of controls, but the levels of blood glutathione peroxidase were
significantly increased at 10 and 100 mg/kg/day. Blood catalase levels were increased in the
100 mg/kg/day group after 6 and 12 months of exposure and decreased in the 0.1 and 1 mg/kg/day groups
after 6 months of exposure.
Abdel-Rahman and coworkers (Abdel-Rahman et al. 1984b; Couri and Abdel-Rahman 1980) also exposed
male rats to sodium chlorite in the drinking water, 20 hours/day for up to 1 year, at concentrations that
resulted in estimated doses of 1 or 10 mg/kg/day. Both dose levels resulted in increased mean corpuscular
hemoglobin concentration (after 7, but not 9 months) and decreased osmotic fragility after 79 months).
Erythrocyte glutathione levels were significantly decreased at dose levels $0.1 mg/kg/day by the end of the
32
3. HEALTH EFFECTS
1-year exposure period. No consistent treatment-related alterations in erythrocyte count, hematocrit, or

hemoglobin levels were observed.
Harrington et al. (1995a) administered sodium chlorite to rats by gavage for 13 weeks, resulting in chlorite
doses of 7.4, 19, or 60 mg/kg/day. Relative to controls, significant treatment-related hematological effects
included decreased hematocrit and hemoglobin levels (high-dose males), increased methemoglobin and
neutrophil levels (mid- and high-dose males), decreased lymphocyte count (mid-dose males), decreased
mean erythrocyte count (high-dose males and females), morphological changes in erythrocytes (high-dose
males and females), and increased spleen weights (high-dose males and mid- and high-dose females). An
unexplained decrease in methemoglobin was observed in high-dose females.
No consistent alterations in hematological parameters (erythrocyte and total and differential leukocyte
counts, hemoglobin levels, hematocrit, mean corpuscular volume) were observed in groups of male and
female rats given chlorine dioxide in the drinking water for 90 days at concentrations that resulted in doses
as high as 12 and 15 mg/kg/day for males and females, respectively (Daniel et al. 1990).
No significant alterations in hematological parameters were seen in adult African green monkeys given
chlorine dioxide in the drinking water for up to 60 days at rising concentrations that resulted in estimated
doses as high as 9 mg/kg/day (Bercz et al. 1982). Bercz and coworkers later exposed these same monkeys
to sodium chlorite in the drinking water in rising concentrations that resulted in estimated chlorite doses as
high as 58.4 mg/kg/day. Statistically significant dose-related hematological alterations in these monkeys
included decreased erythrocyte levels and cell indices, decreased hemoglobin levels, and slight increases in
reticulocyte and methemoglobin levels. However, the data were not presented in a manner that would allow
identification of threshold doses for these effects.
Moore and Calabrese (1982) found no significant alterations in hematological parameters within groups of
mice exposed to chlorine dioxide in the drinking water for 30 days, at a concentration that resulted in an
estimated dose of 25 mg/kg/day. However, when similarly examining the hematotoxicity of chlorite, Moore
and Calabrese (1982) found significant increases in mean corpuscular volume and osmotic fragility at a
dose level of 19 mg/kg/day.
Heffernan et al. (1979b) observed significant methemoglobinemia within 12 hours in cats that had been
administered chlorite in single doses of 20 or 64 mg/kg. These same investigators found no signs of
33
3. HEALTH EFFECTS
methemoglobinemia in rats exposed to sodium chlorite in the drinking water for 3090 days at concentrations that resulted in estimated chlorite doses as high as 50 mg/kg/day. Doses $10 mg/kg/day resulted
in slight anemia at 30 days, but this condition appeared to improve at 60 and 90 days.
Hepatic Effects.
No indications of adverse hepatic effects (assessed in tests of serum chemistry) were
seen in adult male subjects consuming chlorine dioxide in aqueous solution that resulted in a dose of
approximately 0.34 mg/kg (Lubbers et al. 1981) or in other adult males consuming approximately
0.04 mg/kg/day for 12 weeks (Lubbers et al. 1984a). The same investigators administered chlorite to
healthy adult males, and found no evidence of adverse hepatic effects after each subject had consumed of a
total of 1,000 mL of a solution containing 2.4 mg/L chlorite (approximately 0.068 mg/kg) in two doses
(separated by 4 hours), or in other healthy normal or G6PD deficient male subjects who had consumed
approximately 0.04 mg/kg/day for 12 weeks (Lubbers et al. 1984a, 1984b). No chlorine dioxide- or
chlorite-induced signs of altered liver function were seen among the inhabitants of a rural village who were
exposed for 12 weeks via chlorine dioxide in the drinking water at weekly measured concentrations ranging
from 0.25 to 1.11 mg/L (chlorine dioxide) or from 3.19 to 6.96 mg/L (chlorite) (Michael et al. 1981). In
this epidemiological study, levels of chlorine dioxide in the drinking water before and after the treatment
period were <0.05 mg/L. The chlorite level in the drinking water was 0.32 mg/L prior to chlorine dioxide
treatment. At 1 and 2 weeks following cessation of treatment, chlorite levels dropped to 1.4 and 0.5 mg/L,
respectively.
Limited information is available regarding hepatic effects in animals following oral exposure to chlorine
dioxide or chlorite. Daniel et al. (1990) exposed male and female rats to chlorine dioxide in the drinking
water for 90 days at concentrations that resulted in estimated doses of 1.9, 3.6, 6.2, or 11.5 mg/kg/day for
males and 2.4, 4.6, 8.2, or 14.9 mg/kg/day for females. Significantly depressed mean absolute liver
weights were observed in males at doses $3.6 mg/kg/day and females of the 8.2 mg/kg/day dose group.
However, these groups also exhibited decreased water consumption.
Renal Effects.
No chlorine dioxide- or chlorite-induced signs of altered renal function were seen
among the inhabitants of a rural village who were exposed for 12 weeks via chlorine dioxide in the drinking
water at weekly measured concentrations ranging from 0.25 to 1.11 mg/L (chlorine dioxide) or from 3.19
to 6.96 mg/L (chlorite) (Michael et al. 1981). In this epidemiological study, levels of chlorine dioxide in
the drinking water before and after the treatment period were <0.05 mg/L. The chlorite level in the
drinking water was 0.32 mg/L prior to chlorine dioxide treatment. At 1 and 2 weeks following cessation of
34
3. HEALTH EFFECTS
treatment, chlorite levels dropped to 1.4 and 0.5 mg/L, respectively. Acute renal failure developed in a
25-year-old Chinese male some days after he had consumed 10 g of sodium chlorite dissolved in 100 mL of
water in an apparent suicide attempt (Lin and Lim 1993), but this effect followed earlier signs of profound
methemoglobinemia and respiratory distress.
Information regarding renal effects in animals is limited. Moore and Calabrese (1982) found no evidence
of renal effects in mice exposed to sodium chlorite in the drinking water for up to 180 days at a concentration that resulted in an estimated chlorite dose of 25 mg/kg/day. Haag (1949) reported treatment-related
pathological effects (distension of the glomerular capsule and appearance of a pale pinkish staining
material in the renal tubules) in the kidneys of rats exposed to chlorite in the drinking water for 2 years at
concentrations that resulted in estimated doses of 7 or 13 mg/kg/day. Increased relative kidney weights, in
the absence histopathological renal effects, were observed in rats administered sodium chlorite in gavage
doses of 80 mg/kg/day (equivalent to 60 mg chlorite/kg/day) for 13 weeks (Harrington et al. 1995a).
Endocrine Effects.
No reports were located in which endocrine effects could be associated with oral
exposure to chlorine dioxide or chlorite in humans.

Information from animal studies is limited to accounts of significantly reduced serum levels of the T4
thyroid hormone in African green monkeys consuming approximately 9 mg chlorine dioxide/kg/day from
the drinking water for 6 weeks or approximately 58.4 mg chlorite/kg/day for 8 weeks (Bercz et al. 1982),
and a single report of significantly increased adrenal weight in female rats administered sodium chlorite
gavage doses $25 mg/kg/day ($19 mg chlorite/kg/day) for 13 weeks (Harrington et al. 1995a). Refer to
Section 3.2.2.6 for information regarding altered serum hormone levels in laboratory animals that had been
exposed via their mothers during prenatal and postnatal development.
Body Weight Effects.
No reports were located in which body weight effects could be associated with
oral exposure to chlorine dioxide or chlorite in humans.

Abdel-Rahman et al. (1984b) reported significantly reduced body weight gain (up to 18% lower than
controls) in male rats exposed to chlorine dioxide in the drinking water for 11 months at concentrations
resulting in estimated doses ranging from 0.12 to 120 mg/kg/day. The same authors reported similar, but
less pronounced, reduced body weight gain in rats exposed to sodium chlorite at concentrations that
resulted in chlorite doses of approximately 1.2 and 12 mg/kg/day. Although this effect appeared earlier at
35
3. HEALTH EFFECTS
the highest concentration, mean terminal body weight after 11 months of exposure was lower in low-dose
rats than in high-dose rats. Furthermore, the authors did not provide information regarding water and food
consumption. Kurokawa et al. (1986) reported slightly decreased body weight gain (<10% lower than
controls) in male and female rats exposed to sodium chlorite in the drinking water for up to 85 weeks at
concentrations that resulted in estimated chlorite doses of 13.5 and 24 mg/kg/day in males and 21 and
31 mg/kg/day in females.
Harrington et al. (1995a) found no significant adverse body weight effects in rats administered up to 60 mg
chlorite/kg/day (via gavage) for 13 weeks. No treatment-related effects on body weight were seen in male
rats that were administered chlorine dioxide in gavage doses of 2.5, 5, or 10 mg/kg/day for 56 days prior to
mating and 10 more days during mating, or in female rats administered the same doses for 14 days prior to
mating and throughout mating, gestation, and lactation (Carlton et al. 1991). No significant adverse body
weight effects were seen in mice given sodium chlorite in the drinking water for up to 180 days at concentrations resulting in estimated chlorite doses as high as 25 mg/kg/day (Moore and Calabrese 1982) or in
other mice exposed to sodium chlorite for 80 weeks at a concentration that resulted in an estimated chlorite
dose of 90 mg/kg/day (Kurokawa et al. 1986).
No reports were located in which immunological or lymphoreticular effects could be associated with oral
exposure to chlorine dioxide or chlorite in humans.
Animal data are restricted to limited accounts of treatment-related altered thymus and spleen weights.
Daniel et al. (1990) observed reduced spleen weights in female, but not male, rats exposed to chlorine
dioxide in the drinking water for 90 days at concentrations that resulted in estimated doses ranging from 2
to 15 mg/kg/day, but the basis for this effect was not discussed. Harrington et al. (1995a) found
significantly increased spleen weights in male rats administered sodium chlorite by gavage at a dose level of
80 mg/kg/day (60 mg chlorite/kg/day) for 13 weeks and in female rats similarly treated with 10 or 60 mg
chlorite/kg/day. In this study, increased spleen weights were attributed to morphological changes in
erythrocytes. Significantly lower spleen and thymus weights were seen in F1 and F2 rats that had been
exposed to sodium chlorite via their mothers during gestation and lactation and via the drinking water after
weaning (Gill et al. 2000).
36
3. HEALTH EFFECTS

No reports were located in which neurological effects could be associated with oral exposure to chlorine
dioxide or chlorite in humans or animals. Refer to Section 3.2.2.6 for information regarding
neurodevelopmental effects.
No reports were located in which reproductive effects could be associated with oral exposure to chlorine
dioxide or chlorite in humans.
A paucity of evidence exists for reproductive effects in animals following oral exposure to chlorine dioxide
or chlorite. Slight, but significantly altered sperm morphology and motility were observed in male rats
exposed to sodium chlorite in the drinking water for 6676 days at concentrations that resulted in estimated
chlorite doses of 9 and 37 mg/kg/day; however, no dose-related alterations in fertility rates or reproductive
tissues (both gross and histopathological examination) were seen (Carlton and Smith 1985; Carlton et al.
1987). The study of Carlton et al. (1987) identified a NOAEL of 0.9 mg/kg/day and a LOAEL of
9 mg/kg/day for decreased progressive sperm movement.
Significantly decreased testicular deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) synthesis was noted in male rats given
chlorine dioxide or chlorite (as sodium salt) in the drinking water for 3 months at concentrations that
resulted in estimated chlorine dioxide and chlorite doses $1.3 and 0.13 mg/kg/day, respectively (AbdelRahman et al. 1984b), and other male rats exposed for 3 weeks to a concentration that resulted in a
chlorine dioxide dose of 13 mg/kg/day or a chlorite dose of 1.3 mg/kg/day (Suh et al. 1983). A treatmentrelated decreased number of implants was noted in untreated females that had been mated with chlorine
dioxide-treated males of the 13 mg/kg/day level (Suh et al. 1983), this dose level was identified as a
LOAEL. No significant increases in abnormal sperm-head morphology were seen in mice given chlorine
dioxide or chlorite in gavage doses as high as 16 and 40 mg/kg/day, respectively, for 5 days followed by
3 weeks without treatment prior to testing (Meier et al. 1985). Carlton et al. (1991) found no significant
treatment-related effects on fertility rates or sperm parameters in rats following the administration of
chlorine dioxide in gavage doses as high as 10 mg/kg/day for 56 days prior to mating and throughout a
10-day mating period (males) and 14 days prior to mating and throughout mating, gestation, and lactation
(females).
37
3. HEALTH EFFECTS
Couri et al. (1982b) exposed pregnant rats to sodium chlorite in the drinking water during gestational
days 815 at concentrations that resulted in estimated chlorite doses of 70, 440, or 610 mg/kg/day. The
litters were either delivered at term or by cesarean section on gestational day 22. An increase in the number
of resorbed and dead fetuses was observed in cesarean-delivered litters of all exposure levels; two litters out
of five were totally resorbed in the high-dose group.
The highest NOAEL values and all LOAEL values from each reliable study for reproductive effects in each
species and duration are recorded in Table 3-2 and plotted in Figure 3-2.
Information regarding developmental effects in humans following oral exposure to chlorine dioxide or
chlorite is limited.
Tuthill et al. (1982) retrospectively compared infant morbidity and mortality data for a community that had
utilized chlorine dioxide as a drinking water disinfectant in the 1940s with data of a neighboring community
that used conventional drinking water chlorination practices. Exposure to chlorine dioxide-treated water
did not adversely affect fetal or perinatal mortality, or birth weight, maximum weight loss, weight loss at
6 days, sex ratio, or birth condition. The authors reported a significantly greater proportion of premature
births in the community using chlorine dioxide, as judged by physician assessment. However, other
measures of premature birth, such as birth weight and gestational age, did not support the results based on
physician assessment. Infants from the community using chlorine dioxide exhibited statistically
significantly greater maximum weight loss after birth and smaller weight gain in 6 days, although these
effects appeared to be partially linked to the mode of feeding practiced by the mother.
Kanitz et al. (1996) followed 548 births at Galliera Hospital, Genoa, Italy, and 128 births at Chiavari
Hospital, Chiavari, Italy, during 19881989. Data on infant birth weight, body length, cranial
circumference, and neonatal jaundice and on maternal age, smoking, alcohol consumption, education, and
preterm delivery were collected from hospital records. Women in Genoa were exposed to filtered water
disinfected with chlorine dioxide, sodium hypochlorite, or both; trihalomethane levels varied from 8 to
16 ppb in sodium hypochlorite-treated water and from 1 to 3 ppb in chlorine dioxide-disinfected water.
Levels of chlorine dioxide in the water immediately after treatment were <0.3 mg/L, while chlorine residue
was <0.4 mg/L. Women residing in Chiavari used water pumped from wells, without any disinfection
38
3. HEALTH EFFECTS
treatment, and served as the comparison group (controls). Odds ratios (ORs) were determined for the
somatic parameters by comparison of groups exposed to chlorine dioxide, sodium hypochlorite, or both
with controls and adjusted for maternal education level, income, maternal age, alcohol consumption, and
smoking, as well as for sex of the child. Neonatal jaundice occurred more frequently (OR=1.7; 95%
confidence interval [CI]=1.13.1) in infants whose mothers resided in the area where surface water was
disinfected with chlorine dioxide, when compared with infants with mothers using nondisinfected well
water. Infants born to mothers residing in areas where surface water was disinfected had smaller cranial
circumference (#35 cm) (OR=2.2, 95% CI=1.43.9 for chlorine dioxide; OR=3.5, 95% CI=2.18.5 for
sodium hypochlorite vs. untreated well water; OR=2.4, 95% CI=1.65.3 for both vs. untreated well water).
In addition, these infants had a smaller body length (#49.5 cm) (OR=2.0, 95% CI=1.23.3 for chlorine
dioxide vs. untreated well water; OR=2.3, 95% CI=1.34.2 for sodium hypochlorite vs. untreated well
water). Risks for low birth weight (#2,500 g) were reported to be increased among mothers residing in
areas using water disinfected with chlorine dioxide, but these associations were not statistically significant.
For preterm delivery (#37 weeks), small but not statistically significant increased risks were found among
mothers residing in the area using chlorine dioxide. The study authors concluded that infants of women
who consumed drinking water treated with chlorine compounds during pregnancy were at higher risk for
neonatal jaundice, cranial circumference #35 cm, and body length #49.5 cm.
Interpretability of the results of Kanitz et al. (1996) is limited by lack of consideration of exposure and
potential confounding variables such as lack of quantitative exposure information, exposure to other
chemicals in the water, and nutritional habits of the women. In addition, baseline values for the infant sex
ratio and percentage of low-weight births for the comparison group deviate from values presented by the
World Health Organization for Italy. For example, the sex ratio (male/female live births x 100) used in the
study for the comparison group was 86, but most recent data (1996; as cited in WHO 2002) for Italy
indicate a sex ratio value of 106. Although the percentage of low-weight births in the control group for the
Kanitz et al. (1996) study was 0.8%, the percentage of low-weight births (<2,500 g) in Italy for 1994 was
6%. The quality of the untreated well water is not known (i.e., whether it contained any chemical or
biological contaminants).
Klln and Robert (2000) found no adverse effects on congenital malformations, childhood cancer, infant
mortality, low Apgar score, neonatal jaundice, or neonatal hypothyroidism among infants and children who
lived in areas where drinking water was disinfected with chlorine dioxide, compared to controls living in
39
3. HEALTH EFFECTS
areas where chlorination of drinking water was not practiced. This study is limited because levels of
chlorination products and byproducts in the drinking water were not monitored.
Numerous animal studies are available in which developmental end points have been evaluated following
oral exposure to chlorine dioxide or chlorite. Some studies cited effects such as decreases in brain weight,
brain cell number, exploratory behavior, locomotor activity, and serum thyroxine levels in rat pups whose
mothers were exposed to chlorine dioxide before mating and during gestation and lactation and other rat
pups that were directly exposed via oral gavage only during postnatal development. Effects such as
decreases in serum thyroxine levels, body weight and growth, exploratory behavior, and amplitude of
auditory startle response were reported in rat pups whose mothers were exposed to chlorite before mating
and during gestation and lactation.
Chlorine Dioxide. Mobley et al. (1990) administered chlorine dioxide in the drinking water of female rats
for 10 days prior to mating with unexposed males, and during gestation and lactation (until postconception
days 3542) at a concentration that resulted in an estimated dose of 14 mg/kg/day. No treatment-related
effects were seen in litter size at birth, pup weight gain, or day of eye opening. Litter weight at birth was
significantly lower (5% lower) than controls. At ages 36 through 39 days postconception, exploratory
activity was significantly depressed, relative to controls, but not on day 40. On postconception days 37 and
38, no significant treatment-related effects were seen in serum T3 or T4 levels, but T3 uptake was
significantly decreased. By postconception day 42, T3 uptake in exposed pups was no longer significantly
different from controls. The authors suggested that reduced T3 uptake may be the source of delay in
exploratory activity. This study identified a LOAEL of 13 mg/kg/day for decreased litter weight and
exploratory activity.
Orme et al. (1985) exposed rat dams to chlorine dioxide in the drinking water for 2 weeks prior to mating
and throughout gestation and lactation at concentrations resulting in estimated doses of 0.26, 2.6, or
13 mg/kg/day. Maternal body weights were not significantly affected by treatment. No significant
treatment-related effects were seen in pup body weights or age at eye opening. Consistent, but not
significantly lower activity levels were observed in 13 mg/kg/day pups, relative to controls, on postpartum
days 1520. At 13 mg/kg/day, pups also exhibited significantly depressed serum T4 and elevated T3
levels, relative to controls, when tested on postpartum day 21. A significant correlation was noted between
T4 levels and locomotor activity. This study identified a NOAEL of 2.6 mg/kg/day and a LOAEL of
13 mg/kg/day for altered serum thyroid hormone levels. In the same report, pups of unexposed rat dams
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3. HEALTH EFFECTS
were administered chlorine dioxide in a gavage dose of 14 mg/kg/day on postnatal days 520. Relative to
controls, treated pups exhibited lower body weights at 14 and 21 days (17 and 33% lower, respectively),
lower activity levels at days 18 and 19 (but not days 1517 and 20), and lower serum T4 levels on
postpartum day 21. Age at eye opening and serum T3 levels were not significantly different from controls.
A significant correlation was noted between T4 levels and locomotor activity. This study identified a
LOAEL of 14 mg/kg/day for decreased activity and decreased serum T4.
Taylor and Pfohl (1985) found no significant treatment-related effects on body weights of rat pups whose
mothers had been exposed to chlorine dioxide in the drinking water for 14 days prior to mating and
throughout gestation and lactation at a concentration that resulted in an estimated dose of 13 mg/kg/day.
Compared with controls, the treated pups exhibited consistently (but not significantly) lower activity levels
(assessed at 1020 days of age), significantly decreased whole brain weight (primarily because of a
decrease in cerebellar weight) and cerebellar total DNA content (due to a decrease in total cell number) in
21-day-old pups, and decreased exploratory activity at 60 days of age. This study identified a LOAEL of
13 mg/kg/day for decreased activity and decreased brain weight and cell number. Other pups were exposed
to chlorine dioxide only during postnatal days 520 at a daily gavage dose of 14 mg/kg. At 21 days of age,
these pups exhibited significant decreases in body weight, absolute and relative whole brain and forebrain
weights, and forebrain DNA content and total cell number, compared with controls. Decreased DNA
content and total cell number were seen in the cerebellum and forebrain when tested at 11 days of age.
This study identified a LOAEL of 14 mg/kg/day for decreased activity and decreased brain weight and
DNA content.
Toth et al. (1990) administered chlorine dioxide to male and female rat pups at a daily gavage dose of
14 mg/kg on postnatal days 120. Examinations were performed on selected pups at ages 11, 21, and
35 days, and results were compared to control pups. Significantly lower (57% lower) body weights and
decreased ratio of forebrain content to cerebellum weight were noted at all three examination times.
Significantly lower forebrain weights were seen on days 21 and 35, along with accompanying reductions in
protein content (days 21 and 35) and reduced DNA content (day 35). This study identified a LOAEL of
14 mg/kg/day for decreased brain weight and protein content.
Suh et al. (1983) administered chlorine dioxide in the drinking water of female rats for 2.5 months prior to
mating with unexposed males, and during gestation days 120 at levels that resulted in estimated doses of
0.13, 1.3, or 13 mg/kg/day. The only reported maternal effect was a slight (but not significantly) decreased
41
3. HEALTH EFFECTS
maternal body weight gain in 1.3 and 13 mg/kg/day dams, relative to controls. Fetal effects included a
significant trend for decreasing number of implants per litter and number of live fetuses per dam, and
significantly increased total fetal weights and male fetal weights in the 13 mg/kg/day group, compared with
controls. No significant effects were seen in crown-rump length or skeletal anomalies. This study
identified a NOAEL of 1.3 mg/kg/day and a LOAEL of 13 mg/kg/day for decreased number of live fetuses.
Carlton et al. (1991) administered chlorine dioxide to rats in gavage doses of 2.5, 5, or 10 mg/kg for
56 days prior to mating and 10 days of mating (males) and 14 days prior to mating and throughout mating,
gestation, and lactation (females). Relative to controls, pups in the exposure groups exhibited no
significant differences in death before weaning, mean litter size, or mean body weight. Significantly lower
absolute vaginal weight and vagina-to-body weight ratio were seen in F1 females of the 10 mg/kg/day
exposure group; no significant changes in reproductive organ weights were observed in F1 males.
Chlorite. Gill et al. (2000; results previously published in CMA 1996) conducted a 2-generation study to
examine reproductive, developmental, neurological, and hematological end points in rats exposed to sodium
chlorite. Male and female rats (F0) received sodium chlorite in the drinking water at concentrations that
resulted in estimated chlorite doses of 3, 5.7, or 21 mg/kg/day for males and 3.9, 7.6, and 29 mg/kg/day for
females. The treatment period lasted for 10 weeks prior to mating and during mating, after which males
were sacrificed; exposure of females continued throughout gestation and lactation. Sodium chlorite
concentrations were adjusted during lactation to maintain a constant intake during a period of increased
water intake. F1 generation pups were continued on the same treatment regimen as their parents (chlorite
doses of 2.9, 6, or 23 mg/kg/day and 3.9, 8, or 29 mg/kg/day for F1 males and females, respectively).
Mating commenced at approximately 14 weeks of age to produce F2a rats that were maintained through
weaning on postnatal day 21. Due to a reduced number of litters in the mid-dose F1-F2a generation, the F1
animals were remated following weaning of the F2a rats to produce an F2b generation. Significant
alterations related to treatment at high-dose included reduced absolute and relative liver weight in F1 males
and females, reduced pup survival (increase in number of pups found dead and/or killed prematurely during
lactation) and reduced body weight at birth and throughout lactation in F1 and F2 rats, lower thymus and
spleen weight in both generations, lowered incidence of pups exhibiting normal righting reflex and with
eyes open on postnatal day 15, decreased absolute brain weight for F1 males and F2 females, delayed sexual
development in F1 and F2 males (preputial separation) and females (vaginal opening), and lowered red
blood cell parameters in F1 rats. In the mid-dose groups, reduced absolute and relative liver weight in F1
males was observed. In addition, a significant decrease in maximum response to an auditory startle
42
3. HEALTH EFFECTS
stimulus was noted in mid- and high-dose groups on postnatal day 24, but not on postnatal day 60. The
NOAEL of 2.6 mg/kg/day, identified in this study, served as the basis for the derivation of an intermediateduration oral MRL for chlorite. A LOAEL was 5.7 mg/kg/day for lowered auditory startle response
amplitude on postnatal day 24.
Mobley et al. (1990) exposed female rats to chlorite in the drinking water for 10 days prior to mating with
unexposed males and during gestation and lactation until postnatal days 4253 at concentrations that
resulted in estimated chlorite doses of 2.6 or 5.2 mg/kg/day. Chlorite exposure did not adversely affect
litter size or pup weight gain. Significant, consistent decreases in exploratory activity were observed in the
5.2 mg/kg/day group on postnatal days 3639, but not on days 3941. In the 2.6 mg/kg/day group, there
were significant decreases in activity on days 36 and 37, but not on days 3840. No significant alterations
in serum T3 or T4 levels were observed in the pups. However, the free T4 levels were significantly
increased in the 5.2 mg/kg/day group. The day of eye opening in the treatment groups was similar to that
of controls. This study identified a NOAEL of 2.6 mg/kg/day and a LOAEL of 5.2 mg/kg/day for
decreased exploratory activity on postnatal days 3639.
Carlton and coworkers (Carlton and Smith, 1985; Carlton et al. 1987) exposed groups of 12 male rats to
sodium chlorite in the drinking water for 56 days prior to mating and throughout a 10-day mating period.
Groups of 24 female rats were also exposed to sodium chlorite for 14 days prior to mating, during the
mating period, and throughout gestation and lactation. Estimated chlorite doses were 0.09, 0.9, or
9 mg/kg/day for males and 0.1, 1, or 10 mg/kg/day for females. No significant alterations in litter survival
rates, median day of eye opening, or median day of observed vaginal patency were observed. Significant
decreases in serum T3 and T4 levels were consistently observed in high-dose groups of F1 males and
females at postnatal days 21 and 40. This study identified a NOAEL of 0.9 mg/kg/day and a LOAEL of
9 mg/kg/day for decreased serum T3 and T4 levels in pups.
Couri et al. (1982b) exposed pregnant rats to sodium chlorite in the drinking water during gestational
days 815 at concentrations that resulted in estimated chlorite doses of 70, 440, or 610 mg/kg/day. The
litters were either delivered at term or by cesarean section on gestational day 22. Significant decreases in
crown-rump length were observed at all doses in term-delivered litters and in the 70 mg/kg/day group that
was cesarean-delivered. Fetal weights were not adversely affected. An increase in the number of resorbed
and dead fetuses was observed in cesarean-delivered litters of all exposure levels; two litters out of five
43
3. HEALTH EFFECTS
were totally resorbed in the high-dose group. Postnatal growth and the incidences of soft tissue and skeletal
malformations were not adversely affected.
Suh et al. (1983) administered chlorite in the drinking water of female rats for 2.5 months prior to mating
with unexposed males and during gestational days 020 at chlorite concentrations that resulted in estimated
doses of 0.13 or 1.3 mg/kg/day; the dams were killed on gestational day 20. No treatment-related effects
were seen regarding resorptions, dead fetuses, or fetal body weights. Crown-rump length was significantly
higher in the high-dose group compared with controls, but the difference was very small and is probably
not biologically significant. Chlorite exposure did not significantly alter incidence of skeletal anomalies.
This study identified a NOAEL of 1.3 mg/kg/day.
Moore and coworkers (Moore and Calabrese 1982; Moore et al. 1980b) exposed pregnant mice to sodium
chlorite in the drinking water throughout gestation and lactation at a concentration that resulted in an
estimated chlorite dose of 23 mg/kg/day. A decrease in the conception rate (number of females positive for
vaginal plug/number of females producing litters; 39 vs. 56% in controls) was observed; the statistical
significance was not reported. No significant alterations in gestation length, litter size, number of pups
dead at birth, or number of pups alive at weaning were observed. Pup growth was adversely affected, as
shown by significant decreases in average pup weaning weight and birth-to-weaning growth rate.
Harrington et al. (1995b) treated rabbits with sodium chlorite via their drinking water on gestation
days 720 at levels that resulted in estimated chlorite doses of 10, 26, or 40 mg/kg/day. Dams were
sacrificed on gestation day 28. Although the number and mean percentage of major external and visceral
and skeletal abnormalities were increased in the 26 and 40 mg/kg/day groups (external/visceral: 6.6 and
2.9%, respectively, vs. 1.5% in controls; skeletal: 5.4 and 0%, respectively, vs. 0% in controls), the authors
did not consider these to be treatment-related adverse effects. Mean fetal weights in the 26 and
40 mg/kg/day groups were slightly decreased (<9%, relative to controls). In the 26 and 40 mg/kg/day
groups, the incidence of minor skeletal abnormalities (13.9 and 14.2% for the 26 and 40 mg/kg/day groups,
respectively, vs. 7.7% in controls) and skeletal variants related to incomplete fetal bone ossification was
higher than for controls. The authors state in their discussion that these alterations in fetal body weight and
delayed ossification indicate embryonic growth retardation. Decreases in maternal food and water
consumption and body weight gain may be responsible, at least in part, for some of the fetal effects.
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3. HEALTH EFFECTS
Skowronski et al. (1985) administered Alcide (a liquid sterilizer consisting of sodium chlorite and lactic
acid that form chlorine dioxide) to mice and rats in gavage doses of 1 and 0.1 mL, respectively, on
gestation days 615. No signs of maternal toxicity were observed, and there were no statistically
significant adverse fetal effects.
The highest NOAEL values and all LOAEL values from each reliable study for developmental effects in
3.2.2.7 Cancer
No reports were located in which cancer could be associated with oral exposure to chlorine dioxide or
chlorite in humans.
Kurokawa et al. (1986) performed a cancer bioassay on rats and mice that were exposed to sodium chlorite
in the drinking water. Rats were exposed to concentrations that resulted in estimated chlorite doses of 13.5
or 24 mg/kg/day in males and 21 or 31 mg/kg/day in females. All groups of rats became infected with the
Sendai virus, causing a premature termination of the study after 85 weeks of exposure. Mice were exposed
for 80 weeks to concentrations that resulted in estimated doses of 45 or 90 mg/kg/day. Mice received
distilled water only for an additional 5 weeks following the 80-week treatment period. Yokose et al. (1987)
also published a report of the mouse data presented in Kurokawa et al. (1986). The two accounts vary
slightly in exposure duration information and in reported numbers of tumor-bearing mice at study end.
Yokose et al. (1987) indicated that exposure of mice was terminated at 80 weeks according to a guideline
for carcinogenicity studies from the Ministry of Health and Welfare of Japan.
No chlorite-related increased tumor incidences were observed in rats. Significant increases in liver and
lung tumors were observed in the male mice. Incidence of hyperplastic nodules in the liver was
significantly increased in the low- and high-dose groups relative to controls (3/35 [reported as 6/35 in
Yokose et al. 1987], 14/47, and 11/43, in the control, low-, and high-dose groups, respectively) and
combined incidence of liver hyperplastic nodules and hepatocellular carcinoma was increased in the lowdose group (7/35, 22/47, and 17/43, respectively). Incidence of lung adenoma (0/35, 2/47, and 5/43,
respectively) and combined incidence for lung adenoma and adenocarcinoma (0/35, 3/47, and 7/43,
respectively) were significantly increased in the high-dose group compared with controls. The study
authors noted that incidences of liver hyperplastic nodules and lung adenomas in the treated animals were
45
3. HEALTH EFFECTS
within the range of historical controls in their laboratory and in the National Toxicology Program
laboratories. In addition, high mortality in the control males because of fighting reduced the sample size,
making statistical comparisons between controls and treated animals difficult to interpret. In the female
mice, the only significant alteration in tumor incidence was a significantly lower incidence of malignant
lymphoma/leukemia in the high-dose group (7/47, 5/50, and 1/50, respectively). The exposure durations of
both rat and mouse studies were considerably less-than-lifetime exposure guidelines for adequate
carcinogenicity studies.
Using three short-term assays, Miller et al. (1986) found no evidence of carcinogenic potential of drinking
water disinfected with chlorine dioxide. In an initiation-promotion assay, water was disinfected with
chlorine dioxide, after which water samples containing chlorine dioxide residue were concentrated and
administered orally to mice 3 times/week for 2 weeks. The mice were then exposed to 12-tetradecanylphorbal-13-acetate (a known cancer promoter) in acetone by dermal applications 3 times/week for
20 weeks. No significant increases in the number of skin tumors or the number of tumors per animal were
observed, compared with vehicle controls. In a lung adenoma assay, groups of female Strain A mice
received 0.25 mL gavage doses of the concentrated water samples 3 times/week for 8 weeks, followed by a
16-week observation period. The number of animals with lung adenomas and the number of adenomas per
animal were not significantly altered compared with vehicle controls. In the third assay, partially
hepatectomized rats were exposed to a single oral dose of the concentrated water samples followed 1week
later by administration of 500 mg/L sodium phenobarbital (a known cancer promoter) in drinking water for
56 days. Examination of livers in the treated rats did not reveal significant treatment-induced increases in
gamma glutamyl transpeptidase-positive foci (an indicator of preneoplastic liver changes).
3.2.3
Dermal Exposure
The database for health effects related to dermal exposure to chlorine dioxide or chlorite is extremely
limited. No reports were located regarding adverse effects in humans following dermal exposure to
chlorine dioxide or chlorite. Available information in animals is restricted to a report that a solution
containing chlorine dioxide concentrations of approximately 9.711.4 mg/L was nonirritating to the skin of
mice in a 48-hour test. Dermal exposure to high concentrations would be expected to result in irritation,
due to the oxidizing properties of chlorine dioxide and chlorite. Sodium chlorite was not carcinogenic in
mice treated dermally for 51 weeks. Nor did sodium chlorite appear to be a cancer promoter in mice
46
3. HEALTH EFFECTS
initiated with a single dermal dose of dimethylbenzanthracene followed by 51 weeks of dermal exposure to
sodium chlorite.
The toxicity of Alcide, an antimicrobial compound consisting of solutions of sodium chlorite and lactic acid
that produce chlorine dioxide when mixed, was assessed in laboratory animals following repeated exposure
and in fetuses of pregnant animals following in utero exposure during critical periods of organogenesis
(Abdel-Rahman et al. 1987a, 1987b; Gerges et al. 1985). However, levels of exposure to sodium chlorite
and chlorine dioxide were not known and uncertainty exists regarding the potential for the formation of
other reactive substances that could trigger toxic responses.
3.2.3.1 Death
No reports were located regarding death in humans or animals following dermal exposure to chlorine
dioxide or chlorite.
No reports were located in which respiratory, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, hematological,
musculoskeletal, hepatic, renal, endocrine, ocular, or body weight effects could be associated with dermal
exposure to chlorine dioxide or chlorite in humans or animals.
Dermal Effects.
No reports were located regarding dermal effects in humans following dermal
exposure to chlorine dioxide or chlorite.

