Cadmium Pollution and Its Impact On Human Health and Environment

Cadmium Pollution and Its Impact on Human Health and Environment
1.
Introduction:
Cadmium is a naturally occurring trace element, one of the important components in
the earth crust and oceans, and present everywhere in our environment. It was first
discovered in Germany in 1817 as a by-product of the zinc refining process. Its name
is derived from the Latin cadmia and the Greek kadmeia.
Industrial applications for cadmium were developed in the late 19 th and the early
20th century. Cadmium sulfide based pigments were used as early as 1850 because
of their brilliant red, orange and yellow colors and appeared prominently in the
paintings of Vincent Van Gogh in the late 1800s. Thomas A. Edison in the United
States and Waldemar Junger Sweden developed the first nickel-cadmium batteries
early in the 20th century. However the most significant early use of cadmium was a
corrosion-protection coating on steel.
Cadmium is recognized to produce toxic effects on humans. Because the use of
cadmium by industry has greatly increased, the amount of cadmium we are exposed
to via air, water and soil has increased to the extent that it has become a hazard to
human health. Long term occupational exposure can cause adverse health effects
on the lungs and kidneys. Under normal conditions, adverse human health effects
have not been encountered from general population exposure to cadmium.
2.
General chemistry:
Cadmium is Natural. Cadmium (elemental symbol Cd) is a member, along with zinc
and mercury, of group 12 (CAS IIB) of the periodic table of the elements. It is
generally characterized as a soft, ductile, silver-white or bluish-white metal, and is
listed as 64th in relative abundance amongst the naturally occurring elements.
Chemical properties of cadmium are shown in table-1.
2.1 Chemical properties of cadmium:

Table-1: Chemical properties of cadmium:
1.
2.
3.
Atomic number
48
Atomic mass
112.49 mol-1
Electro negativity according to 107
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Pauling
Density
Melting point
Boiling point
Vanderwaales radius
Ionic radius
Isotopes
807 gcm-1 at 200c

3210c
7670 0c
0.154
0.097nm
15
1

Kr-4d10 5s2
10.
Electronic shell
Sources: www.cadmium.org
2.2 Atomic structure:
The atomic property of the cadmium is shown in table-2 and Figure-1 and Figure-2.
Table-2: Atomic properties of cadmium.
Atomic properties:
Oxidation states
2, 1 (mildly basic oxide)
Electronegativity
1.69 (Pauling scale)
Ionization energies 1st: 867.8 kJmol1

2nd: 1631.4 kJmol1
3rd: 3616 kJmol1
Atomic radius
151 pm
Covalent radius
1449 pm
Sources: en.wikipedia.org.
Fig-1: Bohr model of cadmium

cadmium
3.
Fig-2: Shell structure of
Sources: www.chemicalelement.com
Sources: www.webelement.com
Sources of cadmium:
There are many sources of cadmium from which our environment and our bodies
can be contaminated with cadmium. Cigarette smoke, refined foods, tea, coal
burning, and shellfish are all definite sources. Contents and permissible limit of
cadmium in soil, water, plants and animals are illustrated in the following table-3.
Table-3: Contents of cadmium in soil, water, plant, and animals
Parameters
Soils
Contents
Total: 0.01-0.03 mgkg-1
2
Sea water
Fresh water
Plants
Reference plant
Animals
Muscle
Bone
Blood
Urine
Sources: Pais and jones, 1997.
3.1
Soluble:0.1-14.0 mgkg-1
1.110-6 to 3810-6 ml-1
Reference:0.2 gl-1
0.1-1.0mgkg-1
0.05mgkg-1
0.1-0.5mgkg-1
0.14-3.2 mgkg-1
1.8mgkg-1
0.0053 mgdm-3
0.02 mgl-1
Air:
Cadmium occurs as suspended particulate in air from burning coal and fossil fuel
and used in the production of cement, battery, plastic, fertilizer, metal alloys,
corrosion inhibitors, and other chemicals, pigments used in ceramics, paints in
textiles and coatings, batteries, electronics and autos (Cook, 1994). Volcanic activity
is the dominant natural source for cadmium pollution (Zoller, 1984). It enters the
mainly from:
1. Combustion of domestic, hospital or industrial waste.
2. Metal processing.
3. Manufacture of cadmium products and cement.
4. Mining and processing of copper, lead and zinc.
3.2
Water:
Unpolluted water contains very low levels of cadmium. Water may be contaminated
by runoff from mines, smelters, industrial sites, coal ash or incinerator ash, with
serious consequences, if the contaminated water is used to irrigate crops, as has
happened in japan. Cadmium in effluent water many result in accumulation in the
sediment, from where it may be ingested by detritus feeders such as crabs or
shellfish.
3.3
Soil:