A solution containing chlorine dioxide concentrations of approximately 9.711.4 mg/L was nonirritating to
the skin of mice in a 48-hour test (Shi and Xie 1999). Moderate to severe erythema was observed in
rabbits following repeated daily applications of Alcide, an antimicrobial compound consisting of solutions
of sodium chlorite and lactic acid that produce chlorine dioxide when mixed (Abdel-Rahman et al. 1987b).
However, levels of exposure to sodium chlorite or chlorine dioxide could not be quantified.
No reports were located in which the following health effects in humans or animals could be associated
with dermal exposure to chlorine dioxide or chlorite:
47
3. HEALTH EFFECTS

No reports were located regarding developmental effects in humans following dermal exposure to chlorine
Animal data are limited to studies of laboratory rodents exposed to Alcide, an antimicrobial compound
consisting of solutions of sodium chlorite and lactic acid that produce chlorine dioxide when mixed (AbdelRahman et al. 1987a; Gerges et al. 1985). No statistically significant treatment-related developmental
effects were observed in the offspring of rats, mice, and rabbits treated daily with dermal applications of
Alcide gel (as high as 2 g/kg) during the critical period of organogenesis. However, levels of exposure to
sodium chlorite or chlorine dioxide could not be quantified.
3.2.3.7 Cancer
Kurokawa et al. (1984) conducted two dermal carcinogenicity assays on chlorite. In an assay designed to
assess the ability of chlorite to act as a complete carcinogen, female mice were treated with dermal
applications of sodium chlorite (in acetone) twice weekly for 51 weeks. Compared with controls, sodium
chlorite exposure did not result in increased tumor incidence. To test the ability of chlorite to act as a
tumor promoter, a single initiating dose of dimethylbenzanthracene (DMBA) was applied to the skin of
mice. The DMBA application was followed by dermal applications of sodium chlorite (in acetone) twice
weekly for 51 weeks. Although incidences of tumors were higher in the chlorite/acetone-exposed mice than
in those receiving acetone only, the differences were not statistically significant.
3.3 GENOTOXICITY
No reports were located regarding the genotoxicity of chlorine dioxide or chlorite in humans.
The genotoxic potential of chlorine dioxide and chlorite has been assessed in a number of standard
genotoxicity test systems, resulting in both positive and negative results. Chlorine dioxide tested positive
48
3. HEALTH EFFECTS
for reverse mutations in Salmonella typhimurium (with activation), but did not increase chromosomal
aberrations in Chinese hamster fibroblast cells (Ishidate et al. 1984). Samples of water that had been
disinfected with chlorine dioxide did not induce reverse mutations in S. typhimurium with or without
activation (Miller et al. 1986). Negative results were obtained from in vivo assays for micronuclei and
bone marrow chromosomal aberrations in Swiss CD-1 mice, as well as sperm-head abnormalities in
B6C3F1 mice, following gavage administration of chlorine dioxide doses ranging from 0.1 to
0.4 mg/mouse/day for 5 consecutive days (Meier et al. 1985). Hayashi et al. (1988) reported positive
results in the micronucleus assay in ddY mice following single intraperitoneal injection of chlorine dioxide
at dose levels of 3.225 mg/kg.
Sodium chlorite induced reverse mutations in S. typhimurium (with activation) and chromosomal
aberrations in Chinese hamster fibroblast cells (Ishidate et al. 1984). Negative results were obtained from
in vivo assays for micronuclei and bone marrow chromosomal aberrations in Swiss CD-1 mice, as well as
sperm-head abnormalities in B6C3F1 mice, following gavage administration of sodium chlorite at doses
ranging from 0.25 to 1 mg/mouse/day for 5 consecutive days (Meier et al. 1985). Hayashi et al. (1988)
reported negative results for induction of micronuclei in ddY mice that were administered sodium chlorite in
single oral gavage doses ranging from 37.5 to 300 mg/kg, but positive results were obtained in mice
subjected to single or multiple intraperitoneal injection of 7.5 to 60 mg sodium chlorite/kg.
3.4 TOXICOKINETICS
Although no data were located regarding absorption following inhalation exposure to chlorine dioxide, little
absorption of parent compound across lung tissue would be expected due to the highly reactive nature of
chlorine dioxide. The rapid appearance of 36Cl in plasma following oral administration of chlorine dioxide
(36ClO2) or chlorite (36ClO2-) has been shown in laboratory animals. Using 72-hour urinary excretion rates
for 36Cl, absorption rates of 3035% of intragastrically administered chlorine dioxide or chlorite have been
estimated. Limited animal data indicate the presence of 36Cl in plasma following dermal application of
Alcide, an antimicrobial compound containing sodium chlorite and lactic acid that rapidly form chlorine
dioxide when mixed together. In rats, absorbed 36Cl (from 36ClO2 or 36ClO2- exposure sources) is slowly
cleared from the blood and is widely distributed throughout the body. Chlorine dioxide rapidly dissociates,
predominantly into chlorite (which itself is highly reactive) and chloride ion (Cl-), ultimately the major
metabolite of both chlorine dioxide and chlorite in biological systems. Urine is the primary route of 36Cl
elimination, predominantly in the form of chloride ion.
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3. HEALTH EFFECTS
3.4.1
Absorption

No information was located regarding absorption following inhalation exposure to chlorine dioxide or
chlorite in humans or animals.
No information was located regarding absorption following oral exposure to chlorine dioxide or chlorite in
humans.
In rats, a single gavage dose of 36ClO2 resulted in the rapid appearance of 36Cl in the plasma, which peaked
1 hour after dosing (Abdel-Rahman et al. 1980a). Based on 72-hour urinary excretion of 30% of the 36Cl
in the administered dose, it can be assumed that absorption was at least 30%. The absorption rate constant
and half-time were 3.77/hour and 0.18 hours, respectively (Abdel-Rahman et al. 1982). Similar results
were reported following single gavage dosing of rats with 36ClO2- (Abdel-Rahman et al. 1984a). In this
study, peak plasma levels of 36Cl were reached within 2 hours following dosing and 72-hour urinary
excretion data indicated that at least 35% of the radiolabel had been absorbed. The absorption rate
constant and half-time were 0.198/hour and 3.5 hours, respectively.
No information was located regarding absorption following dermal exposure to chlorine dioxide or chlorite
in humans.
Dermal absorption of 36Cl was measured in rats following 10 daily applications of Alcide, an antimicrobial
compound consisting of solutions of sodium chlorite and lactic acid that produce chlorine dioxide when
50
3. HEALTH EFFECTS
mixed (Scatina et al. 1983). Maximal levels of plasma 36Cl were reached after 72 hours. The absorption
rate constant and half-life were 0.0314/hour and 22.1 hours, respectively.
3.4.2
Distribution

No information was located regarding distribution of chlorine dioxide, chlorite, or their metabolites
following inhalation exposure in humans or animals.
following oral exposure in humans.
Animal data indicate that 36Cl, absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract following single oral (gavage)
administration of 36ClO2, is cleared from the blood with a half-time of elimination of 43.9 hours (AbdelRahman et al. 1982) and is widely distributed throughout the body (Abdel-Rahman et al. 1980a, 1980b,
1982, 1984a). At 72 hours following dosing, highest concentrations were found in the blood, stomach, and
small intestines. Relatively high concentrations were also seen in the lung, kidney, liver, testes, spleen,
thymus, and bone marrow. A shorter elimination half-time (31.0 hours) was noted in rats that had been
exposed to chlorine dioxide in the drinking water for 2 weeks prior to receiving a single gavage dose of
36
ClO2 (Abdel-Rahman et al. 1980a). Single oral (gavage) administration of chlorite (36ClO2-) resulted in
an elimination half-time of 35.2 hours from the blood and widespread distribution of 36Cl (Abdel-Rahman
et al. 1982, 1984a), similar to that observed following oral exposure to chlorine dioxide.
following dermal exposure in humans or animals. However, 36Cl has been measured in plasma of rats
following 10 daily applications of Alcide, an antimicrobial compound consisting of solutions of sodium
chlorite and lactic acid that produce chlorine dioxide when mixed (Scatina et al. 1983).
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3. HEALTH EFFECTS
3.4.3
Metabolism

No information was located regarding metabolism of chlorine dioxide or chlorite following inhalation
exposure in humans or animals.
Both chlorine dioxide and chlorite are primarily metabolized to chloride ion. At 72 hours following single
oral (gavage) administration of radiolabeled chlorine dioxide in rats, chloride ion accounted for approximately 87% of the radioactivity that had been collected in the urine and 80% of the radioactivity in a
plasma sample (Abdel-Rahman et al. 1980b). Chlorite was the other major metabolite, accounting for
approximately 11 and 21% of the radioactivity in the urine and plasma samples, respectively. Chlorate
was a minor component of the radioactivity in the urine. Similarly, chloride ion accounted for approximately 85% of the radioactivity in the 72-hour urine collection of rats that had been orally administered
radiolabeled chlorite; the remainder in the form of chlorite (Abdel-Rahman et al. 1984a).
Both chlorine dioxide and chlorite, being strong oxidizing agents, are most likely rapidly reduced in
biological systems mainly to chloride ion. Bercz et al. (1982) demonstrated this reduction for chlorine
dioxide that was introduced into saliva obtained from anesthetized monkeys.
No information was located regarding metabolism of chlorine dioxide or chlorite following dermal exposure
in humans or animals.
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3.4.4
Elimination and Excretion

No information was located regarding elimination or excretion following inhalation exposure to chlorine
dioxide or chlorite in humans or animals.
The urine is the primary route of excretion of orally administered radioactivity from radiolabeled chlorine
dioxide or chlorite. In rats, 72 hours following single oral (gavage) administration of 36ClO2, 31 and 4.5%
of the radiolabel had been excreted in the urine and feces, respectively, mainly in the form of the chloride
ion. The ratio of 36Cl- to 36ClO2- was 4 to 1, and no parent compound was detected (Abdel-Rahman et al.
1980a, 1980b). In rats administered a single oral (gavage) dose of radiolabeled chlorite, 35 and 5% of the
radiolabel were excreted in the urine and feces, respectively, in the first 72 hours after dosing. Approximately 90% of the urinary label was in the form of chloride ion (Abdel-Rahman et al. 1984a).
Urinary excretion of 36Cl was observed in rats that had been administered Alcide, an antimicrobial
compound consisting of sodium chlorite and lactic acid that form chlorine dioxide when mixed (Scatina et
al. 1984). The rats had received 10 daily dermal applications, followed by an application of radiolabeled
Alcide. Urinary excretion was greatest in the first 24 hours post application; the half-time of urinary
elimination was 64 hours. The excreted radioactivity consisted of approximately equal portions of chloride
ion and chlorite. No radioactivity was detected in feces or expired air.
3.4.5
Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic (PBPK)/Pharmacodynamic (PD) Models
Physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) models use mathematical descriptions of the uptake and
disposition of chemical substances to quantitatively describe the relationships among critical biological
processes (Krishnan et al. 1994). PBPK models are also called biologically based tissue dosimetry models.
PBPK models are increasingly used in risk assessments, primarily to predict the concentration of
potentially toxic moieties of a chemical that will be delivered to any given target tissue following various
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combinations of route, dose level, and test species (Clewell and Andersen 1985). Physiologically based
pharmacodynamic (PBPD) models use mathematical descriptions of the dose-response function to
quantitatively describe the relationship between target tissue dose and toxic end points.
PBPK/PD models refine our understanding of complex quantitative dose behaviors by helping to delineate
and characterize the relationships between: (1) the external/exposure concentration and target tissue dose of
the toxic moiety, and (2) the target tissue dose and observed responses (Andersen et al. 1987; Andersen and
Krishnan 1994). These models are biologically and mechanistically based and can be used to extrapolate
the pharmacokinetic behavior of chemical substances from high to low dose, from route to route, between
species, and between subpopulations within a species. The biological basis of PBPK models results in
more meaningful extrapolations than those generated with the more conventional use of uncertainty factors.
The PBPK model for a chemical substance is developed in four interconnected steps: (1) model
representation, (2) model parametrization, (3) model simulation, and (4) model validation (Krishnan and
Andersen 1994). In the early 1990s, validated PBPK models were developed for a number of
toxicologically important chemical substances, both volatile and nonvolatile (Krishnan and Andersen 1994;
Leung 1993). PBPK models for a particular substance require estimates of the chemical substance-specific
physicochemical parameters, and species-specific physiological and biological parameters. The numerical
estimates of these model parameters are incorporated within a set of differential and algebraic equations
that describe the pharmacokinetic processes. Solving these differential and algebraic equations provides the
predictions of tissue dose. Computers then provide process simulations based on these solutions.
The structure and mathematical expressions used in PBPK models significantly simplify the true
complexities of biological systems. If the uptake and disposition of the chemical substance(s) is adequately
described, however, this simplification is desirable because data are often unavailable for many biological
processes. A simplified scheme reduces the magnitude of cumulative uncertainty. The adequacy of the
model is, therefore, of great importance, and model validation is essential to the use of PBPK models in risk
assessment.
PBPK models improve the pharmacokinetic extrapolations used in risk assessments that identify the
maximal (i.e., the safe) levels for human exposure to chemical substances (Andersen and Krishnan 1994).
PBPK models provide a scientifically sound means to predict the target tissue dose of chemicals in humans
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who are exposed to environmental levels (for example, levels that might occur at hazardous waste sites)
based on the results of studies where doses were higher or were administered in different species.
Figure 3-3 shows a conceptualized representation of a PBPK model.
No PBPK models for exposure to chlorine dioxide or chlorite were identified.
3.5 MECHANISMS OF ACTION
3.5.1
Pharmacokinetic Mechanisms
Absorption.
No information was located regarding mechanisms of absorption of chlorine dioxide or
chlorite. Being a strong oxidizer, chlorine dioxide is likely to undergo rapid redox reactions within
biological tissues rather than to be absorbed as parent compound. Chlorite levels have been measured in
urine following oral exposure to chlorine dioxide or chlorite, indicating that some degree of chlorite
absorption occurs across the digestive tract. Due to the highly reactive nature of chlorite, itself a strong
oxidizer, absorption would be expected to occur via passive diffusion rather than active transport
mechanisms.
Distribution.
No information was located regarding the transport of chlorine dioxide or chlorite in the
blood. However, based on the fact that the strong oxidizing property of chlorine dioxide likely results in
rapid conversion to chlorite (also a strong oxidizer) in biological systems, and ultimately to chloride ion, it
would be expected that distribution would follow normal ionic distribution patterns.
Metabolism.
Although no information was located regarding mechanisms of chlorine dioxide and
chlorite metabolism, ultimate transformation to chloride ions is likely achieved via redox reactions with a
variety of substances in biological systems that are readily oxidized.
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3. HEALTH EFFECTS
Figure 3-3. Conceptual Representation of a Physiologically

Based Pharmacokinetic (PBPK) Model for a
Hypothetical Chemical Substance
Source: adapted from Krishnan et al. 1994

Note: This is a conceptual representation of a physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model for a
hypothetical chemical substance. The chemical substance is shown to be absorbed via the skin, by inhalation, or
by ingestion, metabolized in the liver, and excreted in the urine or by exhalation.
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3. HEALTH EFFECTS
Excretion.
No information was located regarding specific mechanisms of excretion of chlorine dioxide,
chlorite, or their metabolites. However, since chloride ion is the primary excretory product of chlorine
dioxide and chlorite, excretory mechanisms would be expected to be similar to those responsible for
excretion of other ions.
3.5.2
Mechanisms of Toxicity
Chlorine dioxide and chlorite are strong oxidizing agents that readily react upon direct contact with
biological tissues, resulting in local irritation. Mechanisms whereby chlorine dioxide and chlorite exert
hematological effects such as methemoglobinemia in humans (Lin and Lim 1993; Michael et al. 1981) and
animals (Bercz et al. 1982; Harrington et al. 1995a; Heffernan et al. 1979b) and alterations in other blood
factors are not presently known, but may be related to their properties as oxidants. Due to its highly
reactive nature, it is unlikely that chlorine dioxide would be absorbed in quantities large enough to produce
systemic toxicity directly. Chlorite is produced and absorbed following oral exposure to chlorine dioxide in
animals (Abdel-Rahman et al. 1980b), and may be more likely to be involved in observed hematological
effects than chlorine dioxide itself. Chlorite has been shown to be more efficient than chlorine dioxide in
the production of methemoglobin, in decreasing blood glutathione, and in alteration of erythrocytes (AbdelRahman et al. 1980a, 1984b; Couri and Abdel-Rahman 1980; Heffernan et al. 1979a, 1979b). In vitro
studies have further shown that sufficient amounts of glutathione may prevent chlorine dioxide-induced
osmotic fragility, presumably by the prevention of the formation of disulfide bonds between hemoglobin
and components of the cell membrane (Abdel-Rahman et al. 1984b).
Although changes in thyroid hormones have been reported in laboratory animals that were either directly
exposed to chlorine dioxide or exposed to chlorine dioxide or chlorite via their mothers during pre and
postpartum development (Bercz et al. 1982; Carlton and Smith 1985; Carlton et al. 1987, 1991; Mobley et
al. 1990; Orme et al. 1985), possible mechanisms that might mediate such effects have not been elucidated.
Increased levels of iodine have been noted in esophagus and small intestine of rats up to 24 hours after
administration of gavage doses of radiolabeled iodine followed by chlorine dioxide (Harrington et al. 1985).
However, no concurrent treatment-related alterations in blood or thyroid gland iodine level were seen.
Because the extent of thyroid uptake of bioavailable iodine does not appear to decrease following oral
exposure to chlorine dioxide, Bercz et al. (1986) speculated that indications of altered hormonogenesis,
such as altered serum thyroid hormone, could be the result of absorption of iodinated molecules having
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thyromimetic or thyroid inhibitory properties. These results, however, do not imply that the effect is
mediated through a hormonal pathway.
Likewise, mechanisms responsible for the developmental effects observed in laboratory animals exposed to
chlorine dioxide or chlorite are not known. They might be related to the oxidative properties of these
chemicals. Although overt signs of neurodevelopmental effects (delays in exploratory activity and general
locomotor activity) and altered serum thyroid hormone have been observed concurrently in animals that had
been exposed via their mothers during pre and postpartum development, a mechanistic basis has not been
investigated.
3.5.3
Animal-to-Human Extrapolations
Mechanisms involved in chlorine dioxide- and chlorite-induced oxidative stress, such as methemoglobinemia in humans and animals, would be expected to be similar across species. However, the database
of pharmacokinetic and health effects information for chlorine dioxide or chlorite does not include studies
in which interspecies comparisons were made.
3.6 TOXICITIES MEDIATED THROUGH THE NEUROENDOCRINE AXIS
Recently, attention has focused on the potential hazardous effects of certain chemicals on the endocrine
system because of the ability of these chemicals to mimic or block endogenous hormones. Chemicals with
this type of activity are most commonly referred to as endocrine disruptors. However, appropriate
terminology to describe such effects remains controversial. The terminology endocrine disruptors, initially
used by Colborn and Clement (1992), was also used in 1996 when Congress mandated the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) to develop a screening program for ...certain substances [which] may have an
effect produced by a naturally occurring estrogen, or other such endocrine effect[s].... To meet this
mandate, EPA convened a panel called the Endocrine Disruptors Screening and Testing Advisory
Committee (EDSTAC), which in 1998 completed its deliberations and made recommendations to EPA
concerning endocrine disruptors. In 1999, the National Academy of Sciences released a report that
referred to these same types of chemicals as hormonally active agents. The terminology endocrine
modulators has also been used to convey the fact that effects caused by such chemicals may not necessarily
be adverse. Many scientists agree that chemicals with the ability to disrupt or modulate the endocrine
system are a potential threat to the health of humans, aquatic animals, and wildlife. However, others think
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that endocrine-active chemicals do not pose a significant health risk, particularly in view of the fact that
hormone mimics exist in the natural environment. Examples of natural hormone mimics are the
isoflavinoid phytoestrogens (Adlercreutz 1995; Livingston 1978; Mayr et al. 1992). These chemicals are
derived from plants and are similar in structure and action to endogenous estrogen. Although the public
health significance and descriptive terminology of substances capable of affecting the endocrine system
remains controversial, scientists agree that these chemicals may affect the synthesis, secretion, transport,
binding, action, or elimination of natural hormones in the body responsible for maintaining homeostasis,
reproduction, development, and/or behavior (EPA 1997b). Stated differently, such compounds may cause
toxicities that are mediated through the neuroendocrine axis. As a result, these chemicals may play a role
in altering, for example, metabolic, sexual, immune, and neurobehavioral function. Such chemicals are
also thought to be involved in inducing breast, testicular, and prostate cancers, as well as endometriosis
(Berger 1994; Giwercman et al. 1993; Hoel et al. 1992).
Treatment-related altered serum thyroid hormone levels indicate that chlorine dioxide and chlorite may
exert toxic effects that are mediated through the neuroendocrine axis. Changes in thyroid hormones have
been reported in laboratory animals that were either directly exposed to chlorine dioxide (repeated doses as
low as 9 mg/kg/day), or exposed to chlorine dioxide or chlorite via their mothers (maternal doses of
chlorine dioxide and chlorite as low as 13 and 9 mg/kg/day, respectively) during pre- and postpartum
development (Bercz et al. 1982; Carlton and Smith 1985; Carlton et al. 1987, 1991; Mobley et al. 1990;
Orme et al. 1985).
Altered sperm morphology has been associated with oral exposure of rats to sodium chlorite at doses as
low as 9 mg chlorite/kg/day for 6676 days of exposure (Carlton and Smith 1985; Carlton et al. 1987).
However, available data do not indicate that the endocrine pathway might be involved in this effect.
3.7 CHILDRENS SUSCEPTIBILITY
This section discusses potential health effects from exposures during the period from conception to
maturity at 18 years of age in humans, when all biological systems will have fully developed. Potential
effects on offspring resulting from exposures of parental germ cells are considered, as well as any indirect
effects on the fetus and neonate resulting from maternal exposure during gestation and lactation. Relevant
animal and in vitro models are also discussed.
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Children are not small adults. They differ from adults in their exposures and may differ in their
susceptibility to hazardous chemicals. Childrens unique physiology and behavior can influence the extent
of their exposure. Exposures of children are discussed in Section 6.6 Exposures of Children.
Children sometimes differ from adults in their susceptibility to hazardous chemicals, but whether there is a
difference depends on the chemical (Guzelian et al. 1992; NRC 1993). Children may be more or less
susceptible than adults to health effects, and the relationship may change with developmental age (Guzelian
et al. 1992; NRC 1993). Vulnerability often depends on developmental stage. There are critical periods of
structural and functional development during both prenatal and postnatal life and a particular structure or
function will be most sensitive to disruption during its critical period(s). Damage may not be evident until
a later stage of development. There are often differences in pharmacokinetics and metabolism between
children and adults. For example, absorption may be different in neonates because of the immaturity of
their gastrointestinal tract and their larger skin surface area in proportion to body weight (Morselli et al.
1980; NRC 1993); the gastrointestinal absorption of lead is greatest in infants and young children (Ziegler
et al. 1978). Distribution of xenobiotics may be different; for example, infants have a larger proportion of
their bodies as extracellular water and their brains and livers are proportionately larger (Altman and
Dittmer 1974; Fomon 1966; Fomon et al. 1982; Owen and Brozek 1966; Widdowson and Dickerson
1964). The infant also has an immature blood-brain barrier (Adinolfi 1985; Johanson 1980) and probably
an immature blood-testis barrier (Setchell and Waites 1975). Many xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes have
distinctive developmental patterns. At various stages of growth and development, levels of particular
enzymes may be higher or lower than those of adults, and sometimes unique enzymes may exist at
particular developmental stages (Komori et al. 1990; Leeder and Kearns 1997; NRC 1993; Vieira et al.
1996). Whether differences in xenobiotic metabolism make the child more or less susceptible also depends
on whether the relevant enzymes are involved in activation of the parent compound to its toxic form or in
detoxification. There may also be differences in excretion, particularly in newborns who all have a low
glomerular filtration rate and have not developed efficient tubular secretion and resorption capacities
(Altman and Dittmer 1974; NRC 1993; West et al. 1948). Children and adults may differ in their capacity
to repair damage from chemical insults. Children also have a longer remaining lifetime in which to express
damage from chemicals; this potential is particularly relevant to cancer.
Certain characteristics of the developing human may increase exposure or susceptibility, whereas others
may decrease susceptibility to the same chemical. For example, although infants breathe more air per
kilogram of body weight than adults breathe, this difference might be somewhat counterbalanced by their
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alveoli being less developed, which results in a disproportionately smaller surface area for alveolar
absorption (NRC 1993).
Developmental delays have been observed in animals following exposure of their mothers to chlorine
dioxide or chlorite during gestation and/or lactation. In the absence of apparent maternal toxicity, these
findings suggest that parent compound or toxic metabolite can cross the placenta and that infants and
children may be particularly vulnerable to chlorine dioxide- and chlorite-mediated toxic effects. It is well
recognized that neurological development continues after birth and that gastrointestinal uptake of many
nutrients and chemicals is greater in the neonate than in the adult.
Infants may exhibit a greater degree of methemoglobinemia than adults following oral exposure to chlorine
dioxide or chlorite because infants form methemoglobin more readily than adults, due at least in part to the
presence of hemoglobin F at birth, which is readily oxidized to methemoglobin. Additional indications that
infants may exhibit increased susceptibility to hematological effects of chlorine dioxide or chlorite exposure
include a lower capacity to enzymatically reduce methemoglobin and a characteristically lower level of
vitamin E (an important antioxidant) at birth.
No information was located regarding age-related differences in toxicokinetic parameters for chlorine
3.8 BIOMARKERS OF EXPOSURE AND EFFECT
Biomarkers are broadly defined as indicators signaling events in biologic systems or samples. They have
been classified as markers of exposure, markers of effect, and markers of susceptibility (NAS/NRC 1989).
Due to a nascent understanding of the use and interpretation of biomarkers, implementation of biomarkers
as tools of exposure in the general population is very limited. A biomarker of exposure is a xenobiotic
substance or its metabolite(s) or the product of an interaction between a xenobiotic agent and some target
molecule(s) or cell(s) that is measured within a compartment of an organism (NAS/NRC 1989). The
preferred biomarkers of exposure are generally the substance itself or substance-specific metabolites in
readily obtainable body fluid(s), or excreta. However, several factors can confound the use and
interpretation of biomarkers of exposure. The body burden of a substance may be the result of exposures
from more than one source. The substance being measured may be a metabolite of another xenobiotic
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substance (e.g., high urinary levels of phenol can result from exposure to several different aromatic
compounds). Depending on the properties of the substance (e.g., biologic half-life) and environmental
conditions (e.g., duration and route of exposure), the substance and all of its metabolites may have left the
body by the time samples can be taken. It may be difficult to identify individuals exposed to hazardous
substances that are commonly found in body tissues and fluids (e.g., essential mineral nutrients such as
copper, zinc, and selenium). Biomarkers of exposure to chlorine dioxide and chlorite are discussed in
Section 3.8.1.
Biomarkers of effect are defined as any measurable biochemical, physiologic, or other alteration within an
organism that, depending on magnitude, can be recognized as an established or potential health impairment
or disease (NAS/NRC 1989). This definition encompasses biochemical or cellular signals of tissue
dysfunction (e.g., increased liver enzyme activity or pathologic changes in female genital epithelial cells), as
well as physiologic signs of dysfunction such as increased blood pressure or decreased lung capacity. Note
that these markers are not often substance specific. They also may not be directly adverse, but can indicate
potential health impairment (e.g., DNA adducts). Biomarkers of effects caused by chlorine dioxide and
chlorite are discussed in Section 3.8.2.
A biomarker of susceptibility is an indicator of an inherent or acquired limitation of an organism's ability to
respond to the challenge of exposure to a specific xenobiotic substance. It can be an intrinsic genetic or
other characteristic or a preexisting disease that results in an increase in absorbed dose, a decrease in the
biologically effective dose, or a target tissue response. If biomarkers of susceptibility exist, they are
discussed in Section 3.10 Populations That Are Unusually Susceptible.
3.8.1
Biomarkers Used to Identify or Quantify Exposure to Chlorine Dioxide and Chlorite
Chlorine dioxide is a strong oxidizing agent that is not likely to be widely distributed in biological systems
or excreted as parent compound. Chlorite may be detected in tissues, blood, urine, and feces, which may
serve as an indication of exposure to chlorine dioxide or chlorite. However, no information was located
regarding the quantification of exposure based on measured levels of chlorite in biological samples.
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3.8.2
Biomarkers Used to Characterize Effects Caused by Chlorine Dioxide and Chlorite
Exposure to relatively high levels of chlorine dioxide or chlorite may result in increased methemoglobin
levels. However, this effect is not unique to chlorine dioxide or chlorite. Presently, no chemical-specific
biomarkers of effect are known to exist for chlorine dioxide or chlorite.
3.9 INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER CHEMICALS
No information was located regarding interactions of chlorine dioxide or chlorite with other chemicals that
might impact toxicity.
3.10 POPULATIONS THAT ARE UNUSUALLY SUSCEPTIBLE
A susceptible population will exhibit a different or enhanced response to chlorine dioxide or chlorite than
will most persons exposed to the same level of chlorine dioxide or chlorite in the environment. Reasons
may include genetic makeup, age, health and nutritional status, and exposure to other toxic substances
(e.g., cigarette smoke). These parameters result in reduced detoxification or excretion of chlorine dioxide
or chlorite, or compromised function of organs affected by chlorine dioxide or chlorite. Populations who
are at greater risk due to their unusually high exposure to chlorine dioxide or chlorite are discussed in
Section 6.7, Populations With Potentially High Exposures.
Individuals with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency may be more sensitive to chlorine
dioxide or chlorite (Michael et al. 1981) because of a reduced capacity for maintaining significant levels of
glutathione, which can lead to destruction of red blood cells and hemolytic anemia. Approximately 10% of
the African American population expresses G6PD deficiency. Moore and Calabrese (1980a) demonstrated
that G6PD-deficient human red blood cells exposed to chlorite exhibited markedly greater decreased
glutathione and G6PD activity and increased methemoglobin levels than red blood cells from humans with
normal G6PD activity. Abdel-Rahman and coworkers (Abdel-Rahman et al. 1984b; Couri and AbdelRahman 1980) noted decreased glutathione levels in rats chronically exposed to chlorite in the drinking
water. Individuals who are deficient in NADH-dependent methemoglobin reductase, the principal means by
which methemoglobin is reduced to hemoglobin, may exhibit a decreased ability to reduce methemoglobin.
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Refer to Section 3.7 for information regarding age-related differences in susceptibility to chlorine dioxide
and chlorite.
3.11 METHODS FOR REDUCING TOXIC EFFECTS
This section will describe clinical practice and research concerning methods for reducing toxic effects of
exposure to chlorine dioxide or chlorite. However, because some of the treatments discussed may be
experimental and unproven, this section should not be used as a guide for treatment of exposures to
chlorine dioxide or chlorite. When specific exposures have occurred, poison control centers and medical
toxicologists should be consulted for medical advice. Standard texts that discuss treatment of toxicologic
emergencies contained no information concerning chlorine dioxide or chlorite.
3.11.1 Reducing Peak Absorption Following Exposure
No information was located regarding methods to reduce peak absorption following exposure to potentially
toxic levels of chlorine dioxide or chlorite.
3.11.2 Reducing Body Burden
No information was located regarding methods to reduce body burden following exposure to potentially
toxic levels of chlorine dioxide or chlorite. Chlorine dioxide is rapidly converted to chlorite and chloride
ion in biological systems. Chlorite is fairly rapidly excreted in the urine following exposure to chlorine
dioxide or chlorite. Increasing urinary output might be an effective method for reducing body burden
shortly following exposure.
3.11.3 Interfering with the Mechanism of Action for Toxic Effects
Intravenous administration of methylene blue may be an effective method for reducing chlorine dioxide- or
chlorite-induced increases in methemoglobin. However, this treatment is not effective in G6PD-deficient
individuals.
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Section 104(I)(5) of CERCLA, as amended, directs the Administrator of ATSDR (in consultation with the
Administrator of EPA and agencies and programs of the Public Health Service) to assess whether adequate
information on the health effects of chlorine dioxide and chlorite is available. Where adequate information
is not available, ATSDR, in conjunction with the National Toxicology Program (NTP), is required to
assure the initiation of a program of research designed to determine the health effects (and techniques for
developing methods to determine such health effects) of chlorine dioxide and chlorite.
The following categories of possible data needs have been identified by a joint team of scientists from
ATSDR, NTP, and EPA. They are defined as substance-specific informational needs that if met would
reduce the uncertainties of human health assessment. This definition should not be interpreted to mean that
all data needs discussed in this section must be filled. In the future, the identified data needs will be
evaluated and prioritized, and a substance-specific research agenda will be proposed.
3.12.1 Existing Information on Health Effects of Chlorine Dioxide and Chlorite
The existing data on health effects of inhalation, oral, and dermal exposure of humans and animals to
chlorine dioxide and chlorite are summarized in Figure 3-4. The purpose of this figure is to illustrate the
existing information concerning the health effects of chlorine dioxide and chlorite. Each dot in the figure
indicates that one or more studies provide information associated with that particular effect. The dot does
not necessarily imply anything about the quality of the study or studies, nor should missing information in
this figure be interpreted as a data need. A data need, as defined in ATSDRs Decision Guide for
Identifying Substance-Specific Data Needs Related to Toxicological Profiles (Agency for Toxic
Substances and Disease Registry 1989), is substance-specific information necessary to conduct
comprehensive public health assessments. Generally, ATSDR defines a data gap more broadly as any
substance-specific information missing from the scientific literature.
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3. HEALTH EFFECTS
Figure 3-4. Existing Information on Health Effects of

Chlorine Dioxide and Chlorite
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3. HEALTH EFFECTS
3.12.2 Identification of Data Needs

Acute-Duration Exposure.
Chlorine dioxide and chlorite are strong oxidizing agents that readily
react upon direct contact with biological tissues, resulting in local irritation. Information regarding health
effects in acutely exposed humans is limited to cases of accidental exposure to concentrated chlorine
dioxide vapors (Elkins 1959; Exner-Freisfeld et al. 1986; Meggs et al. 1996) and a single case of
intentional ingestion of sodium chlorite in an apparent suicide attempt (Lin and Lim 1993). Reports of
acute toxicity in animals primarily concern lethality following relatively high-level inhalation or oral
exposure to chlorine dioxide or chlorite (Couri et al. 1982b; Dalhamn 1957; Haller and Northgraves 1955;
Harrington et al. 1995a; Musil et al. 1964; Seta et al. 1991; Shi and Xie 1999; Sperling 1959). Additional
acute toxicity studies should focus on oral and inhalation exposures that result in less serious critical
effects. Results of such studies might serve as bases for establishing acute-duration oral and inhalation
MRLs.
Intermediate-Duration Exposure.
No human studies were located regarding chlorine dioxide- or
chlorite-induced adverse health effects following intermediate-duration exposure. Animal studies indicate
that the respiratory system is the major target of toxicity following inhalation exposure (Dalhamn 1957;
Paulet and Desbrousses 1970, 1972, 1974). The studies of Paulet and Desbrousses served as the basis for
an intermediate-duration inhalation MRL. Additional animal studies should be designed to assess the
effects of chlorine dioxide vapors on upper respiratory tissues, which may be more sensitive than
pulmonary tissues. Intermediate-duration oral studies identified neurodevelopmental delay and thyroid
hormone effects as the most sensitive chlorine dioxide- or chlorite-induced end points (Carlton and Smith
1985; Carlton et al. 1987; Gill et al. 2000; Mobley et al. 1990; Orme et al. 1985; Taylor and Pfohl 1985;
Toth et al. 1990). Additional studies could be designed to further assess these critical end points and to
determine whether they might be interrelated. See Section 3.12.2 for additional information concerning
potential for chlorine dioxide- or chlorite-induced neurodevelopmental effects following intermediateduration oral exposure to chlorine dioxide or chlorite.
Chronic-Duration Exposure and Cancer.
No information was located regarding health effects in
humans following chronic-duration exposure to chlorine dioxide or chlorite; however, information is

available from animal studies (Haag 1949; Kurokawa et al. 1986). Results of animal carcinogenicity
testing are available for oral (Kurokawa et al. 1986; Miller et al. 1986) and dermal exposure (Kurokawa et
al. 1984). These results generally do not indicate a carcinogenic effect, with the exception of a report of
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significantly higher incidences of liver and lung tumors in male mice administered sodium chlorite orally
(Kurokawa et al. 1986). However, high mortality in the control males (due to fighting) reduced the sample
size, making statistical comparisons between controls and treated animals difficult to interpret. A welldesigned cancer bioassay that includes noncancer end points might provide valuable information concerning
the effects of long-term exposure to chlorine dioxide or chlorite.
Genotoxicity.
No reports were located regarding the genotoxicity of chlorine dioxide or chlorite in
humans. Genotoxicity tests using standard in vivo and in vitro test systems have produced mixed results
(Hayashi et al. 1988; Ishidate et al. 1984; Meier et al. 1985). Both chlorine dioxide and chlorite induced
reverse mutations in S. typhimurium (with activation). Chlorite, but not chlorine dioxide, induced
chromosomal aberrations in Chinese hamster fibroblast cells. Negative results were obtained in tests for
micronuclei and chromosomal aberrations in bone marrow of mice orally administered chlorine dioxide or
chlorite during a period of 5 days. However, both chlorine dioxide and chlorite produced positive results
for micronuclei in mice following intraperitoneal injection. Although the database for chlorine dioxide and
chlorite genotoxicity is not extensive and testing has produced mixed results, additional genotoxicity testing
may not be needed at this time.
Reproductive Toxicity.
No information was located regarding chlorine dioxide- or chlorite-induced
reproductive effects in humans. Slightly altered sperm morphology and motility were observed in rats
administered sodium chlorite in the drinking water, but treatment did not result in significant alterations in
fertility rates or reproductive tissues (Carlton and Smith 1985; Carlton et al. 1987). Repeated oral
exposure of male rats to chlorine dioxide or chlorite resulted in significantly decreased testicular DNA
synthesis, however (Abdel-Rahman et al. 1984b; Suh et al. 1983). No significant treatment-related effects
on fertility rates or sperm parameters were seen in other rats following repeated oral exposure to chlorine
dioxide (Carlton et al. 1991).
Couri et al. (1982b) reported an increase in the number of resorbed and dead fetuses in cesarean-delivered
litters of pregnant rats receiving chlorite doses $70 mg/kg/day during gestation. However, this may have
been a developmental toxicity effect. Additional reproductive toxicity studies could be designed to further
investigate the potential for chlorine dioxide or chlorite to induce reproductive effects.
68
3. HEALTH EFFECTS
Developmental Toxicity.
Epidemiological reports have focused on human populations exposed to
chlorine dioxide-treated drinking water (Kanitz et al. 1996; Tuthill et al. 1982). However, study limitations
preclude making definitive conclusions regarding the potential for chlorine dioxide- or chlorite-induced
developmental toxicity in humans. Results from rat studies indicate that perinatal exposure to chlorine
dioxide or chlorite may result in delayed neurodevelopment, observed as decreases in brain size and
exploratory and locomotor activities (Mobley et al. 1990; Orme et al. 1985; Taylor and Pfohl 1985; Toth et
al. 1990) or decreased auditory startle response (Gill et al. 2000). In some studies, postnatal changes in
serum thyroid hormone levels have also been observed (Carlton and Smith 1985; Carlton et al. 1987;
Mobley et al. 1990; Orme et al. 1985). These effects have been observed at maternal doses of
approximately 614 mg/kg/day. Neither chlorine dioxide nor chlorite appear to induce significant gross
soft tissue or skeletal abnormalities (Couri et al. 1982b; Harrington et al. 1995b; Suh et al. 1983).
Additional developmental toxicity studies in animals should include a mechanistic approach designed to
investigate the basis of the observed neurodevelopmental delays and a possible relationship between thyroid
hormone effects and neurodevelopmental delays.
Immunotoxicity.
Reports of immunotoxicity are restricted to the findings of treatment-related altered
thymus and spleen weights in animals exposed to chlorine dioxide or chlorite (Daniel et al. 1990; Gill et al.
2000; Harrington et al. 1995a). Neither chlorine dioxide nor chlorite appear to be of particular
immunotoxicity concern. Additional immunotoxicity studies do not appear to be needed at this time.
Neurotoxicity.
With the exception of neurodevelopmental effects, chlorine dioxide and chlorite do not
appear to present a significant neurotoxicity concern. Additional studies should focus on

neurodevelopmental end points (refer to Section 3.12.2).
Epidemiological and Human Dosimetry Studies.
Limited information is available regarding
health effects in humans following exposure to chlorine dioxide or chlorite. Respiratory effects were
reported among individuals who were accidently exposed to concentrated chlorine dioxide vapors (Elkins
1959; Exner-Freisfeld et al. 1986; Ferris et al. 1967, 1979; Gloemme and Lundgren 1957; Kennedy et al.
1991; Meggs et al. 1996). A single case report was located in which an individual ingested approximately
10 g of sodium chlorite in an apparent suicide attempt (Lin and Lim 1993). In a set of controlled studies,
male volunteers consumed chlorine dioxide in aqueous solution and submitted blood samples for analysis
(Lubbers et al. 1981, 1984a, 1984b). Two epidemiological studies were designed to investigate the
potential for adverse effects in communities that utilized chlorine dioxide as a drinking water disinfectant
69
3. HEALTH EFFECTS
(Kanitz et al. 1996; Tuthill et al. 1982). However, these studies had limitations in their designs that affect
their interpretability. Well-designed epidemiological studies of populations orally exposed to chlorine
dioxide in the drinking water could provide valuable information regarding safe levels.
Biomarkers of Exposure and Effect.
Exposure. No known biomarkers of exposure exist for chlorine dioxide. Being a water-soluble, strong
oxidizing agent, chlorine dioxide is not likely to be absorbed as parent compound, but rather quickly
reduced to chlorite and ultimately chloride ion. Chlorite levels can be measured in biological tissues and
fluids, and may serve as an indication of recent exposure to chlorine dioxide or chlorite. Studies could be
designed to quantify chlorite levels in various body tissues and fluids; however, it is not known whether
such measurements could be used to quantify exposure levels.
Effect. No known chlorine dioxide- or chlorite-specific biomarkers of effect exist. Additional studies of
mechanisms of toxicity might provide information that could aid in the search for biomarkers of effect. A
human study of methemoglobinemia among persons (especially children and nursing infants) exposed to
higher concentrations of chlorine dioxide and chlorite in the drinking water might be beneficial.
Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, and Excretion.
Information regarding the
pharmacokinetics of chlorine dioxide and chlorite is predominantly derived from oral studies in laboratory
animals. Chlorite (ClO2-) does not persist in the atmosphere either in ionic form or as chlorite salt. The
rapid appearance of 36Cl in plasma following oral administration of chlorine dioxide (36ClO2) or chlorite
(36ClO2-) has been shown in laboratory animals (Abdel-Rahman et al. 1980a, 1982, 1984a). Limited
animal data indicate the presence of 36Cl in plasma following dermal application of Alcide, an antimicrobial
compound containing sodium chlorite and lactic acid which rapidly form chlorine dioxide when mixed
together (Scatina et al. 1983). In rats, absorbed 36Cl (from 36ClO2 or 36ClO2- sources) is slowly cleared
from the blood and is widely distributed throughout the body (Abdel-Rahman et al. 1980a, 1980b, 1982,
1984a). Chlorine dioxide rapidly dissociates, predominantly into chlorite (which itself is highly reactive)
and chloride ion (Cl-), ultimately the major metabolite of both chlorine dioxide and chlorite in biological
systems (Abdel-Rahman et al. 1980b, 1984a). Urine is the primary route of elimination, predominantly in
the form of chloride ion (Abdel-Rahman et al. 1980a, 1980b, 1984a). Additional pharmacokinetic studies
of chlorine dioxide and chlorite should be designed to examine mechanisms of absorption and metabolic
changes that might account for observed neurodevelopmental effects. Such studies might also elucidate
70
3. HEALTH EFFECTS
mechanisms underlying alterations in various hematological and thyroid hormone parameters of currently
unknown significance.
Comparative Toxicokinetics.
No studies were located in which toxicokinetics of chlorine dioxide or
chlorite were examined in humans. Chlorine dioxide is used as a drinking water disinfectant and readily
forms chlorite (ClO2-) in aqueous environments. Therefore, humans would be most likely to encounter
chlorine dioxide or chlorite via the oral exposure route. Currently, available toxicokinetic information is
restricted to animal studies. Additional studies could be designed to examine toxicokinetics in humans
orally exposed to chlorine dioxide or chlorite. Results of human and animal studies could then provide a
basis for development of PBPK models for species extrapolation.
Methods for Reducing Toxic Effects.
No information was located regarding methods for reducing
the toxic effects of chlorine dioxide or chlorite. Increasing urinary output might be an effective method for
reducing body burden shortly following exposure. Intravenous administration of methylene blue might
reduce chlorine dioxide- or chlorite-induced increases in methemoglobin. Future studies should be designed
to evaluate mechanisms of chlorine dioxide- and chlorite-mediated toxicity. Results of such mechanistic
studies might elucidate methods to reduce the toxic effects.
Childrens Susceptibility.
Neurodevelopmental delays and postnatal changes in serum thyroid
hormone levels have been observed in animals following exposure of their mothers to chlorine dioxide or
chlorite during gestation and/or lactation (Carlton and Smith 1985; Carlton et al. 1987; Gill et al. 2000;
Mobley et al. 1990; Orme et al. 1985; Taylor and Pfohl 1985; Toth et al. 1990). It is not known whether
age-related differences in toxicokinetic parameters exist for chlorine dioxide or chlorite. Additional studies
should be designed to further examine neurodevelopmental toxicity and underlying mechanisms.
A human study of methemoglobinemia among children and nursing infants exposed to higher
concentrations of chlorine dioxide and chlorite in the drinking water might provide valuable information
regarding age-related susceptibility.
Child health data needs relating to exposure are discussed in 6.8.1 Identification of Data Needs: Exposures
of Children.
71
3. HEALTH EFFECTS
3.12.3 Ongoing Studies

No ongoing studies pertaining to the toxicity or pharmacokinetics of chlorine dioxide or chlorite were
located in a search of the Federal Research in Progress database (FEDRIP 2002).
72

4.1 CHEMICAL IDENTITY
Information regarding the chemical identity of chloride dioxide and sodium chlorite is located in Table 4-1.
Table 4-1 lists common synonyms, trade names, and other pertinent identification information for chloride
dioxide and sodium chlorite.
4.2 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Information regarding the physical and chemical properties of chloride dioxide and sodium chlorite is
located in Table 4-2. Table 4-2 lists important physical and chemical properties of chloride dioxide and
sodium chlorite, but is not intended to be all inclusive.
73
Table 4-1. Chemical Identity of Chlorine Dioxide and Sodium Chlorite

Characteristic
Information
Chemical name
Chlorine dioxide
Sodium chlorite
Synonym(s)
Alcide; Anthium dioxcide;

Chlorine(IV) oxide; Chlorine Oxide;
Chlorine Peroxide;
Chloroperoxide; Chloriperoxyl;
Chloryl Radical; Dioxide de cloro
[Spanish]; Dioxide de chlore
[French]; Caswell No. 179A;
Doxcide 50
Chlorous acid, sodium salt;

Textone
Registered trade name(s)
No data
No data
Chemical formula
ClO2
NaClO2
Chemical structure
Cl
O
Na +
O
O
Cl
Identification numbers:
CAS Registry
NIOSH RTECS
EPA Hazardous Waste
OHM/TADS
DOT/UN/NA/IMCO
HSDB
NCI
10049-04-4
FO3000000
No data
No data
NA 9191 (Frozen Solution)
517
No data
7758-19-2
VZ4800000
No data
No data
UN 1496 (solid)/UN 1908 (solution)
733
No data
CAS = Chemical Abstracts Services; CIS = Chemical Information System; DOT/UN/NA/IMCO = Department of
Transportation/United Nations/North America/International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code; EPA =
Environmental Protection Agency; HSDB = Hazardous Substance Data Bank; NCI = National Cancer Institute;
NIOSH = National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health; OHM/TADS = Oil and Hazardous Materials/
Technical Assistance Data System; RTECS = Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances
74
Table 4-2. Physical and Chemical Properties of Chlorine Dioxide

and Sodium Chlorite
Property
Chlorine dioxide
a
Sodium chlorite
Molecular weight (g/mol)
67.452
90.45b
Color
Yellow to reddish-yellowc
Whiteb
Physical state
Gasc
Solidc
Melting point
-59 Cc
180200 C (decomposes)c
Boiling point
11 Cc
Decomposesc
Density
1.640 g/mL (0 C; liquid)a

1.614 g/mL (10 C; liquid)a
2.468 g/mL (solid)d
Odor
Pungent distinctive from chlorinea
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
Water
3.01 g/L at 25 C and 34.5 mm Hgc
390 g/L at 30 Cc
Other solvents
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
Odor threshold:
Water
Air
Taste
Solubility:
Partition coefficients:
Log Kow
Log Koc
Vapor pressure at 25 C
>1 atm (gas)e
No data
e
Photolysis
Unstable in light
Henry's law constant at 25 C
No data
No data
Autoignition temperature
No data
No data
Flashpoint
No data
No data
Flammability limits at 25 C
No data
No data
Incompatibilities
Organic materials, heat, phosphorus,

potassium hydroxide, sulfur, mercury,
carbon monoxide; unstable in light; a
powerful oxidizere
Organic matter, sulfur,

powdered coal; a powerful
oxidizerb
Conversion factors (25 C)
1 ppm=2.76 mg/m3e
No data
Explosive limits
Explosive at temperatures >-40 Ca
No data
Kaczur and Cawfield (1993)

Vogt et al. 1986
c
Merck 2001
d
HSDB 2002
e
NIOSH 2002
b
No data
76

5.1 PRODUCTION
Chlorine dioxide is always manufactured on site because of the risk of rapid decomposition. In all
processes, chlorine dioxide is produced in strong acid solutions from either sodium chlorite or sodium
chlorate. Small- and medium-scale industrial production of chlorine dioxide utilize sodium chlorite as the
raw material. This is typical of water treatment and disinfection applications that require high purity (i.e.,
chlorine-free) waters. Other applications not requiring high purity waters utilize sodium chlorate. This is
typical of pulp bleaching where large quantities of chlorine dioxide are necessary. There are several
processes used to generate chlorine dioxide from sodium chlorate. In the R2 process, chlorine dioxide is
produced from sodium chlorate and sulfuric acid, with sodium chloride as the reducing agent. Chlorine
dioxide is absorbed from the gas phase in packed towers in cold water, and chlorine leaves the system as a
by-product. In the Mathieson process, a sulfur dioxide-air mixture is diffused into a solution of sodium
chlorate and sulfuric acid. Sulfur dioxide is used as the reductant to produce chlorine dioxide with a much
lower chlorine content. The process also produces sulfuric acid, reducing the overall acid requirement.
Exit gases from the Mathieson process are passed through a scrubber to remove any unreacted sulfur
dioxide. The Solvay process uses sodium chlorate and sulfuric acid, with methanol as the reducing agent.
Products from this process are chlorine dioxide, formic acid, and carbon dioxide. In improved Solvay
processes, sulfuric acid demand is reduced by crystallizing out the by-products sodium sulfate, sodium
sesquisulfate, or sodium bisulfate (Kaczur and Cawlfield 1993; Vogt et al. 1986).
The production volume of chlorine dioxide can be accurately estimated from the total sodium chlorate
consumption for chemical pulp bleaching because this accounts for >95% of all chlorine dioxide
production. The annual production of chlorine dioxide in the United States was estimated to be 79, 81,
146, 226, and 361 kilotons for the years 1970, 1975, 1980, 1985, and 1990, respectively (Kaczur and
Cawlfield 1993).
Table 5-1 lists the facilities in each state that manufacture or process chlorine dioxide, the intended use,
and the range of maximum amounts of chlorine dioxide that are stored on-site. There are 107 facilities that
produce or process chlorine dioxide in the United States. Current estimates for the amounts of chlorine
dioxide stored on-site as a by-product or impurity range from 99 to 9,999,999 pounds/year
(454,539,510 kg/year) (TRI00 2002). The data from the Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) listed in
77
Table 5-1. Facilities that Produce, Process, or Use Chlorine Dioxide

Number of
Statea facilities
Minimum amount Maximum amount

on site in poundsb on site in poundsb
Activities and usesc
AL
AR
CA
CO
FL
GA
ID
IL
9
4
1
2
8
9
2
1
10,000
10,000
10,000
0
0
100
100
10,000
999,999
9,999,999
99,999
99
9,999,999
999,999
99,999
99,999
1, 3, 6, 10, 11
1, 3, 10, 11
1, 3, 10
1, 3, 12
1, 3, 10, 11, 12
1, 3, 5, 10, 11, 12
1, 3, 10, 12
1, 3, 6
KY
LA
MA
MD
ME
MI
MN
MS
NC
NH
NY
OH
OR
PA
SC
TN
TX
VA
WA
WI
3
4
1
1
6
3
2
4
6
1
2
2
3
6
5
2
3
3
8
3
10,000
1,000
100
10,000
10,000
1,000
10,000
10,000
0
10,000
1,000
100
10,000
0
0
10,000
10,000
10,000
0
100
999,999
999,999
999
99,999
9,999,999
99,999
99,999
999,999
9,999,999
99,999
99,999
99,999
999,999
999,999
99,999
99,999
999,999
9,999,999
999,999
99,999
1, 3, 6, 11, 12
1, 3, 10, 11, 12
12
1, 3, 10
1, 3, 6, 10, 11, 12
1, 3, 7, 10, 11
1, 3, 10
1, 3, 8, 10
1, 3, 5, 6, 10, 12
1, 3, 6
1, 3, 10, 12
1, 3, 10, 11
1, 3, 10
1, 3, 10, 11, 12
1, 3, 6, 10, 11
1, 3, 10
1, 3, 5, 10, 11
1, 3, 10, 12
1, 3, 6, 10, 11, 12
1, 3, 4, 10, 11, 12
Source: TRI00 2002

a
Post office state abbreviations used

Amounts on site reported by facilities in each state
c
Activities/Uses:
b
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Produce
Imported
Used Processed
Sale Distribution
Byproduct
6. Reactant
7. Formulation Component
8. Article Component
9. Repackaging
10. Chemical Processing Aid
11. Manufacture Aid

12. Ancillary/Other Uses
13. Manufacture Impurity
14. Process Impurity
78
Table 5-1 should be used with caution, however, since only certain types of facilities were required to
report (EPA 1995). This is not an exhaustive list.
The commercial manufacture of sodium chlorite is based almost entirely on the reduction of chlorine
dioxide gas in a sodium hydroxide solution containing hydrogen peroxide as the reducing agent. The
chlorine dioxide is generated from the chemical or electrochemical reduction of sodium chlorate under
acidic conditions. The product is a 33 weight percent solution of sodium chlorite, which is then converted
to a dry solid containing approximately 80% of sodium chlorite with other added salts (e.g., sodium
chloride), which act as diluents for increased safety in storage and handling (Kaczur and Cawlfield 1993;
Vogt et al. 1986).
In 1991, the production capacity of sodium chlorite was 7,700 metric tons for 80% assay basis sodium
chlorite (Kaczur and Cawlfield 1993). In the United States, sodium chlorite is produced by International
Dioxcide, Inc. (North Kingstown, Rhode Island) and Vulcan Materials Co. (Wichita, Kansas) (SRI 2001).
5.2 IMPORT/EXPORT
In all cases, chlorine dioxide is produced at the point of use. No import or export of this chemical occurs
(Kaczur and Cawlfield 1993; Vogt et al. 1986).
Import/export data on chlorites from the U.S. Department of Commerce are combined with data for
hypochlorites and hypobromites (ITA 2002). Separate data on the import/export of chlorite were not
located.
5.3 USE
Wood pulp bleaching is the largest use of chlorine dioxide, which is a uniquely selective oxidizer for lignin.
In general, the trend in the pulp industry has been to eliminate chlorine and hypochochlorite as bleaching
agents and replace them with chlorine dioxide. Since chlorine dioxide functions via an oxidative reaction
rather than a chlorinating reaction, the formation of chlorinated organic compounds is limited. Also, unlike
other oxidizing agents, chlorine dioxide does not attack cellulose, and thus preserves the mechanical
properties of bleached pulp. In the final stages of the pulp bleaching processes, chlorine dioxide is the most
frequently used bleaching chemical. A unique whiteness can be achieved using chlorine dioxide in kraft
pulp, sulfite pulp, and soda pulp processes. In the United States, the first-stage of the pulp bleaching
79
process makes use of mixtures of chlorine and chlorine dioxide to reduce the formation of organic chloride
compounds (EPA 2002c; Kaczur and Cawlfield 1993; Vogt et al. 1986).
In the textile industry, chlorine dioxide is used as a bleaching agent and produces high-quality textile fibers
with additional qualities. For example, shrinkproof wool owes its qualities to the reaction of chlorine
dioxide with the cross-linking sulfur atoms of the wool.
In industrial and municipal waste water treatment, chlorine dioxide is more effective than chlorine as a
biocide over a wide pH range. It is also less corrosive and more compatible with some construction
materials. Some municipal water systems use chlorine dioxide to eliminate taste and odor problems from
drinking waters (EPA 2002c; Kaczur and Cawlfield 1993; Vogt et al. 1986). The advantage of using
chlorine dioxide, rather than chlorine or ozone, is that chlorine dioxide does not react with organic matter to
form trihalomethanes (THMs); it also does not transform bromide into hypobromite (OBr-), which could
react with organic matter to form bromoform (CHBr3) or bromate (BrO3-) (Aieta and Berg 1986; Stevens
1982; WHO 2000). As part of the EPA Information Collection Rule (ICR), 5.1% of the water treatment
facilities serving more than 100,000 people in the United States reported that chlorine dioxide was used in
1995 (Hoehn et al. 2000). Table 5-2 summarizes the number of facilities utilizing chlorine dioxide for
water treatment in each state. However, the percentage of facilities using chlorine dioxide would be higher
if smaller facilities (i.e., those serving less than 50,000 people) were also included in this value.
Chlorine dioxide has been recognized for its disinfectant properties since the early 1900s. Chlorine dioxide
kills microorganisms by disrupting the transport of nutrients across the cell wall. In 1967, EPA first
registered the liquid form of chlorine dioxide for use as a disinfectant and sanitizer. Liquid formulations
are used as disinfectants in a variety of areas, such as on pets and farm animals and in bottling plants, food
processing (fruit and vegetable washing, meat and poultry disinfection, food processing equipment
disinfection), handling, and storage plants. In industrial processes, chlorine dioxide is used as a
disinfectant in water treatment (cooling systems/towers), ammonia plants, pulp mills (slime control, paper
machines), oil fields, scrubbing systems, odor control systems, and the electronics industry. In 1988, EPA
registered chlorine dioxide gas as a sterilant. Chlorine dioxide gas is registered for sterilizing
manufacturing and laboratory equipment, environmental surfaces, tools, and clean rooms. (EPA 2002c;
Kaczur and Cawlfield 1993; Vogt et al. 1986).
80
Table 5-2. Publicly Owned Treatment Works (POTW) Utilizing

Chlorine Dioxide for Water Treatment in 1995
Number of facilities
Statesa
AK, DE, FL, HI, ID, MD, MN, MS, ND, NV, OR, UT, VT, WI, WV
15
AL, AR, AZ, CA, CO, CT, IN, KS, LA, ME, MI, MT, NE, NH, NJ, NM, NY,
OK, PA, RI, SD, TN, WA, WY
610
IA, KY, MA, NC, VA
1115
GA, MO, SC
2125
OH
72
TX
Source: Hoehn et al. (2000)

a
Post office state abbreviations used
81
Chlorine dioxide is one of many antimicrobial pesticides being considered for use in some anthrax
decontamination efforts because of its effectiveness against spore-forming bacteria. Section 18 of the
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) authorizes EPA to allow certain state and
federal agencies to use a pesticide for an unregistered use for a limited time if EPA determines that
emergency conditions exist. On November 9, 2001, EPA issued a crisis exemption for the limited sale,
distribution, and use of EPA-registered pesticide products containing aqueous chlorine dioxide
(nongaseous) for cleaning surfaces contaminated with anthrax. Under the crisis exemption, only registered
stabilized chlorine dioxide products may be sold or distributed to employees of EPA, other federal, state, or
local government agencies, and the U.S. Postal Service. Application of the pesticide products under crisis
exemption are limited to specific buildings or treatment sites identified by EPA, other federal, state, or local
government agencies, and the U.S. Postal Service (EPA 2002c).
More than 80% of all sodium chlorite produced is used for the generation of chlorine dioxide. Sodium
chlorite is also used in disinfectant formulations and sterilization. Like chlorine dioxide, it must be
registered with EPA under FIFRA for each specific application use as a disinfection. Sodium chlorite is
used in other industrial settings in NOx and SOx combustion flue gas scrubber systems; in the treatment and
removal of toxic and odorous gases such as hydrogen sulfide and mercaptans; and as a solution formulation
to oxidize copper surfaces in multilayer circuit boards (Kaczur and Cawlfield 1993).
5.4
DISPOSAL
Chlorine dioxide is a strong oxidizer and will not persist in the open environment for long periods. It can
remain for short periods of time in clean distribution systems (Kaczur and Cawlfield 1993; NRC 1980;
Vogt et al. 1986). No further information on the disposal of chlorine dioxide was located.
Chlorite ions and salts are strong oxidizers. Responsible care should be undertaken during disposal of
chlorite ion solutions and salts. For example, solid sodium chlorite is unstable and can form explosive
mixtures with oxidizable materials, such as organic compounds. Chlorite ion solutions should not be
allowed to dry on textiles because this may result in a flammable combination (Kaczur and Cawlfield 1993;
Vogt et al. 1986). No further information on the disposal of chlorite ions and chlorite salts were located.
82

6.1 OVERVIEW
Chlorine dioxide and chlorite have not been identified in any of the 1,613 hazardous waste sites that have
been proposed for inclusion on the EPA NPL (HazDat 2002). However, the number of sites evaluated for
chlorine dioxide and chlorite are not known. The frequency of these sites can be seen in Figure 6-1.
Chlorine dioxide is a highly reactive chemical (see Section 6.3.2) that will exist only in the immediate
vicinity of where it is produced or used. In the United States, the primary route of exposure to chlorine
dioxide and chlorite (ions and salts) is from the consumption of drinking water. Chlorine dioxide is added
to drinking water as a disinfectant in some municipal water treatment systems in the United States. In
1995, 5.1% of community water treatment systems in the United States reported that chlorine dioxide was
used (Hoehn et al. 2000). However, the total number people exposed will be higher if smaller facilities
(i.e., those serving less than 50,000 people) are also included in this value (see Section 5.3). As regulated
by EPA (as of January 1, 2002), the maximum residual disinfectant levels in drinking water for chlorine
dioxide and chlorite ion are 0.8 and 1.0 mg/L, respectively (EPA 2002g, 2002e).
6.2 RELEASES TO THE ENVIRONMENT
Releases of chlorine dioxide are required to be reported under Superfund Amendment Reauthorization Act
(SARA) Section 313; consequently, data are available for this compound in the Toxics Release Inventory
(TRI) (EPA 1995). According to the TRI, a total of 1,021,346 pounds (463,275 kg) of chlorine dioxide
was released to the environment in 2000 (TRI00 2002). The TRI data should be used with caution because
only certain types of facilities are required to report. This is not an exhaustive list.
6.2.1
Air
The estimated release of 743,015 pounds (337,026 kg) of chlorine dioxide to the atmosphere from over
100 manufacturing, processing, and waste disposal facilities in 2000 accounted for about 72.7% of the
estimated total environmental releases (TRI00 2002). These releases are summarized in Table 6-1. The
Figure 6-1. Frequency of NPL Sites with Chlorine Dioxide and Chlorite Contamination

Derived from HazDat 2002
*No data are available in HazDat 2002

83
Table 6-1. Releases to the Environment from Facilities that Produce, Process, or Use Chlorine Dioxide
Reported amounts released in pounds per yeara
Stateb
Number
of
facilities
Airc
Underground
injection
Water
Land
Total on-site
released
Total off-site
releasee
Total on and
off-site
release
143,834
No data
143,834
No data
143,834
AR
17,839
No data
17,839
No data
17,839
CA
6,014
No data
No data
6,014
6,014
CO
3,955
No data
No data
No data
3,955
No data
3,955
FL
53,932
584
No data
54,516
No data
54,516
GA
6,789
No data
6,789
No data
6,789
ID
6,145
No data
No data
No data
6,145
No data
6,145
IL
12,545
No data
No data
No data
12,545
No data
12,545
4,625
277,747
No data
282,372
No data
282,372
33,265
No data
33,265
No data
33,265
MA
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
MD
185
No data
No data
No data
185
No data
185
ME
6,972
No data
6,972
No data
6,972
MI
21,204
No data
21,204
No data
21,204
MN
28,952
No data
No data
28,952
28,952
MS
39,696
No data
No data
No data
39,696
No data
39,696
NC
149,255
No data
No data
149,255
No data
149,255
NH
51
No data
No data
51
No data
51
NY
12,010
No data
No data
12,010
12,010
OH
25,007
No data
No data
25,007
25,007
OR
5,930
No data
No data
5,930
No data
5,930
PA
36,606
No data
36,606
No data
36,606
SC
71,699
No data
No data
71,699
No data
71,699
84
KY
LA
AL
Table 6-1. Releases to the Environment from Facilities that Produce, Process, or Use Chlorine Dioxide
Reported amounts released in pounds per yeara
Stateb
Number
of
facilities
Airc
Underground
injection
Water
Total on-site
released
Land
Total off-site
releasee
Total on and
off-site
release
2
3
12,944
9,542
No data
0
No data
No data
No data
0
12,944
9,542
No data
No data
12,944
9,542
VA
14,429
No data
14,429
No data
14,429
WA
8,335
No data
No data
8,335
No data
8,335
WI
11,255
No data
No data
No data
11,255
No data
11,255
104
743,015
278,331
No data
1,021,346
1,021,346
Total
Source: TRI00 2002

a
Data in TRI are maximum amounts released by each facility.

Post office state abbreviations are used.
The sum of fugitive and stack releases are included in releases to air by a given facility.
d
The sum of all releases of the chemical to air, land, water, and underground injection wells.
e
Total amount of chemical transferred off-site, including to publicly owned treatment works (POTW).
b
c
TN
TX
85
86
data from the TRI listed in Table 6-1 should be used with caution, however, since only certain types of
facilities are required to report (EPA 1995). This is not a comprehensive list.
No other information was found in the literature about the releases of chlorine dioxide and chlorite (ions or
salts) into air.
6.2.2
Water
The estimated release of 278,331 pounds (126,249 kg) of chlorine dioxide to water from three domestic
manufacturing and processing facilities in 2000 accounted for about 27.3% of the estimated total
environmental releases (TRI00 2002). No releases (0 pounds) of chlorine dioxide occurred via
underground injection (TRI00 2002). These releases are summarized in Table 6-1. The data from the TRI
listed in Table 6-1 should be used with caution, however, since only certain types of facilities are required
to report (EPA 1995). This is not a comprehensive list.
Chlorate and chlorite ions are disinfection by-products (DBPs) from water treatment using chlorine dioxide.
Table 6-2 contains data from four water treatment facilities in the United States that use chlorine dioxide as
a disinfectant. Source water samples were also analyzed from each facility and no chlorite or chlorate ions
were detected. In all water treatment plants, water taken from the distribution system (i.e., water sampled
at water treatment plant) had measurable concentrations of both chlorite and chlorate ions. The ranges of
concentrations were 15740 and 21330 g/L for chlorite and chlorate, respectively (Bolyard et al. 1993).
salts) into water.
6.2.3
Soil
In 2000, 0 pounds of chlorine dioxide were released to land from one manufacturing facility reporting
releases of the compound to the environment (TRI00 2002). Releases to the environment from facilities
that produce, process, or use chlorine dioxide are summarized in Table 6-1. The data from the TRI should
be used with caution since only certain types of facilities are required to report (EPA 1995). This is not a
comprehensive list.
Source-water quality
Alkalinity
(mg/L)
Chlorine
dioxide dose
(estimated)
(mg/L)
Free chlorine
Residual a
(mg/L)
Plant Finish Water

concentrationb
(:g/L)
Date
sampled
Type of
source
37
9/90
Stream
19
7.0
33
NA
580
110
37
9/91
Stream
6.9
31
2.4
740
140
44
8/91
Reservoirc
3.4
7.2
39
0.10.2
NA
15
330
62
8/91
Streamc
15
7.7
84
3.1
170
310
80
9/91
Mixedc
27
7.8
196
0.07
1.8
52
21
pH
Chlorite
Chlorate
Source: Bolyard et al. 1993

a
Free residual chlorine concentration leaving the treatment plant as finished water.
The samples were assumed to have no detectable chlorine dioxide residual on the basis of information from utility personnel. All samples contained 50 mg
EDA/L as a preservative.
c
Source water was analyzed for chlorite and chlorate, and none was detected above the 10 :g/L reporting limit.
B
EDA = ethylenediamine; NA = not analyzed
Site
number
Turbidity
Table 6-2. Occurrence of Chlorite and Chlorate Ions in Finished Water From Utilities That Use Chlorine Dioxide
87
88
salts) to soils and sediment.
6.3 ENVIRONMENTAL FATE
6.3.1
Transport and Partitioning
Chlorine dioxide is a very reactive compound and may exist in the environment for only short periods of
time (see Section 6.3.2). Chlorine dioxide is readily soluble as a dissolved gas. However, chlorine dioxide
can be easily driven out of aqueous solutions with a strong stream of air. The partition coefficient between
water and ClO2 (g) is about 21.5 at 35 C and 70.0 at 0 C (Aieta and Berg 1986; Kaczur and Cawlfield
1993; Stevens 1982). Transport and partition of chlorine dioxide in soils and sediments will not be
significant. Chlorine dioxide is expected to be reduced to chlorite ions in aqueous systems (see
Section 6.3.2.2).
Like chlorine dioxide, the chlorite ion is a strong oxidizer (Rav-Acha 1998). Since chlorite is an ionic
species, it is not expected to volatilize and will not exist in the atmosphere in the vapor phase. Thus,
volatilization of chlorite ions from moist soil and water surfaces or dry soil surfaces will not occur.
Because chlorite is an anion, sorption of chlorite ions onto suspend particles, sediment, or clay surfaces is
expected to be limited under environmental conditions. Thus, chlorite ions may be mobile in soils and leach
into groundwater. However, chlorite (ions or salts) will undergo oxidation-reduction reactions with
components in soils, suspend particles, and sediments (e.g., Fe2+, Mn2+ ions; see Section 6.3.2.2). Thus,
oxidation-reduction reactions may reduce the concentration of chlorite ions capable of leaching into
groundwater.
No additional information was located in the literature on the transport and partitioning of chlorine dioxide
and chlorite (ions and salts).
6.3.2
Transformation and Degradation
Chlorine dioxide is an unstable gas that rapidly decomposes in air. In water, chlorine dioxide is a strong
oxidizer; 5070% of the chlorine dioxide that reacts with organic and inorganic compounds will
immediately appear as chlorite (ClO2-) and chloride (Cl-) ions. Chlorine dioxide does not form trihalomethanes as disinfection by-products (DBPs). However, chlorine dioxide does result in the formation of
89
other DBPs (e.g., lower chlorinated organics, chlorate, and chlorite) which may be found in drinking water
treated with chlorine dioxide (Aieta and Berg 1986; Chang 1982; Stevens 1982). Suh and Abdel-Rahman
(1985) reported that the presence of ClO2 and HOCl (Cl2 dissolved in water) inhibit the formation of
trihalomethanes, and the degree of inhibition depends on the ratio of ClO2 to HOCl.
6.3.2.1 Air
Chlorine dioxide gas is unstable and can rapidly decompose at high concentrations. It also decomposes
rapidly to chlorine and oxygen with exposure to mild heat . Chlorine dioxide will decompose upon
exposure to sunlight (Vogt et al. 1986). The gas-phase absorption spectrum for chlorine dioxide is the
same as in aqueous solution (Kaczur and Cawfield 1993). The primary photochemical reaction of ClO2 in
the gas phase corresponds to homolytic scission of one of the chlorine-oxygen bonds (i.e., ClO26ClO +
O@). Products of this initial reaction generate secondary products including doublet-state oxygen (O2*),
chlorine (Cl2), and chlorine trioxide (Cl2O3) (Griese et al. 1992; Zika et al. 1984). If chlorine dioxide gas is
diluted in air to <15 volume percent, it can be relatively stable in darkness (Vogt et al. 1986).
6.3.2.2 Water
Chlorine dioxide is readily soluble in water, forming a greenish-yellow solution. It is not unusual to
simultaneously have multiple chlorine species present in chlorine dioxide solutions originating from byproducts or unreacted precursors. Table 6-3 lists the various chlorine species that might be present in
solutions of chlorine dioxide (Gordon 2001).
Chlorine dioxide does not hydrolyze to any appreciable extent between pH 2 and 10 but remains in
solution. Dilute neutral or acidic aqueous solutions are stable if kept cool, well sealed, and protected from
sunlight. In the absence of oxidizable substances and in the presence of hydroxide ions, chlorine dioxide
will dissolve in water and then decompose with the slow formation of chlorite and chlorate ions (e.g., 2ClO2
+ 2OH- X ClO2- + ClO3- + H2O). At chlorine dioxide concentrations in the 510 mg/L range at pH 12, the
decomposition half-life of chlorine dioxide in solution ranges from 20 to 180 minutes (Aieta and Berg
1986; Stevens 1982; WHO 2000).
Chlorine dioxide has a positive chlorine oxidation state of four (+4), which is intermediate between chlorite
(+3) and chlorate (+5) ions. Oxidation of chlorine dioxide usually results in the formation of chlorite ions
(e.g., ClO2 + e- X ClO2-; EpH=7=0.95 volts). Chlorite ions (ClO2-) are also effective oxidizing
90
Table 6-3. Chlorine Speciation in Aqueous Solutions

Oxidation State
Species
Formula
+7
Perchlorate ion
ClO4-
+5
Chlorate ion
ClO3-
+4
Chlorine dioxide
ClO2
+3
Chlorite ion
ClO2-
+3
Hypochlorous acid
HClO2
+1
Hypochlorite ion
OCl-
+1
Hypochlorous acid
HOCl
Chlorine
Cl2
Chloride ion
Cl-
0
-1
91
agents, although they react much slower than chlorine dioxide. The oxidation of chlorite results in the
formation of chloride ions (e.g., ClO2- + 4H+ + 4e- X Cl- + 2H2O; EpH=7=0.37 volts). The redox potential at
pH 7 (i.e., EpH=7) indicates that chlorine dioxide is a stronger oxidizer than chlorite ions (Rav-Acha 1998).
During water treatment, approximately 5070% of the chlorine dioxide reacted will immediately appear as
chlorite and chloride (Aieta and Berg 1986; Stevens 1982).
Chlorine dioxide, like other strong oxidants, will oxidize manganese (II), iron (II), iodide (I-), and sulfide
(S2-), forming insoluble manganese dioxide (MnO2), iron hydroxides precipitates, iodine (I2), and sulfate
(SO42-), respectively (Dernat and Pouillot 1992). In the absence of sunlight, bromide (Br-) is not oxidized
by chlorine dioxide. Thus, chlorine dioxide will not transform bromide into hypobromite (OBr-), which
could react with organic matter to form bromoform (CHBr3) or bromate (BrO3-). This is a significant
difference between the use of chlorine dioxide as an oxidant and the use of chlorine or ozone as oxidants
(Aieta and Berg 1986; Stevens 1982; WHO 2000).
Since chlorine dioxide reacts generally as an electron acceptor, hydrogen atoms present in activated organic
CH or NH bonds do not react by electrophilic substitution with chlorine (Hoigne and Bader 1994). As a
result, chlorine dioxide will form fewer chlorinated compounds when its reacts with organic matter. In
contrast, chlorine (Cl2) reacts not only by oxidation, but also by electrophilic substitution, resulting in a
variety of volatile and nonvolatile chlorinated organic products; for example, trihalomethanes (THMs). It
has been well established that chlorine-free chlorine dioxide in reaction with both humic and fulvic acids
does not form THMs. However, some chlorinated organics may be formed from the reaction of chlorine
dioxide with humic and fulvic acids (Aieta and Berg 1986; Stevens 1982). The reactions of chlorine
dioxide with alkenes are apparently very complex and produce a host of chlorinated and nonchlorinated
products. No evidence exists that chlorine dioxide undergoes reactions with saturated aliphatic
hydrocarbons under mild conditions. Chlorine dioxide does not seem to cause the formation of odorous
compounds with phenol. Chlorine dioxide treatment of phenols can cause chlorine substitution, ring
cleavage, or both, depending on the particular phenol reacted and the conditions of the reaction. Through
complex mechanisms, chlorine dioxide reacts rapidly with phenols and phenoxide anions to form quinones
and chloroquinones, and when in excess, oxalic and maleic acids. Chlorine substitution in the products,
however, is not entirely absent (Aieta and Berg 1986; Rav-Acha and Choshen 1987; Stevens 1982). At a
waste water treatment pilot plant in Evansville, Indiana, which used chlorine dioxide as a primary
disinfectant, more than 40 different organic DBPs were identified at very low concentrations. Ten of these
DBPs are regulated chemicals by EPA. Some of the compounds identified were maleic anhydrides and
halopropanones (Richardson et al. 1994). Chlorine dioxide will not react with ammonia and reacts only
92
slowly with primary amines. In general, amines produce the respective aldehyde upon reaction with
chlorine dioxide in the following order of reactivity: tertiary>seconary>primary (Aieta and Berg 1986;
Stevens 1982).
Chlorine dioxide readily degrades in aqueous solutions under ultraviolet light. It has a broad UV
absorption band with a maximum near 360 nm and a molar extinction coefficient of about
1,150 (M x cm)-1 (Aieta and Berg 1986). It is postulated that the reaction in solution proceeds as in the gas
phase, to give ClO@ and O@. The initial photodissociation reaction is followed by rapid dark and light
reactions to produce the products, chlorate (ClO3-), hypochlorite (OCl-), and chloride (Cl-) (Zika et al.
1984). Solution speciation can have a marked effect on the mechanism and products generated from
photolysis of chlorine dioxide. In the absence of light, chlorine dioxide will not oxidize bromide ion into
hypobromite (OBr-) and will not form of bromoform (CHBr3) or bromate (BrO3-). However, under
sunlight, some photolysis intermediates of chlorine dioxide with long half-lives are capable of oxidizing
bromide to hypobromite, which will result in the formation of bromate. Thus, if labile organic materials
are present during illumination, bromoform may be generated by the reaction of organic matter with
hypobromite formed by intermediates of chlorine dioxide photolysis (Aieta and Berg 1986; Bolyard et al.
1993; Griese et al. 1992; Stevens 1982; WHO 2000; Zika et al. 1984).
6.3.2.3 Sediment and Soil
No information was located in the literature on the transformation and degradation of chlorine dioxide or
chlorite (ions or salts) in sediment and soils. However, chlorine dioxide and chlorite ions should degrade
rapidly in soil in an analogous manner to the reactions described in water (see Section 6.3.2.2).
6.3.2.4 Other Media
No information was located in the literature on the transformation and degradation of chlorine dioxide or
chlorite (ions or salts) in other environmental media.
93
6.4 LEVELS MONITORED OR ESTIMATED IN THE ENVIRONMENT

6.4.1
Air
Chlorine dioxide degrades rapidly in air (see Section 6.3.2.1) and should be measurable only near its source
of production or use (e.g., pulp and paper mill plants, water treatment facilities). As part of an
international study of workers in the pulp and paper industry, the concentration of chlorine dioxide was
measured in the workplace air of pulp and paper mills from 19 countries. The concentration of chlorine
dioxide was measured in the following work areas: steam and power generation (range, <0.0010.06 ppm);
effluent water treatment (range, not detected to 0.003 ppm); and maintenance (range, <detection limit to
5.8 ppb) (Kauppinen et al. 1997; Teschke et al. 1999). In another study, the concentration of chlorine
dioxide was measured in the workplace air at a pulp mill in British Columbia, Canada between May and
June, 1988. The concentration of chlorine dioxide was <0.01 ppm in area samples and personal full-shift
samples. The exception was in the bleach/chemical preparation area sample in which the concentration of
chlorine dioxide ranged from <0.01 to 0.3 ppm (Kennedy et al. 1991).
Chlorine dioxide-treated drinking water has been attributed to the formation of offensive odors in indoor
air, such as kerosene-like and cat-urine-like odors. This has been ascribed to over-dosing drinking
water with residual chlorine dioxide, which is used as a postdisinfectant to prevent microbial growth in
water distribution systems. The kerosene-like and cat-urine-like odors are produced by reactions
between chlorine dioxide escaping from water and volatile organic compounds found in homes primarily
from new carpeting (Hoehn et al. 1990).
No other information was located in the literature on the concentrations of chlorine dioxide or chlorite (ions
or salts) in air.
6.4.2
Water
Chlorine dioxide is added to drinking water as a disinfectant in some municipal water treatment systems in
the United States. In 1995, 5.1% of community water treatment systems in the United States reported that
chlorine dioxide was used (Hoehn et al. 2000). This would translate to about 12 million people who may
be exposed to chlorine dioxide and chlorite ions in the United States. However, the total number of people
exposed will be higher if smaller facilities (i.e., those serving <50,000 people) are also included in this
value.
94
As regulated by EPA (as of January 1, 2002), the maximum residual disinfectant level (MRDL) for
chlorine dioxide is 0.8 mg/L (EPA 2002g); the maximum contaminant level (MCL) for its oxidation
product, chlorite ion, in drinking water is 1.0 mg/L (EPA 2002e). The levels of chlorite ion in distribution
system waters have been reported as part of the Information Collection Rule (ICR), a research project used
to support the development of national drinking water standards in the United States (EPA 2002d).
Figure 6-2 illustrates the levels of chlorite ion in drinking water sampled from the distribution system
versus the percentage of publically owned treatment works (POTW) facilities in the United States that
reported as part of the ICR in 1998. Approximately 16% of this group had levels of chlorite ion over the
MCL of 1 mg/L.
In a 12-week epidemiological study conducted in a small town in Ohio, the ranges of concentrations of
chlorine dioxide, chlorite ion, and chlorate ion in drinking water were 0.31.1, 3.27.0, and 0.31.1 mg/L,
respectively (Lykins et al. 1990; Michael et al. 1981). In one study using a sensitive analytical method, the
average concentration of chlorine dioxide in tap water from the city of Brest, France was 1.8x10-7 mol/L
(0.012 mg/L) (Quentel et al. 1994).
No other information was located in the literature on the concentrations of chlorine dioxide or chlorite (ions
or salts) in water.
6.4.3
Sediment and Soil
No information was located in the literature on the concentrations of chlorine dioxide or chlorite (ions or
salts) in sediments and soil.
6.4.4
Other Environmental Media
No information was located in the literature on the concentrations of chlorine dioxide or chlorite (ions or
salts) in other environmental media.
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0.0-0.1
0.1-0.2
0.2-0.3
0.3-0.4
0.4-0.5
0.5-0.6
0.6-0.7
0.7-0.8
0.8-0.9
0.9-1.0
above
1.0
% of POTW facilities reporting to ICR
Figure 6-2. Percentage of POTW Facilities Reporting to ICR vs. Level of Chlorite in Distribution System Water*
Level of ClO2 (ppm) in distribution system water

Source: EPA 2002d
*Samples were taken from the distribution system of POTW facilities that utilized chlorine dioxide.
ClO2-=chlorite; ICR=Information Collection Rule; POTW=publicly owned treatment works
95
96
6.5 GENERAL POPULATION AND OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE

The general population may be exposed to chlorine dioxide and chlorite (ions or salts) by the ingestion of
drinking water. As part of the ICR, 5.1% of the water treatment facilities serving more than
100,000 people in the United States reported that chlorine dioxide was used in 1995 (Hoehn et al. 2000).
However, the percentage of facilities using chlorine dioxide would be higher if smaller facilities (i.e., those
serving <50,000 people) were also included in this value. Individuals who live in these communities will
have a higher exposure to chlorine dioxide and chlorite ions than other segments of the population.
For communities that utilize chlorine dioxide as a drinking water disinfectant, an exposure estimate may be
calculated based on the maximum residual disinfectant levels for chlorine dioxide and chlorite ion. If the
concentration of chlorine dioxide in U.S. drinking water is assumed to be 0.8 mg/L, the maximum residual
disinfectant level (EPA 2002g), and the consumption rate of drinking water by a normal adult is assumed to
be 2 L/day, then the exposure to chlorine dioxide from drinking water would be 1.6 mg/day. Similarly, if
the concentration of chlorite ion in U.S. drinking water is assumed to be 1.0 mg/L, the maximum
contaminant level (EPA 2002e), and the consumption rate of drinking water by a normal adult is assumed
to be 2 L/day, then the exposure from drinking water would be 2.0 mg/day. However, the exposure to
chlorine dioxide and chlorite ion may be much lower than these estimated levels depending on individual
conditions for each community. Other sources of exposure to chlorine dioxide and chlorite (ions or salts)
will not be significant for the general population.
Occupational exposure to chlorine dioxide and chlorite may occur at facilities that utilize these chemicals
as bleaching agents (e.g., pup and paper mills) or water disinfectants (e.g., water treatment facilities). The
primary route of occupational exposure will by inhalation of these compounds in the immediate vicinity of
their use. As part of an international study of workers in the pulp and paper industry, the concentration of
chlorine dioxide was measured in the workplace air of pulp and paper mills from 19 countries. The
concentration of chlorine dioxide was measured in the following work areas: steam and power generation
(range, <0.0010.06 ppm); effluent water treatment (range, not detected to 0.003 ppm); and maintenance
(range, <detection limit to 5.8 ppb) (Kauppinen et al. 1997; Teschke et al. 1999). In another study, the
concentration of chlorine dioxide was measured in the workplace air at a pulp mill in British Columbia,
Canada between May and June, 1988. The concentration of chlorine dioxide was <0.01 ppm in area
samples and personal full-shift samples. The exception was in the bleach/chemical preparation area sample
in which the concentration of chlorine dioxide ranged from <0.01 to 0.3 ppm (Kennedy et al. 1991).
97
6.6 EXPOSURES OF CHILDREN

This section focuses on exposures from conception to maturity at 18 years in humans. Differences from
adults in susceptibility to hazardous substances are discussed in 3.7 Childrens Susceptibility.
Children are not small adults. A childs exposure may differ from an adults exposure in many ways.
Children drink more fluids, eat more food, breathe more air per kilogram of body weight, and have a larger
skin surface in proportion to their body volume. A childs diet often differs from that of adults. The
developing humans source of nutrition changes with age: from placental nourishment to breast milk or
formula to the diet of older children who eat more of certain types of foods than adults. A childs behavior
and lifestyle also influence exposure. Children crawl on the floor, put things in their mouths, sometimes eat
inappropriate things (such as dirt or paint chips), and spend more time outdoors. Children also are closer
to the ground, and they do not use the judgment of adults to avoid hazards (NRC 1993).
Specific information on the exposure of children to chlorine dioxide and chlorite (ions or salts) was not
located. Like adults, the primary route of exposure for children will be from drinking water. Water
consumption among children is higher on a proportional body weight basis than for adults. Therefore,
children may have a higher exposure to chlorine dioxide and chlorite (ions or salts). Other sources of
exposure to chlorine dioxide and chlorite (ions or salts) will not be significant. Chlorine dioxide and
chlorite (ions or salts) are reactive chemicals and will not be found in amniotic fluid, meconium, neonatal
blood, or breast milk.
6.7 POPULATIONS WITH POTENTIALLY HIGH EXPOSURES
Individuals who are employed at pulp and paper mills, municipal water treatment facilities, and other
facilities that use chlorine dioxide as a disinfectant may have high exposures to chlorine dioxide and
chlorite (ions or salts) (see Section 6.5).
Section 104(i)(5) of CERCLA, as amended, directs the Administrator of ATSDR (in consultation with the
information on the health effects of chlorine dioxide is available. Where adequate information is not
available, ATSDR, in conjunction with the National Toxicology Program (NTP), is required to assure the
98
initiation of a program of research designed to determine the health effects (and techniques for developing
methods to determine such health effects) of chlorine dioxide.
6.8.1
Physical and Chemical Properties.
The relevant physical and chemical properties of chlorine
dioxide and chlorite ions and salts are well-known (see Section 4.2).
Production, Import/Export, Use, Release, and Disposal.
Data regarding the production,
import/export, and use of chlorine dioxide and chlorite (ions or salts) are available (see Sections 5.15.3),
but are limited. Additional information on the facilities (e.g., water treatment) and industries that use
chlorine dioxide and chlorite (ions or salts), the production amounts, and disposal methods are needed.
Environmental Fate.
Little experimental data on the resonance time and half-life of chlorine dioxide
and chlorite (ions or salts) in the atmosphere are available. Additional information on the transport of
chlorine dioxide in the atmosphere may be useful, considering that over 900,000 pounds are released
annually to air (TRI00 2002). Additional information about the mechanism of reformation of chlorine
dioxide in water distribution systems from chlorite ion is needed (Hoehn et al. 1990). Additional
information concerning the transport and partitioning of chlorite (ions or salts) is also needed.
Bioavailability from Environmental Media.
Chlorine dioxide and chlorite (ions or salts) are strong
oxidizers. Chlorine dioxide is highly reactive and will not be bioavailable in environmental media.
Additional information concerning the bioavailability of chlorite (ions or salts) is needed.
Food Chain Bioaccumulation.
Chlorine dioxide and chlorite (ions and salts) are strong oxidizers
and will not bioaccumulate.
99
Exposure Levels in Environmental Media.
No data are available in the literature for the exposure
levels of flora and fauna to chlorine dioxide or chlorite (ions or salts). Additional information on the
exposure of flora and fauna to chlorine dioxide and chlorite may be useful.
Exposure Levels in Humans.
Ingestion of water is the primary route of exposure to chlorine dioxide
and chlorite ions by the general population. Only limited information is available. Additional information
about the levels of chlorite ion in tap water and other human exposure sources is needed.
Exposures of Children.
Children will be exposed to chlorine dioxide and chlorite ions in the same
manner as adults in the general population (i.e., ingestion of water). Additional information about possible
differences in exposure pathways for children versus adults would be useful.
Child health data needs relating to susceptibility are discussed in 3.12.2 Identification of Data Needs:
Childrens Susceptibility.
Exposure Registries.
6.8.2
No exposure registries exist for chlorine dioxide and chlorite.
Ongoing Studies
The Federal Research in Progress (FEDRIP 2002) database provides additional information obtainable
from a few ongoing studies that may fill in some of the data needs identified in Section 6.8.1. No ongoing
studies on the environmental fate of chlorine dioxide or chlorite (ions or salts) are currently in progress
(FEDRIP 2002).
100
The purpose of this chapter is to describe the analytical methods that are available for detecting, measuring,
and/or monitoring chlorine dioxide and chlorite ion, and other biomarkers of exposure and effect to chlorine
dioxide and chlorite ion. The intent is not to provide an exhaustive list of analytical methods. Rather, the
intention is to identify well-established methods that are used as the standard methods of analysis. Many of
the analytical methods used for environmental samples are the methods approved by federal agencies and
organizations such as EPA and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). Other
methods presented in this chapter are those that are approved by groups such as the Association of Official
Analytical Chemists (AOAC) and the American Public Health Association (APHA). Additionally,
analytical methods are included that modify previously used methods to obtain lower detection limits and/or
to improve accuracy and precision.
7.1 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS
No methods for determining chlorine dioxide in biological materials were located. Most studies concerning
human health effects measure the concentrations of chlorine dioxide in the air or in water. The
measurement of chlorine dioxide in biological materials is not commonly used because of the rapid
conversion of chlorine dioxide to chlorine-containing metabolites, such as chlorite and chloride ions.
Abdel-Rahman et al. (1980b) developed a method to quantitatively and qualitatively measure the
metabolites of chlorine dioxide (e.g., Cl-, ClO2-, and ClO-) in biological fluids. These biomarkers can be
used to indirectly measure chlorine dioxide exposure.
7.2 ENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLES
Chlorine dioxide has been measured in air and water. Methods for determining levels in the air include
spectrophotometry and ion chromatography. Environmental analyses of chlorine dioxide in water are
performed using electrochemical, chromatographic, or spectrophotometric methods. Analytical methods
for the determination of chlorine dioxide in environmental samples are given in Table 7-1. Ion
chromatography may also be used to analyze the inorganic disinfection-by-products of chlorine dioxide
(i.e., chlorite ions) in an analogous manner using EPA Method 300.0 (Hoehn et al. 2000; Pfaff and
Brockhoff 1990).
Table 7-1. Analytical Methods for Determining Chlorine Dioxide and Chlorite in Environmental Samples
Sample
matrix
Preparation method
Air
None.
Percent
recovery
Reference
Toxic gas vapor

detector tube
0.05 ppm
No data
EPA 1997
Workplace air Diffusion of air into potassium

iodide solution at pH 7.
Ion chromatography
(of chlorite ion in
solution)
0.02 ppm of chlorine dioxide
No data
Bjrkholm et al. 1990;

Hekmat et al. 1994
(OSHA Method 202)
Water
Ion chromatography
with conductivity
detector
0.01 mg/L (as chlorite ion)
No data
Hoehn et al. 2000

(EPA Method 300.0)
0.03 mg/L (as chlorite ion)
Pfaff and Brockhoff

1990
Water
UV/VIS spectrometry
To 100 mL sample, add 2 mL
glycine solution and mix. In a
separate flask, place 5 mL
buffer reagent and N,N-diethylp-phenylenediamine indicator
solution and mix. Add 200 mg
EDTA, disodium salt, and then
add glycine-treated sample and
mix.
>0.1 mg/La
No data
APHA 1998
(Method 4500-CLO2-D)
Water
Add buffer and indicator.
Indicator (detection limit)
No data
Fletcher and
Hemmings 1985;
Hofmann et al. 1998;
Hui et al. 1997; Sweetin
et al. 1996
No data
APHA 1998
(Method 2350-C)
(Method 4500-CLO2-C)
(Method 4500-CLO2-E)
UV/VIS spectrometry
acid chrome violet K (0.02 mg/L)

amaranth (0.005 mg/L)
lissamine green B (0.03 mg/L)
methylene blue (0.02 mg/L)
chlorophenol red (0.12 mg/L)
Water/waste
water
Measure initial temperature and Amperometric titration .0.5 mg/La

pH and protect sample from
light throughout the procedure.
Phenylarsine oxide is used as
standard titrant.
Sample detection limit
None.
Analytical
method
101
Table 7-1. Analytical Methods for Determining Chlorine Dioxide and Chlorite in Environmental Samples
(continued)
Preparation method
Water
None.
Water
Transfer 5 mL acetic acid, or

enough to adjust sample pH
between 3 and 4, and 1 g KI,
and 1 mL starch solution; pour
in sample and mix.
Water,
drinking
Polarographic
Add sample to 1,2-dihydroxyanthraquinone-3-sulphonic acid analyser
in phosphate buffer.
Analytical
method
Sample detection limit
Percent
recovery
Reference
Flow injection using

redox electrode
detector
3.4 ppb (as chlorite ion)
No data
Ohura et al. 1999
Iodometric titration
20 g/L
No data
APHA 1998
(Method 4500-CLO2-B)
2 g/L
No data
Quentel et al. 1994
Hofmann et al. (1998)
APHA = American Public Health Association; EDTA = ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid; EPA = Environmental Protection Agency; KI = potassium iodide;
OSHA = Occupational Safety and Health Administration; UV/VIS = ultraviolet/visible light
Sample
matrix
102
103
Atmospheric chlorine dioxide may be sampled by pulling a given volume of air through a toxic gas vapor
detector tube. The tube contains chemicals that react only with chlorine dioxide. If chlorine dioxide is
present, the indicator chemical in the tube will change color. The concentration of the gas or vapor may be
estimated by either the length-of-stain compared to a calibration chart or the intensity of the color change
compared to a set of standards (EMMI 1997). Diffusive samplers have been used to monitor chlorine
dioxide and chlorine in workplace air. In this technique, workplace air is diffused into an absorbing
solution of neutrally buffered potassium iodide. In the absorbing solution, chlorine dioxide and chlorine are
reduced by iodide ions to chlorite and chloride ions, respectively. The formed ions are then separated and
quantified by ion chromatography. The analytical detection limits have been found to be 0.02 and
0.07 ppm for chloride and chlorite ions, respectively (Bjrkholm et al. 1990).
Spectrophotometry (or colorimetry) has been used to measure chlorine dioxide in water using indicators
that change colors when oxidized by chlorine dioxide. Spectrophotometric analyzers determine the
concentration of chlorine dioxide by measuring the optical absorbance of the indicator in the sample
solution. The absorbance is proportional to the concentration of the chlorine dioxide in water. Indicators
used for this technique include N,N-diethyl-p-phenylenediamine, chlorophenol red, and methylene blue
(APHA 1998; Fletcher and Hemming 1985; Quentel et al. 1994; Sweetin et al. 1996). For example,
chlorophenol red selectively reacts with chlorine dioxide at pH 7 with a detection limit of 0.12 mg/L. The
interferences from chlorine may be reduced by the addition of oxalic acid, sodium cyclamate, or
thioacetamide (Sweetin et al. 1996).
APHA Method 4500-CLO2-B, iodometric titration analysis, measures the concentration of chlorine dioxide
in water by titration with iodide, which is reduced to form iodine. Iodine is then measured colorimetrically
when a blue color forms from the production of a starch-iodine complex. The detection limit for this
method is 20 g/L (APHA 1998).
For APHA Methods 2350-C and 4500-CLO2-E, amperometric analyzers are used to measure chlorine
dioxide in water. Amperometric analyzers measure the current that is necessary to maintain a constant
concentration of titrant as chlorine dioxide reduces the titrant (e.g., phenylarsine oxide). This method is
limited by interference from compounds that might react with the titrant (e.g., chlorine and chloroamine)
(APHA 1998).
Because of its sensitivity and precision, ion chromatography (EPA Method 300.0) is a good technique for
analyzing chlorine dioxide in water. Ion chromatography utilizes the ability of certain ion exchange resins
104
to separate a mixture of anionic species. A liquid mobile phase (e.g., eluant) is used to carry the sample
through the system either by isocratic (using same eluant) or gradient (varying concentration or flow rate)
elution. After separation is achieved, the separated anions are measured using a detector (e.g.,
conductometric, ultraviolet/visible, or fluorescence). Typically, chlorine dioxide is indirectly analyzed as
chlorite ions (Hoehn et al. 2000). Detection limits for chlorite ions range from 0.01 to 0.03 mg/L (Hoehn et
al. 2000; Pfaff and Brockhoff 1990). Other detection methods used with ion chromatography, such as ionspray mass spectrometry, have been developed and offer greater ion selectivity and sensitivity (Charles and
Ppin 1998). Precolumn sample treatments using tetraborate/boric acid to separate analytes from common
interfering ions (e.g., chloride, carbonate, and nitrate) result in lower detection limits on the order of
10 g/L for chlorite ions (Hautman and Bolyard 1992a). With postcolumn derivatization of chlorite ions
to tribromate ions, detection limits on the order of 0.4 g/L have been achieved for chlorite ions (Weinberg
and Yamada 1998).
Gas-diffusion flow injection analysis is capable of detecting very low concentrations of chlorine dioxide in
water (i.e., detection limit is 5 ppb). A chemiluminescence flow-through detector cell is used to measure
the concentration chlorine dioxide as a function of chemiluminescence intensity. A gas diffusion membrane
separates the donor stream from the detecting stream and removes ionic interferences from iron and
manganese compounds, as well as from other oxychlorinated compounds, such as chlorate and chlorite
(Hollowell et al. 1986; Saksa and Smart 1985).
A rapid potentiometric flow inject technique for the simultaneous determination of oxychlorine species
(e.g., ClO2-) was developed by Ohura et al. (1999). The analytical method is based on the detection of a
large transient potential change of the redox electrode due to chlorine generated via the reaction of the
oxychlorine species (e.g., ClO2-). The detection limit for ClO2- is 3.4 ppb.
The concentration of residual chlorite ion in vegetables and eggs treated with sodium chlorite was
determined by UV-ion chromatography (Suzuki et al. 1997). Sodium chlorite was extracted with water and
cleaned-up using C18 cartridge. The detection limit of sodium chlorite in vegetables and eggs was 1 mg/kg
with recoveries of 90100%.
105
7.3
ADEQUACY OF THE DATABASE
Section 104(i)(5) of CERCLA, as amended, directs the Administrator of ATSDR (in consultation with the
information on the health effects of chlorine dioxide is available. Where adequate information is not
available, ATSDR, in conjunction with the National Toxicology Program (NTP), is required to assure the
initiation of a program of research designed to determine the health effects (and techniques for developing
methods to determine such health effects) of chlorine dioxide.
7.3.1
Methods for Determining Biomarkers of Exposure and Effect.
Metabolites of chlorinated
phenoloic compounds in fish bile have been found to be sensitive biomarkers of bleach pulp mill effluent
exposure (Brumley et al. 1996). Analysis of metabolites of chlorinated syringaldehydyes in fish bile can
provide a biomarker of effluent exposure that is sensitive to low levels of exposure and correlates well with
exposure concentrations. No data are available on methods that determine biomarkers of exposure and
effect in humans were located. Methods for determining biomarkers of exposure and effect in humans
would be helpful.
Methods for Determining Parent Compounds and Degradation Products in Environmental
Media.
Methods for determining chlorine dioxide and its metabolites in air and water, the media of most
concern for human exposure, are reliable, but may not be sensitive enough to measure background levels in
the environment. No data are available on methods for determining chlorine dioxide and its metabolites in
soil and other solid media. In addition, there is insufficient information on the methods for determining
chlorine dioxide and its metabolites in media such as shellfish, fish, and plants. Some exposure to chlorine
dioxide and its metabolites may occur via ingestion of food, and thus, standardized methods for foods are
needed. Methods with sufficient sensitivity for measuring background levels in foods would be helpful as
well.
106
7.3.2
Ongoing Studies
The ongoing studies identified in Table 7-2 were found as a result of a search of the Federal Research in
Progress database (FEDRIP 2002).
107
Table 7-2. Ongoing Studies on Analytical Methods for Chlorine Dioxide

and Chlorite
Investigator
Affiliation
Subject
Sponsor
Bubnis, B.P.
Novatek
Oxford, Ohio
Improvements in chlorine
dioxide disinfection of water
DHHS
Chiang, H.K.
Photonic Sensor
Systems, Inc.
Atlanta, Georgia
A novel integrated optic

sensor for inline
measurement of mixing
quality in chlorine dioxide
pulp bleaching
DOE
Source: FEDRIP 2002

DHHS = Department of Health and Human Services; DOE = Department of Energy
108
The international, national, and state regulations and guidelines regarding chlorine dioxide and chlorite in
air, water, and other media are summarized in Table 8-l.
ATSDR has derived an intermediate-duration inhalation MRL of 0.001 ppm (0.003 mg/m3) for chlorine
dioxide based on a LOAEL of 1 ppm for respiratory effects (peribronchiolar edema and vascular
congestion in the lungs) in rats exposed to chlorine dioxide vapors 5 hours/day, 5 days/week for 2 months
(Paulet and Desbrousses 1972). The LOAEL was converted to a LOAELHEC of 0.3 ppm and divided by an
uncertainty factor of 300 (3 for interspecies extrapolation using dosimetric adjustments, 10 for the use of a
LOAEL, and 10 to account for sensitive populations).
ATSDR has derived an intermediate-duration oral MRL of 0.1 mg/kg/day for chlorite based on a NOAEL
of 2.9 mg chlorite/kg/day and a LOAEL of 5.7 mg chlorite/kg/day for neurodevelopmental effects (lowered
auditory startle amplitude) in rat pups that had been exposed throughout gestation and lactation via their
mothers (Gill et al. 2000; same study as CMA 1996). The NOAEL of 2.9 mg chlorite/kg/day was divided
by an uncertainty factor of 30 (10 for interspecies extrapolation and 3 to account for sensitive populations).
ATSDR considered the intermediate-duration oral MRL for chlorite to be applicable to chlorine dioxide as
well.
EPA (IRIS 2002) has derived an RfC of 2x10-4 mg/m3 for chlorine dioxide based on a LOAEL of
2.76 mg/m3 (1 ppm) for respiratory effects (peribronchiolar edema and vascular congestion in the lungs) in
rats exposed to chlorine dioxide vapors 5 hours/day, 5 days/week for 2 months (Paulet and Desbrousses
1972). The LOAEL was converted to a LOAEL HEC of 0.64 mg/m3 and divided by an uncertainty factor of
3,000 (10 for extrapolation of a chronic RfC from a subchronic study, 3 for interspecies extrapolation
using dosimetric adjustments, 10 for intrahuman variability, and 10 to account for extrapolation from a
LOAEL for mild effects and for the lack of inhalation developmental and reproductive toxicity studies).
EPA (IRIS 2002) has derived an RfD of 3x10-2 mg/kg/day for chlorite based on a NOAEL of 3 mg/kg/day
for neurodevelopmental effects in rat pups that had been exposed throughout gestation and lactation via
109
Table 8-1. Regulations and Guidelines Applicable to Chlorine Dioxide

and Chlorite
Agency
Description
Information
Carcinogenicity classification
Sodium chlorite
Group 3a
ACGIH
TLV (8-hour TWA)

TLV-STEL (15-minute TWA)
0.1 ppm
0.3 ppm
EPA
Chemical accident prevention

Toxic endpoint
2.8x10-3 mg/L
Reference
INTERNATIONAL
Guidelines:
IARC
IARC 2002
NATIONAL
Regulations and
Guidelines:
a. Air
ACGIH 2001
EPA 2002b
40CFR68,
Appendix A
Regulated toxic substance for

accidental release preventionb
Threshold quantity
1,000 pounds
NIOSH
TWA-REL (10-hour TWA)

STEL (15-minute TWA)
IDLH
0.1 ppm
0.3 ppm
5 ppm
NIOSH 2002
OSHA
PEL (8-hour TWA) for general

industry
0.1 ppm
OSHA 2002b
29CFR1910.1000
Highly hazardous chemical for

general industry
Threshold quantity
PEL (8-hour TWA) for
construction industry
1,000 pounds
0.1 ppm
EPA 2002a
40CFR68.130,
Table 1
OSHA 2002c
29CFR1910.119,
Appendix A
OSHA 2002a
29CFR1926.55
Highly hazardous chemical for

construction industry
Threshold quantity
1,000 pounds
OSHA 2002d
29CFR1926.64,
Appendix A
Maximum contaminant level

Chlorite
1.0 mg/L
EPA 2002e
40CFR141.64(a)
Maximum contaminant level goal

Chlorite
0.8 mg/L
EPA 2002f
40CFR141.53
b. Water
EPA
Maximum residual disinfectant

level
0.8 mg/L
EPA 2002g
40CFR141.65(a)
110

and Chlorite (continued)
Agency
Description
Information
Reference
Maximum residual disinfectant

level goal
0.8 mg/L
EPA 2002h
40CFR141.54
EPA
Exemption from the requirement

of a tolerancesodium chlorite
For residues as a seed

-soak treatment in
growing Brassica (cole)
leafy vegetables and
radishes
EPA 2002j
40CFR180.1070
FDA
Direct food additive permitted in

food for human consumption;
used as an antimicrobial agent in
water used in poultry processing
and to wash fruits and vegetables
Not to exceed 3 ppm
FDA 2001e
21CFR173.300
Direct food additive permitted in

food for human consumption;
used as an antimicrobial agent
acidified sodium chlorite
Used at levels from

501,500 ppm
FDA 2001d
21CFR173.325
NATIONAL (cont.)
c. Food
Indirect food additive; adjuvants,

production aids, and sanitizers
Indirect food substance affirmed
as generally recognized as safe;
used as a slimicide in the
manufacture of paper and paperboard that contact foodsodium
chlorite
FDA 2001b
21CFR178.1010
Used at levels from
125250 ppm
Substance for use only as

components of adhesives
sodium chlorite
FDA 2001c
21CFR186.1750
FDA 2001a
21CFR175.105
(c)(5)
d. Other
EPA
Chlorine dioxide
RfC
RfD
IRIS 2002
Group D
2x10-4 mg/m3
3x10-2 mg/kg/day
Chlorite
RfC
RfD
Group Dc
No data
3x10-2 mg/kg/day
IRIS 2002
111

and Chlorite (continued)
Agency
Description
Information
Reference
Potentially incompatible waste;

potential consequence of mixing
Group 6-A (chlorite) with
Group 6-B
Fire, explosion, or
violent reaction
EPA 2002i
40CFR264,
Appendix V
Toxic chemical release reporting;

community right-to-know;
effective date for reporting
01/01/87
EPA 2002k
40CFR372.65(a)
NATIONAL (cont.)
EPA
STATE
Regulations and
Guidelines:
a. Air
Louisiana
New Mexico
Vermont
Toxic air pollutantd

Minimum emission rate
25 pounds/year
Toxic air pollutant

OEL
Emissions
0.3 mg/m3
0.02 pounds/hour
BNA 2001
BNA 2001
Hazardous air contaminant
BNA 2001
b. Water
Maine
c. Food
Drinking water guideline

Chlorine dioxide
Chlorite
60 g/L
7 g/L
HSDB 2002
No data
d. Other
Florida
Toxic substance in the workplace
BNA 2001
Group 3: not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans

Basis for listing: toxic gas
Group D: not classifiable as to human carcinogenicity
d
Class II: suspected human carcinogen and known or suspected human reproductive toxin
b
c
ACGIH = American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists; BNA = Bureau of National Affairs;
CFR = Code of Federal Regulations; EPA = Environmental Protection Agency; FDA = Food and Drug
Administration; HSDB = Hazardous Substances Data Bank; IARC = International Agency for Research on
Cancer; IDLH = immediately dangerous to life and health; IRIS = Integrated Risk Information System;
NIOSH = National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health; OEL = occupational exposure limit;
OSHA = Occupational Safety and Health Administration; PEL = permissible exposure limit; ppm = parts per
million; REL = recommended exposure limit; RfC = inhalation reference concentration; RfD = oral reference
dose; STEL = short-term exposure limit; TLV = threshold limit value; TWA = time-weighted average
112
their mothers (CMA 1996; same study as Gill et al. 2000). The NOAEL of 3 mg chlorite/kg/day was
divided by an uncertainty factor of 100 (10 for interspecies extrapolation and 10 to account for sensitive
populations).
EPA (IRIS 2002) considered the RfD for chlorite to be applicable to chlorine dioxide as well.
114
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132
10. GLOSSARY
AbsorptionThe taking up of liquids by solids, or of gases by solids or liquids.
Acute ExposureExposure to a chemical for a duration of 14 days or less, as specified in the
Toxicological Profiles.
AdsorptionThe adhesion in an extremely thin layer of molecules (as of gases, solutes, or liquids) to the
surfaces of solid bodies or liquids with which they are in contact.
Adsorption Coefficient (Koc)The ratio of the amount of a chemical adsorbed per unit weight of organic
carbon in the soil or sediment to the concentration of the chemical in solution at equilibrium.
Adsorption Ratio (Kd)The amount of a chemical adsorbed by a sediment or soil (i.e., the solid phase)
divided by the amount of chemical in the solution phase, which is in equilibrium with the solid phase, at a
fixed solid/solution ratio. It is generally expressed in micrograms of chemical sorbed per gram of soil or
sediment.
Benchmark Dose (BMD)Usually defined as the lower confidence limit on the dose that produces a
specified magnitude of changes in a specified adverse response. For example, a BMD10 would be the dose
at the 95% lower confidence limit on a 10% response, and the benchmark response (BMR) would be 10%.
The BMD is determined by modeling the dose response curve in the region of the dose response relationship
where biologically observable data are feasible.
Benchmark Dose ModelA statistical dose-response model applied to either experimental toxicological
or epidemiological data to calculate a BMD.
Bioconcentration Factor (BCF)The quotient of the concentration of a chemical in aquatic organisms at
a specific time or during a discrete time period of exposure divided by the concentration in the surrounding
water at the same time or during the same period.
BiomarkersBroadly defined as indicators signaling events in biologic systems or samples. They have
been classified as markers of exposure, markers of effect, and markers of susceptibility.
Cancer Effect Level (CEL)The lowest dose of chemical in a study, or group of studies, that produces
significant increases in the incidence of cancer (or tumors) between the exposed population and its
appropriate control.
CarcinogenA chemical capable of inducing cancer.
Case-Control StudyA type of epidemiological study which examines the relationship between a
particular outcome (disease or condition) and a variety of potential causative agents (such as toxic
chemicals). In a case-control study, a group of people with a specified and well-defined outcome is
identified and compared to a similar group of people without outcome.
Case ReportDescribes a single individual with a particular disease or exposure. These may suggest
some potential topics for scientific research but are not actual research studies.
Case SeriesDescribes the experience of a small number of individuals with the same disease or
exposure. These may suggest potential topics for scientific research but are not actual research studies.
Ceiling ValueA concentration of a substance that should not be exceeded, even instantaneously.
133
10. GLOSSARY
Chronic ExposureExposure to a chemical for 365 days or more, as specified in the Toxicological
Profiles.
Cohort StudyA type of epidemiological study of a specific group or groups of people who have had a
common insult (e.g., exposure to an agent suspected of causing disease or a common disease) and are
followed forward from exposure to outcome. At least one exposed group is compared to one unexposed
group.
Cross-sectional StudyA type of epidemiological study of a group or groups which examines the
relationship between exposure to a chemical (or chemicals) and outcome at one point in time.
Data NeedsSubstance-specific informational needs that if met would reduce the uncertainties of human
health assessment.
Developmental ToxicityThe occurrence of adverse effects on the developing organism that may result
from exposure to a chemical prior to conception (either parent), during prenatal development, or postnatally
to the time of sexual maturation. Adverse developmental effects may be detected at any point in the life
span of the organism.
Dose-Response RelationshipThe quantitative relationship between the amount of exposure to a toxicant
and the incidence of the adverse effects.
Embryotoxicity and FetotoxicityAny toxic effect on the conceptus as a result of prenatal exposure to a
chemical; the distinguishing feature between the two terms is the stage of development during which the
insult occurs. The terms, as used here, include malformations and variations, altered growth, and in utero
death.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Health AdvisoryAn estimate of acceptable drinking water
levels for a chemical substance based on health effects information. A health advisory is not a legally
enforceable federal standard, but serves as technical guidance to assist federal, state, and local officials.
EpidemiologyRefers to the investigation of factors that determine the frequency and distribution of
disease or other health-related conditions within a defined human population during a specified period.
GenotoxicityA specific adverse effect on the genome of living cells that, upon the duplication of affected
cells, can be expressed as a mutagenic, clastogenic or carcinogenic event because of specific alteration of
the molecular structure of the genome.
Half-lifeA measure of rate for the time required to eliminate one half of a quantity of a chemical from
the body or environmental media.
Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health (IDLH)The maximum environmental concentration of a
contaminant from which one could escape within 30 minutes without any escape-impairing symptoms or
irreversible health effects.
IncidenceThe ratio of individuals in a population who develop a specified condition to the total number
of individuals in that population who could have developed that condition in a specified time period.
Intermediate ExposureExposure to a chemical for a duration of 15364 days, as specified in the
Toxicological Profiles.
134
10. GLOSSARY
Immunologic ToxicityThe occurrence of adverse effects on the immune system that may result from
exposure to environmental agents such as chemicals.
Immunological EffectsFunctional changes in the immune response.
In VitroIsolated from the living organism and artificially maintained, as in a test tube.
In VivoOccurring within the living organism.
Lethal Concentration(LO) (LCLO)The lowest concentration of a chemical in air which has been reported
to have caused death in humans or animals.
Lethal Concentration(50) (LC50)A calculated concentration of a chemical in air to which exposure for a
specific length of time is expected to cause death in 50% of a defined experimental animal population.
Lethal Dose(LO) (LDLO)The lowest dose of a chemical introduced by a route other than inhalation that
has been reported to have caused death in humans or animals.
Lethal Dose(50) (LD50)The dose of a chemical which has been calculated to cause death in 50% of a
defined experimental animal population.
Lethal Time(50) (LT50)A calculated period of time within which a specific concentration of a chemical is
expected to cause death in 50% of a defined experimental animal population.
Lowest-Observed-Adverse-Effect Level (LOAEL)The lowest exposure level of chemical in a study,
or group of studies, that produces statistically or biologically significant increases in frequency or severity
of adverse effects between the exposed population and its appropriate control.
Lymphoreticular EffectsRepresent morphological effects involving lymphatic tissues such as the lymph
nodes, spleen, and thymus.
MalformationsPermanent structural changes that may adversely affect survival, development, or
function.
Minimal Risk Level (MRL)An estimate of daily human exposure to a hazardous substance that is likely
to be without an appreciable risk of adverse noncancer health effects over a specified route and duration of
exposure.
Modifying Factor (MF)A value (greater than zero) that is applied to the derivation of a minimal risk
level (MRL) to reflect additional concerns about the database that are not covered by the uncertainty
factors. The default value for a MF is 1.
MorbidityState of being diseased; morbidity rate is the incidence or prevalence of disease in a specific
population.
MortalityDeath; mortality rate is a measure of the number of deaths in a population during a specified
interval of time.
MutagenA substance that causes mutations. A mutation is a change in the DNA sequence of a cells
DNA. Mutations can lead to birth defects, miscarriages, or cancer.
135
10. GLOSSARY
NecropsyThe gross examination of the organs and tissues of a dead body to determine the cause of death
or pathological conditions.
NeurotoxicityThe occurrence of adverse effects on the nervous system following exposure to a chemical.
No-Observed-Adverse-Effect Level (NOAEL)The dose of a chemical at which there were no
statistically or biologically significant increases in frequency or severity of adverse effects seen between the
exposed population and its appropriate control. Effects may be produced at this dose, but they are not
considered to be adverse.
Octanol-Water Partition Coefficient (Kow)The equilibrium ratio of the concentrations of a chemical in
n-octanol and water, in dilute solution.
Odds Ratio (OR)A means of measuring the association between an exposure (such as toxic substances
and a disease or condition) which represents the best estimate of relative risk (risk as a ratio of the
incidence among subjects exposed to a particular risk factor divided by the incidence among subjects who
were not exposed to the risk factor). An odds ratio of greater than 1 is considered to indicate greater risk of
disease in the exposed group compared to the unexposed.
Organophosphate or Organophosphorus CompoundA phosphorus containing organic compound and
especially a pesticide that acts by inhibiting cholinesterase.
Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL)An Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
allowable exposure level in workplace air averaged over an 8-hour shift of a 40-hour workweek.
PesticideGeneral classification of chemicals specifically developed and produced for use in the control of
agricultural and public health pests.
PharmacokineticsThe science of quantitatively predicting the fate (disposition) of an exogenous
substance in an organism. Utilizing computational techniques, it provides the means of studying the
absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion of chemicals by the body.
Pharmacokinetic ModelA set of equations that can be used to describe the time course of a parent
chemical or metabolite in an animal system. There are two types of pharmacokinetic models: data-based
and physiologically-based. A data-based model divides the animal system into a series of compartments
which, in general, do not represent real, identifiable anatomic regions of the body whereby the
physiologically-based model compartments represent real anatomic regions of the body.
Physiologically Based Pharmacodynamic (PBPD) ModelA type of physiologically-based doseresponse model which quantitatively describes the relationship between target tissue dose and toxic end
points. These models advance the importance of physiologically based models in that they clearly describe
the biological effect (response) produced by the system following exposure to an exogenous substance.
Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic (PBPK) ModelComprised of a series of compartments
representing organs or tissue groups with realistic weights and blood flows. These models require a variety
of physiological information: tissue volumes, blood flow rates to tissues, cardiac output, alveolar
ventilation rates and, possibly membrane permeabilities. The models also utilize biochemical information
such as air/blood partition coefficients, and metabolic parameters. PBPK models are also called
biologically based tissue dosimetry models.
PrevalenceThe number of cases of a disease or condition in a population at one point in time.
136
10. GLOSSARY
Prospective StudyA type of cohort study in which the pertinent observations are made on events
occurring after the start of the study. A group is followed over time.
q1*The upper-bound estimate of the low-dose slope of the dose-response curve as determined by the
multistage procedure. The q1* can be used to calculate an estimate of carcinogenic potency, the
incremental excess cancer risk per unit of exposure (usually g/L for water, mg/kg/day for food, and
g/m3 for air).
Recommended Exposure Limit (REL)A National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH) time-weighted average (TWA) concentrations for up to a 10-hour workday during a 40-hour
workweek.
Reference Concentration (RfC)An estimate (with uncertainty spanning perhaps an order of magnitude)
of a continuous inhalation exposure to the human population (including sensitive subgroups) that is likely
to be without an appreciable risk of deleterious noncancer health effects during a lifetime. The inhalation
reference concentration is for continuous inhalation exposures and is appropriately expressed in units of
mg/m3 or ppm.
Reference Dose (RfD)An estimate (with uncertainty spanning perhaps an order of magnitude) of the
daily exposure of the human population to a potential hazard that is likely to be without risk of deleterious
effects during a lifetime. The RfD is operationally derived from the no-observed-adverse-effect level
(NOAEL-from animal and human studies) by a consistent application of uncertainty factors that reflect
various types of data used to estimate RfDs and an additional modifying factor, which is based on a
professional judgment of the entire database on the chemical. The RfDs are not applicable to nonthreshold
effects such as cancer.
Reportable Quantity (RQ)The quantity of a hazardous substance that is considered reportable under
the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA). Reportable
quantities are (1) 1 pound or greater or (2) for selected substances, an amount established by regulation
either under CERCLA or under Section 311 of the Clean Water Act. Quantities are measured over a
24-hour period.
Reproductive ToxicityThe occurrence of adverse effects on the reproductive system that may result
from exposure to a chemical. The toxicity may be directed to the reproductive organs and/or the related
endocrine system. The manifestation of such toxicity may be noted as alterations in sexual behavior,
fertility, pregnancy outcomes, or modifications in other functions that are dependent on the integrity of this
system.
Retrospective Cohort StudyA type of cohort study based on a group of persons known to have been
exposed at some time in the past. Data are collected from routinely recorded events, up to the time the
study is undertaken. Retrospective cohort studies are limited to causal factors that can be ascertained from
existing records and/or examining survivors of the cohort.
RiskThe possibility or chance that some adverse effect will result from a given exposure to a chemical.
Risk FactorAn aspect of personal behavior or lifestyle, an environmental exposure, or an inborn or
inherited characteristic, that is associated with an increased occurrence of disease or other health-related
event or condition.
Risk RatioThe ratio of the risk among persons with specific risk factors compared to the risk among
persons without risk factors. A risk ratio greater than 1 indicates greater risk of disease in the exposed
group compared to the unexposed.
137
10. GLOSSARY
Short-Term Exposure Limit (STEL)The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists

(ACGIH) maximum concentration to which workers can be exposed for up to 15 min continually. No more
than four excursions are allowed per day, and there must be at least 60 min between exposure periods. The
daily Threshold Limit Value - Time Weighted Average (TLV-TWA) may not be exceeded.
Standardized Mortality Ratio (SMR)A ratio of the observed number of deaths and the expected
number of deaths in a specific standard population.
Target Organ ToxicityThis term covers a broad range of adverse effects on target organs or
physiological systems (e.g., renal, cardiovascular) extending from those arising through a single limited
exposure to those assumed over a lifetime of exposure to a chemical.
Teratogen A chemical that causes structural defects that affect the development of an organism.
Threshold Limit Value (TLV)An American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
(ACGIH) concentration of a substance to which most workers can be exposed without adverse effect. The
TLV may be expressed as a Time Weighted Average (TWA), as a Short-Term Exposure Limit (STEL), or
as a ceiling limit (CL).
Time-Weighted Average (TWA)An allowable exposure concentration averaged over a normal 8-hour
workday or 40-hour workweek.
Toxic Dose(50) (TD50)A calculated dose of a chemical, introduced by a route other than inhalation, which
is expected to cause a specific toxic effect in 50% of a defined experimental animal population.
ToxicokineticThe study of the absorption, distribution and elimination of toxic compounds in the living
organism.
Uncertainty Factor (UF)A factor used in operationally deriving the Minimal Risk Level (MRL) or
Reference Dose (RfD) or Reference Concentration (RfC) from experimental data. UFs are intended to
account for (1) the variation in sensitivity among the members of the human population, (2) the uncertainty
in extrapolating animal data to the case of human, (3) the uncertainty in extrapolating from data obtained in
a study that is of less than lifetime exposure, and (4) the uncertainty in using lowest-observed-adverseeffect level (LOAEL) data rather than no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) data. A default for each
individual UF is 10; if complete certainty in data exists, a value of one can be used; however a reduced UF
of three may be used on a case-by-case basis, three being the approximate logarithmic average of 10 and 1.
XenobioticAny chemical that is foreign to the biological system.
A-1
APPENDIX A
ATSDR MINIMAL RISK LEVEL AND WORKSHEETS
The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) [42 U.S.C.
9601 et seq.], as amended by the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) [Pub. L.
99499], requires that the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) develop jointly
with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), in order of priority, a list of hazardous substances
most commonly found at facilities on the CERCLA National Priorities List (NPL); prepare toxicological
profiles for each substance included on the priority list of hazardous substances; and assure the initiation of
a research program to fill identified data needs associated with the substances.
The toxicological profiles include an examination, summary, and interpretation of available toxicological
information and epidemiologic evaluations of a hazardous substance. During the development of
toxicological profiles, Minimal Risk Levels (MRLs) are derived when reliable and sufficient data exist to
identify the target organ(s) of effect or the most sensitive health effect(s) for a specific duration for a given
route of exposure. An MRL is an estimate of the daily human exposure to a hazardous substance that is
likely to be without appreciable risk of adverse noncancer health effects over a specified duration of
exposure. MRLs are based on noncancer health effects only and are not based on a consideration of cancer
effects. These substance-specific estimates, which are intended to serve as screening levels, are used by
ATSDR health assessors to identify contaminants and potential health effects that may be of concern at
hazardous waste sites. It is important to note that MRLs are not intended to define clean-up or action
levels.
MRLs are derived for hazardous substances using the no-observed-adverse-effect level/uncertainty factor
approach. They are below levels that might cause adverse health effects in the people most sensitive to
such chemical-induced effects. MRLs are derived for acute (114 days), intermediate (15364 days), and
chronic (365 days and longer) durations and for the oral and inhalation routes of exposure. Currently,
MRLs for the dermal route of exposure are not derived because ATSDR has not yet identified a method
suitable for this route of exposure. MRLs are generally based on the most sensitive chemical-induced end
point considered to be of relevance to humans. Serious health effects (such as irreparable damage to the
liver or kidneys, or birth defects) are not used as a basis for establishing MRLs. Exposure to a level above
the MRL does not mean that adverse health effects will occur.
MRLs are intended only to serve as a screening tool to help public health professionals decide where to
look more closely. They may also be viewed as a mechanism to identify those hazardous waste sites that
A-2

APPENDIX A
are not expected to cause adverse health effects. Most MRLs contain a degree of uncertainty because of
the lack of precise toxicological information on the people who might be most sensitive (e.g., infants,
elderly, nutritionally or immunologically compromised) to the effects of hazardous substances. ATSDR
uses a conservative (i.e., protective) approach to address this uncertainty consistent with the public health
principle of prevention. Although human data are preferred, MRLs often must be based on animal studies
because relevant human studies are lacking. In the absence of evidence to the contrary, ATSDR assumes
that humans are more sensitive to the effects of hazardous substance than animals and that certain persons
may be particularly sensitive. Thus, the resulting MRL may be as much as a hundredfold below levels that
have been shown to be nontoxic in laboratory animals.
Proposed MRLs undergo a rigorous review process: Health Effects/MRL Workgroup reviews within the
Division of Toxicology, expert panel peer reviews, and agencywide MRL Workgroup reviews, with
participation from other federal agencies and comments from the public. They are subject to change as
new information becomes available concomitant with updating the toxicological profiles. Thus, MRLs in
the most recent toxicological profiles supersede previously published levels. For additional information
regarding MRLs, please contact the Division of Toxicology, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease
Registry, 1600 Clifton Road, Mailstop E-29, Atlanta, Georgia 30333.
A-3

APPENDIX A
MINIMAL RISK LEVEL WORKSHEET

Chemical Name:
CAS Number:
Date:
Profile Status:
Route:
Duration:
Graph Key:
Species:
Chlorine dioxide
10049-04-4
June 27, 2002
Third Draft Pre Public
[X] Inhalation [ ] Oral
[ ] Acute [X] Intermediate [ ] Chronic
8
Rat
Minimal Risk Level: 0.001 [ ] mg/kg/day [X] ppm

Reference: Paulet G, Desbrousses S. 1972. On the toxicology of chlorine dioxide. Arch Mal Prof 33(12):59-61.
Experimental design and effects noted: The intermediate-duration inhalation MRL is based on results of a
study in which the most significant finding was respiratory effects in adult rats exposed to chlorine dioxide
vapors. Groups of eight Wistar rats (sex not reported) were exposed to chlorine dioxide vapors at a
concentration of 1 ppm (2.8 mg/m3), 5 hours/day, 5 days/week for 2 months. The authors stated that
weight gain and erythrocyte and leukocyte levels were not affected, but concurrent control data were not
presented. Chlorine dioxide-induced respiratory effects included peribronchiolar edema and vascular
congestion in the lungs. No alterations in epithelium or parenchyma were seen. This study identified a
LOAEL of 1 ppm (2.8 mg/m3) for mild respiratory effects.
Dose and end point used for MRL derivation: 1 ppm; respiratory effects.
[ ] NOAEL [X] LOAEL
Uncertainty Factors used in MRL derivation:
[X] 10 for use of a LOAEL
[X] 3 for interspecies extrapolation since the exposure concentration was dosimetrically adjusted
[X] 10 for human variability
Was a conversion factor used from ppm in food or water to a mg/body weight dose? NA
Was a conversion used from intermittent to continuous exposure? Yes
LOAELADJ = LOAEL (1 ppm) x 5 hours/24 hours x 5 days/7 days = 0.15 ppm
A-4

APPENDIX A
If an inhalation study in animals, list conversion factors used in determining human equivalent dose:
The human equivalent concentration (HEC) for the LOAEL (LOAELHEC) was calculated by multiplying the
LOAELADJ by the regional gas ratio for the pulmonary region of the respiratory tract (RGDRPU) according
to the equation:
RGDR PU =
( RGD )
( RGD )
PU
PU
Q& alv
SAPU A
=
Q& alv
SAPU H
- SA&TB
e VE
A

SATB
- V&E
e
H
KgTB
- SA&ET
e VE
A

SAET
- V&E
e
H
KgET
(EPA 1994, Equation 4-28 to be used for pulmonary effects of a Category 1 gas)
RGD = Regional Gas Dose
RGDR = Regional Gas Dose Ratio
Q& alv
SA
V&E
Kg
ET
TB
PU
A
H
= alveolar ventilation rate (cm3/minute)

= surface area (cm2)
= minute volume (cm3/minute)
= overall mass transport coefficient (cm/minute)
= extrathoracic (nose and mouth)

= tracheobronchial (trachea, bronchi, bronchioles to terminal bronchioles)
= pulmonary (respiratory bronchioles, alveolar region)
= animal
= human
The following values were used for respiratory parameters in the equation above:
Species
Surface area (SA) (EPA 1994, Table 4-4)

ET (cm2)
Rat
Human
TB (cm2)
15.0
22.5
200
3,200
PU (cm2)
3,400
540,000
Species
Alveolar ventilation rate (Qalv, in cm3/min)
Minute volume (VE, in cm3/min)
Rat
111 (67% of VE per EPA 1988)
165* (Equation 4-4, EPA 1994)
Human
9,250 (67% of VE per EPA 1988)
13,800 (EPA 1994)
* Average body weight of the treated rats in the critical study (Paulet and Desbrousses 1972) was 0.225 kg.
Since the overall mass transport coefficient (Kg) is not available, the value has been assumed to equal 1.
A-5

APPENDIX A
Therefore:
RGDR PU
2
- 22.5cm
111cm3 / min
165cm3 / min
2
rat
3400cm rat
=
2
9250cm3 / min - 3200 cm3
e 13800cm / min
2
540,000cm H
H
[ 0.03265] rat
RGDR PU =
[ 0.01713] H
RGDRPU
[ e - 0.1364 ]
- 0.2319 rat
] H
[ e
[ 0.8725] rat
= 1.9060
[ 0.7930] H
[ e - 0.09091 ]
- 0.01449 rat
]H
[ e
[ 0.9131] rat
[ 0.9856] H
- 15cm3 2
e 165cm / min

rat
2
200cm
- 13800cm3 / min
RGDRPU = 1.9060 X 1.1003 X 0.9093 = 1.9070

Therefore:
LOAELHEC = 0.15 ppm x 1.9 = 0.3 ppm
Other additional studies or pertinent information that lend support to this MRL
Paulet and Desbrousses (1970) exposed groups of 10 rats/sex (strain not specified) to chlorine dioxide
vapors at a concentrations of 0 or 2.5 ppm (6.9 mg/m3), 7 hours/day for 30 days. The weekly exposure
frequency was not reported. Chlorine dioxide-exposed rats exhibited respiratory effects that included
lymphocytic infiltration of the alveolar spaces, alveolar vascular congestion, hemorrhagic alveoli, epithelial
erosions, and inflammatory infiltrations of the bronchi. The study authors also reported slightly decreased
body weight gain and decreased erythrocyte and increased leukocyte levels, relative to controls. Recovery
from the pulmonary lesions was apparent in rats examined after a 15-day recovery period.
A set of other inhalation studies supports the finding of the respiratory system as a major target of toxicity
following exposure to chlorine dioxide vapors, although these studies are limited in design (Dalhamn 1957).
A single 2-hour inhalation exposure of four rats to a chlorine dioxide concentration of 260 ppm
(728 mg/m3) resulted in pulmonary edema and nasal bleeding. Respiratory distress was reported in
three other rats subjected to 3 weekly 3-minute exposures to decreasing concentrations of airborne chlorine
dioxide from 3,400 to 800 ppm (from 9,520 to 2,240 mg/m3); bronchopneumonia was observed in two of
these rats. In a third rat study, repeated exposure to approximately 10 ppm (28 mg/m3) of chlorine dioxide
(4 hours/day for 9 days in a 13-day period) resulted in rhinorrhea, altered respiration, and respiratory
A-6

APPENDIX A
infection. No indications of adverse effects were seen in rats exposed to approximately 0.1 ppm
(0.28 mg/m3) of chlorine dioxide 5 hours/day for 10 weeks.
Human data support the animal findings. In a case of accidental inhalation exposure to chlorine dioxide in
the paper industry, exposure to 5 ppm (14 mg/m3) for an unspecified amount of time resulted in signs of
respiratory irritation (Elkins 1959). In another case report, a woman experienced coughing, pharyngeal
irritation, and headache while mixing a bleach solution that was then used to bleach dried flowers (ExnerFreisfeld et al. 1986). Nasal abnormalities (including injection, telangectasia, paleness, cobblestoning,
edema, and thick mucus) were observed in 13 individuals (1 man and 12 women) who had been accidently
exposed to chlorine dioxide from a leak in a water purification system pipe 5 years earlier (Meggs et al.
1996).
Agency Contact (Chemical Manager): Jessilynn B. Taylor
A-7

APPENDIX A
MINIMAL RISK LEVEL WORKSHEET

Chemical Name:
CAS Number:
Date:
Profile Status:
Route:
Duration:
Graph Key:
Species:
Chlorite (as sodium salt)

7758-19-2
June27, 2002
Third Draft Pre Public
[ ] Inhalation [X] Oral
[ ] Acute [X] Intermediate [ ] Chronic
10
Rat
Minimal Risk Level: 0.1 [X] mg/kg/day [ ] ppm

Reference: Gill MW, Swanson MS, Murphy SR, et al. 2000. Two-generation reproduction and
developmental neurotoxicity study with sodium chlorite in the rat. J Appl Toxicol 20:291-303.
Experimental design and effects noted: The intermediate-duration oral MRL is based on results of a study
in which the most significant finding was neurodevelopmental delays (lowered auditory startle amplitude,
decreased brain weight) in rat pups that had been exposed throughout gestation and lactation via their
mothers. Groups of 30 male and 30 female Sprague-Dawley rats (F0) received sodium chlorite in the
drinking water at concentrations of 35, 70, or 300 mg/L (approximate chlorite doses of 3, 5.7, and
21 mg/kg/day and 3.9, 7.6, and 29 mg/kg/day for males and females, respectively) for 10 weeks prior to
mating and during mating; exposure of females continued throughout gestation and lactation. Groups of F1
pups were continued on the same treatment regimen as their parents (chlorite doses of 2.9, 6.0, and
23 mg/kg/day and 3.9, 8.0, and 29 mg/kg/day for F1 males and females, respectively). Low-dose female
pups exhibited slight, but statistically significant differences in some hematological parameters, relative to
controls. No other effects were seen in pups of this exposure level, and the hematological effects were not
considered to be adverse. Mid-dose pups exhibited a significant decrease in maximum response to an
auditory startle stimulus on postnatal day 24, but not on postnatal day 60. At this exposure level, F1 pups
also exhibited reduced liver weight. At the high dose, significant effects included reduced absolute and
relative liver weight in F1 males and females, reduced pup survival, reduced body weight at birth and
throughout lactation in F1 and F2 rats, lowered thymus and spleen weight in both generations, lowered
incidence of pups exhibiting normal righting reflex and with eyes open on postnatal day 15, decreased
absolute brain weight for F1 males and F2 females, delayed sexual development in males (preputial
separation) and females (vaginal opening) in F1 and F2 rats, and lowered red blood cell parameters in F1
rats.
Dose and end point used for MRL derivation: 2.9 mg/kg/day
[X] NOAEL [ ] LOAEL
Uncertainty Factors used in MRL derivation:
[X] 10 for interspecies extrapolation
[X] 3 for human variability
A-8

APPENDIX A
Was a conversion factor used from ppm in food or water to a mg/body weight dose?
The study authors calculated sodium chlorite intakes (in mg/kg/day) from measured water consumption and
body weight data. These intakes were multiplied by a factor of 0.75 to adjust for the fraction of chlorite in
sodium chlorite, resulting in calculated doses of chlorite in units of mg/kg/day.
Was a conversion used from intermittent to continuous exposure? NA
If an inhalation study in animals, list conversion factors used in determining human equivalent dose: NA
Other additional studies or pertinent information that lend support to this MRL: The principal study is
supported by the developmental studies of Orme et al. (1985), Taylor and Pfohl (1985), Mobley et al.
(1990), and Toth et al. (1990), in which rats administered chlorite (as sodium salt) or chlorine dioxide at
similar dosages in drinking water showed alterations in exploratory and locomotor behavior and reduced
brain weights. These studies supported NOAELs and LOAELs of approximately 3 and 14 mg/kg/day,
respectively.
Chlorine dioxide in drinking water rapidly degrades to chlorite (Michael et al. 1981). In laboratory
animals, orally administered chlorine dioxide is rapidly converted to chlorite and chloride ion (AbdelRahman et al. 1980b). Being a strong oxidizer and water soluble, chlorine dioxide is not likely absorbed in
the gastrointestinal tract to any great extent. Chlorite is the most likely source of systemic toxicity
resulting from oral exposure to either chlorine dioxide or chlorite (soluble salts). Therefore, the
intermediate-duration oral MRL derived for chlorite should also be applicable to chlorine dioxide.
Agency Contact (Chemical Manager): Jessilynn B. Taylor
B-1
APPENDIX B
USER'S GUIDE
Chapter 1
Public Health Statement
This chapter of the profile is a health effects summary written in non-technical language. Its intended
audience is the general public especially people living in the vicinity of a hazardous waste site or chemical
release. If the Public Health Statement were removed from the rest of the document, it would still
communicate to the lay public essential information about the chemical.
The major headings in the Public Health Statement are useful to find specific topics of concern. The topics
are written in a question and answer format. The answer to each question includes a sentence that will
direct the reader to chapters in the profile that will provide more information on the given topic.
Chapter 2
Relevance to Public Health
This chapter provides a health effects summary based on evaluations of existing toxicologic, epidemiologic,
and toxicokinetic information. This summary is designed to present interpretive, weight-of-evidence
discussions for human health end points by addressing the following questions.
1. What effects are known to occur in humans?
2. What effects observed in animals are likely to be of concern to humans?
3. What exposure conditions are likely to be of concern to humans, especially around hazardous
waste sites?
The chapter covers end points in the same order they appear within the Discussion of Health Effects by
Route of Exposure section, by route (inhalation, oral, dermal) and within route by effect. Human data are
presented first, then animal data. Both are organized by duration (acute, intermediate, chronic). In vitro
data and data from parenteral routes (intramuscular, intravenous, subcutaneous, etc.) are also considered in
this chapter. If data are located in the scientific literature, a table of genotoxicity information is included.
The carcinogenic potential of the profiled substance is qualitatively evaluated, when appropriate, using
existing toxicokinetic, genotoxic, and carcinogenic data. ATSDR does not currently assess cancer potency
or perform cancer risk assessments. Minimal risk levels (MRLs) for noncancer end points (if derived) and
the end points from which they were derived are indicated and discussed.
Limitations to existing scientific literature that prevent a satisfactory evaluation of the relevance to public
health are identified in the Chapter 3 Data Needs section.
Interpretation of Minimal Risk Levels
Where sufficient toxicologic information is available, we have derived minimal risk levels (MRLs) for
inhalation and oral routes of entry at each duration of exposure (acute, intermediate, and chronic). These
B-2
APPENDIX B
MRLs are not meant to support regulatory action; but to acquaint health professionals with exposure levels
at which adverse health effects are not expected to occur in humans. They should help physicians and
public health officials determine the safety of a community living near a chemical emission, given the
concentration of a contaminant in air or the estimated daily dose in water. MRLs are based largely on
toxicological studies in animals and on reports of human occupational exposure.
MRL users should be familiar with the toxicologic information on which the number is based. Chapter 2,
"Relevance to Public Health," contains basic information known about the substance. Other sections such
as Chapter 3 Section 3.9, "Interactions with Other Substances, and Section 3.10, "Populations that are
Unusually Susceptible" provide important supplemental information.
MRL users should also understand the MRL derivation methodology. MRLs are derived using a modified
version of the risk assessment methodology the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) provides (Barnes
and Dourson 1988) to determine reference doses for lifetime exposure (RfDs).
To derive an MRL, ATSDR generally selects the most sensitive end point which, in its best judgement,
represents the most sensitive human health effect for a given exposure route and duration. ATSDR cannot
make this judgement or derive an MRL unless information (quantitative or qualitative) is available for all
potential systemic, neurological, and developmental effects. If this information and reliable quantitative
data on the chosen end point are available, ATSDR derives an MRL using the most sensitive species (when
information from multiple species is available) with the highest NOAEL that does not exceed any adverse
effect levels. When a NOAEL is not available, a lowest-observed-adverse-effect level (LOAEL) can be
used to derive an MRL, and an uncertainty factor (UF) of 10 must be employed. Additional uncertainty
factors of 10 must be used both for human variability to protect sensitive subpopulations (people who are
most susceptible to the health effects caused by the substance) and for interspecies variability
(extrapolation from animals to humans). In deriving an MRL, these individual uncertainty factors are
multiplied together. The product is then divided into the inhalation concentration or oral dosage selected
from the study. Uncertainty factors used in developing a substance-specific MRL are provided in the
footnotes of the LSE Tables.
Chapter 3
Health Effects
Tables and Figures for Levels of Significant Exposure (LSE)
Tables (3-1, 3-2, and 3-3) and figures (3-1 and 3-2) are used to summarize health effects and illustrate
graphically levels of exposure associated with those effects. These levels cover health effects observed at
increasing dose concentrations and durations, differences in response by species, minimal risk levels
(MRLs) to humans for noncancer end points, and EPA's estimated range associated with an upper- bound
individual lifetime cancer risk of 1 in 10,000 to 1 in 10,000,000. Use the LSE tables and figures for a
quick review of the health effects and to locate data for a specific exposure scenario. The LSE tables and
figures should always be used in conjunction with the text. All entries in these tables and figures represent
studies that provide reliable, quantitative estimates of No-Observed-Adverse-Effect Levels (NOAELs),
Lowest-Observed-Adverse-Effect Levels (LOAELs), or Cancer Effect Levels (CELs).
The legends presented below demonstrate the application of these tables and figures. Representative
examples of LSE Table 3-1 and Figure 3-1 are shown. The numbers in the left column of the legends
correspond to the numbers in the example table and figure.
LEGEND
B-3
APPENDIX B
See LSE Table 3-1

(1)
Route of Exposure One of the first considerations when reviewing the toxicity of a substance using
these tables and figures should be the relevant and appropriate route of exposure. When sufficient
data exists, three LSE tables and two LSE figures are presented in the document. The three LSE
tables present data on the three principal routes of exposure, i.e., inhalation, oral, and dermal (LSE
Table 3-1, 3-2, and 3-3, respectively). LSE figures are limited to the inhalation (LSE Figure 3-1)
and oral (LSE Figure 3-2) routes. Not all substances will have data on each route of exposure and
will not therefore have all five of the tables and figures.
(2)
Exposure Period Three exposure periods - acute (less than 15 days), intermediate (15364 days), and
chronic (365 days or more) are presented within each relevant route of exposure. In this example, an
inhalation study of intermediate exposure duration is reported. For quick reference to health effects
occurring from a known length of exposure, locate the applicable exposure period within the LSE
table and figure.
(3)
Health Effect The major categories of health effects included in LSE tables and figures are death,
systemic, immunological, neurological, developmental, reproductive, and cancer. NOAELs and
LOAELs can be reported in the tables and figures for all effects but cancer. Systemic effects are
further defined in the "System" column of the LSE table (see key number 18).
(4)
Key to Figure Each key number in the LSE table links study information to one or more data points
using the same key number in the corresponding LSE figure. In this example, the study represented
by key number 18 has been used to derive a NOAEL and a Less Serious LOAEL (also see the 2
"18r" data points in Figure 3-1).
(5)
Species The test species, whether animal or human, are identified in this column. Chapter 2,
"Relevance to Public Health," covers the relevance of animal data to human toxicity and Section 3.4,
"Toxicokinetics," contains any available information on comparative toxicokinetics. Although
NOAELs and LOAELs are species specific, the levels are extrapolated to equivalent human doses to
derive an MRL.
(6)
Exposure Frequency/Duration The duration of the study and the weekly and daily exposure regimen
are provided in this column. This permits comparison of NOAELs and LOAELs from different
studies. In this case (key number 18), rats were exposed to 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane via inhalation
for 6 hours per day, 5 days per week, for 3 weeks. For a more complete review of the dosing
regimen refer to the appropriate sections of the text or the original reference paper, i.e., Nitschke et
al. 1981.
(7)
System This column further defines the systemic effects. These systems include: respiratory,
cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, hematological, musculoskeletal, hepatic, renal, and dermal/ocular.
"Other" refers to any systemic effect (e.g., a decrease in body weight) not covered in these systems.
In the example of key number 18, 1 systemic effect (respiratory) was investigated.
(8)
NOAEL A No-Observed-Adverse-Effect Level (NOAEL) is the highest exposure level at which no

harmful effects were seen in the organ system studied. Key number 18 reports a NOAEL of 3 ppm
for the respiratory system which was used to derive an intermediate exposure, inhalation MRL of
0.005 ppm (see footnote "b").
(9)
LOAEL A Lowest-Observed-Adverse-Effect Level (LOAEL) is the lowest dose used in the study
that caused a harmful health effect. LOAELs have been classified into "Less Serious" and "Serious"
B-4
APPENDIX B
effects. These distinctions help readers identify the levels of exposure at which adverse health effects
first appear and the gradation of effects with increasing dose. A brief description of the specific end
point used to quantify the adverse effect accompanies the LOAEL. The respiratory effect reported in
key number 18 (hyperplasia) is a Less serious LOAEL of 10 ppm. MRLs are not derived from
Serious LOAELs.
(10) Reference The complete reference citation is given in Chapter 9 of the profile.
(11) CEL A Cancer Effect Level (CEL) is the lowest exposure level associated with the onset of
carcinogenesis in experimental or epidemiologic studies. CELs are always considered serious
effects. The LSE tables and figures do not contain NOAELs for cancer, but the text may report
doses not causing measurable cancer increases.
(12) Footnotes Explanations of abbreviations or reference notes for data in the LSE tables are found in
the footnotes. Footnote "b" indicates the NOAEL of 3 ppm in key number 18 was used to derive an
MRL of 0.005 ppm.
LEGEND
See Figure 3-1
LSE figures graphically illustrate the data presented in the corresponding LSE tables. Figures help the
reader quickly compare health effects according to exposure concentrations for particular exposure periods.
(13) Exposure Period The same exposure periods appear as in the LSE table. In this example, health
effects observed within the intermediate and chronic exposure periods are illustrated.
(14) Health Effect These are the categories of health effects for which reliable quantitative data exists.
The same health effects appear in the LSE table.
(15) Levels of Exposure concentrations or doses for each health effect in the LSE tables are graphically
displayed in the LSE figures. Exposure concentration or dose is measured on the log scale "y" axis.
Inhalation exposure is reported in mg/m3 or ppm and oral exposure is reported in mg/kg/day.
(16) NOAEL In this example, the open circle designated 18r identifies a NOAEL critical end point in the
rat upon which an intermediate inhalation exposure MRL is based. The key number 18 corresponds
to the entry in the LSE table. The dashed descending arrow indicates the extrapolation from the
exposure level of 3 ppm (see entry 18 in the Table) to the MRL of 0.005 ppm (see footnote "b" in the
LSE table).
(17) CEL Key number 38r is 1 of 3 studies for which Cancer Effect Levels were derived. The diamond
symbol refers to a Cancer Effect Level for the test species-mouse. The number 38 corresponds to the
entry in the LSE table.
(18) Estimated Upper-Bound Human Cancer Risk Levels This is the range associated with the
upper-bound for lifetime cancer risk of 1 in 10,000 to 1 in 10,000,000. These risk levels are derived
from the EPA's Human Health Assessment Group's upper-bound estimates of the slope of the cancer
dose response curve at low dose levels (q1*).
(19) Key to LSE Figure The Key explains the abbreviations and symbols used in the figure.
SAMPLE
1
Table 3-1. Levels of Significant Exposure to [Chemical x] Inhalation

Key to
figurea
Species
Exposure
frequency/
duration
INTERMEDIATE EXPOSURE
Systemic
18
LOAEL (effect)
Less serious (ppm)
Serious (ppm)
Reference
10
13 wk
5 d/wk
6 hr/d
Resp
Rat
3b
10 (hyperplasia)
Nitschke et al.
1981
CHRONIC EXPOSURE
11
12
Cancer
38
Rat
39
Rat
18 mo
5 d/wk
7 hr/d
20
(CEL, multiple
organs)
Wong et al. 1982
APPENDIX B
System
NOAEL
(ppm)
89104 wk
10 (CEL, lung tumors, NTP 1982
5 d/wk
nasal tumors)
6 hr/d
40
Mouse
79103 wk
10 (CEL, lung tumors, NTP 1982
5 d/wk
hemangiosarcomas)
6 hr/d
a
The number corresponds to entries in Figure 3-1.
b
Used to derive an intermediate inhalation Minimal Risk Level (MRL) of 5 x 10-3 ppm; dose adjusted for intermittent exposure and divided
by an uncertainty factor of 100 (10 for extrapolation from animal to humans, 10 for human variability).
CEL = cancer effect level; d = days(s); hr = hour(s); LOAEL = lowest-observed-adverse-effect level; mo = month(s); NOAEL = noobserved-adverse-effect level; Resp = respiratory; wk = week(s)
B-5

APPENDIX B
B-6
C-1
APPENDIX C
ACRONYMS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND SYMBOLS
ACOEM
ACGIH
ADI
ADME
AED
AOEC
AFID
AFOSH
ALT
AML
AOAC
AP
APHA
AST
atm
ATSDR
AWQC
BAT
BCF
BEI
BSC
C
CAA
CAG
CAS
CDC
CEL
CELDS
CERCLA
CFR
Ci
CI
CL
CLP
cm
CML
CPSC
CWA
DHEW
DHHS
DNA
DOD
DOE
DOL
DOT
DOT/UN/
American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine

American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
acceptable daily intake
absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion
atomic emission detection
Association of Occupational and Environmental Clinics
alkali flame ionization detector
Air Force Office of Safety and Health
alanine aminotransferase
acute myeloid leukemia
Association of Official Analytical Chemists
alkaline phosphatase
American Public Health Association
aspartate aminotranferase
atmosphere
Ambient Water Quality Criteria
best available technology
bioconcentration factor
Biological Exposure Index
Board of Scientific Counselors
centigrade
Clean Air Act
Cancer Assessment Group of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Chemical Abstract Services
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
cancer effect level
Computer-Environmental Legislative Data System
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
Code of Federal Regulations
curie
confidence interval
ceiling limit value
Contract Laboratory Program
centimeter
chronic myeloid leukemia
Consumer Products Safety Commission
Clean Water Act
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
Department of Health and Human Services
deoxyribonucleic acid
Department of Defense
Department of Energy
Department of Labor
Department of Transportation
Department of Transportation/United Nations/
C-2

APPENDIX C
NA/IMCO
DWEL
ECD
ECG/EKG
EEG
EEGL
EPA
F
F1
FAO
FDA
FEMA
FIFRA
FPD
fpm
FR
FSH
g
GC
gd
GLC
GPC
HPLC
HRGC
HSDB
IARC
ICR
IDLH
ILO
IRIS
Kd
kg
Koc
Kow
L
LC
LCLo
LC50
LDLo
LD50
LDH
LH
LT50
LOAEL
LSE
m
MA
MAL
mCi
MCL
MCLG
North America/International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code

drinking water exposure level
electron capture detection
electrocardiogram
electroencephalogram
Emergency Exposure Guidance Level
Environmental Protection Agency
Fahrenheit
first-filial generation
Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations
Food and Drug Administration
Federal Emergency Management Agency
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act
flame photometric detection
feet per minute
Federal Register
follicle stimulating hormone
gram
gas chromatography
gestational day
gas liquid chromatography
gel permeation chromatography
high-performance liquid chromatography
high resolution gas chromatography
Hazardous Substance Data Bank
International Agency for Research on Cancer
Information Collection Rule
immediately dangerous to life and health
International Labor Organization
Integrated Risk Information System
adsorption ratio
kilogram
organic carbon partition coefficient
octanol-water partition coefficient
liter
liquid chromatography
lethal concentration, low
lethal concentration, 50% kill
lethal dose, low
lethal dose, 50% kill
lactic dehydrogenase
luteinizing hormone
lethal time, 50% kill
lowest-observed-adverse-effect level
Levels of Significant Exposure
meter
trans,trans-muconic acid
maximum allowable level
millicurie
maximum contaminant level
maximum contaminant level goal
C-3

APPENDIX C
MFO
mg
mL
mm
mmHg
mmol
mppcf
MRL
MS
NAAQS
NAS
NATICH
NATO
NCE
NCEH
NCI
ND
NFPA
ng
NIEHS
NIOSH
NIOSHTIC
NLM
nm
NHANES
nmol
NOAEL
NOES
NOHS
NPD
NPDES
NPL
NR
NRC
NS
NSPS
NTIS
NTP
ODW
OERR
OHM/TADS
OPP
OPPTS
OPPT
OR
OSHA
OSW
OW
OWRS
PAH
PBPD
mixed function oxidase

milligram
milliliter
millimeter
millimeters of mercury
millimole
millions of particles per cubic foot
Minimal Risk Level
mass spectrometry
National Ambient Air Quality Standard
National Academy of Science
National Air Toxics Information Clearinghouse
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
normochromatic erythrocytes
National Center for Environmental Health
National Cancer Institute
not detected
National Fire Protection Association
nanogram
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
NIOSH's Computerized Information Retrieval System
National Library of Medicine
nanometer
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
nanomole
no-observed-adverse-effect level
National Occupational Exposure Survey
National Occupational Hazard Survey
nitrogen phosphorus detection
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
National Priorities List
not reported
National Research Council
not specified
New Source Performance Standards
National Technical Information Service
National Toxicology Program
Office of Drinking Water, EPA
Office of Emergency and Remedial Response, EPA
Oil and Hazardous Materials/Technical Assistance Data System
Office of Pesticide Programs, EPA
Office of Prevention, Pesticides and Toxic Substances, EPA
Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics, EPA
odds ratio
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
Office of Solid Waste, EPA
Office of Water
Office of Water Regulations and Standards, EPA
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
physiologically based pharmacodynamic
C-4

APPENDIX C
PBPK
PCE
PEL
PID
pg
pmol
PHS
PMR
ppb
ppm
ppt
PSNS
RBC
REL
RfC
RfD
RNA
RTECS
RQ
SARA
SCE
SGOT
SGPT
SIC
SIM
SMCL
SMR
SNARL
SPEGL
STEL
STORET
TD50
TLV
TOC
TPQ
TRI
TSCA
TWA
UF
U.S.
USDA
USGS
VOC
WBC
WHO
physiologically based pharmacokinetic

polychromatic erythrocytes
permissible exposure limit
photo ionization detector
picogram
picomole
Public Health Service
proportionate mortality ratio
parts per billion
parts per million
parts per trillion
pretreatment standards for new sources
red blood cell
recommended exposure level/limit
reference concentration
reference dose
ribonucleic acid
Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances
reportable quantity
Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act
sister chromatid exchange
serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase
serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase
standard industrial classification
selected ion monitoring
secondary maximum contaminant level
standardized mortality ratio
suggested no adverse response level
Short-Term Public Emergency Guidance Level
short term exposure limit
Storage and Retrieval
toxic dose, 50% specific toxic effect
threshold limit value
total organic carbon
threshold planning quantity
Toxics Release Inventory
Toxic Substances Control Act
time-weighted average
uncertainty factor
United States
United States Department of Agriculture
United States Geological Survey
volatile organic compound
white blood cell
World Health Organization
>
greater than
greater than or equal to
equal to
less than
less than or equal to
$
=
<
C-5

APPENDIX C
m
g
q1*
+
(+)
()
percent
alpha
beta
gamma
delta
micrometer
microgram
cancer slope factor
negative
positive
weakly positive result
weakly negative result

Toxicological Profiles - Chlorine Dioxide and Chlorite-U.S. Public Health Service

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TOXICOLOGICAL PROFILE FOR

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES

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CHLORINE DIOXIDE AND CHLORITE

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CHLORINE DIOXIDE AND CHLORITE

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CHLORINE DIOXIDE AND CHLORITE

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CHLORINE DIOXIDE AND CHLORITE

Jeffrey P. Koplan, M.D., M.P.H.

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QUICK REFERENCE FOR HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS

Primary Chapters/Sections of Interest

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Managing Hazardous Materials Incidents is a three-volume set of recommendations for on-scene

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THE PROFILE HAS UNDERGONE THE FOLLOWING ATSDR INTERNAL REVIEWS:

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Dr. Mohamed S. Abdel-Rahman, Professor of Pharmacology and Physiology, Director of

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3.2.2.2 Systemic Effects

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3.11.3 Interfering with the Mechanism of Action for Toxic Effects

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ATSDR MINIMAL RISK LEVELS AND WORKSHEETS

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1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT

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1.3 HOW MIGHT I BE EXPOSED TO CHLORINE DIOXIDE AND CHLORITE?

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1.7 HOW CAN FAMILIES REDUCE THE RISK OF EXPOSURE TO CHLORINE

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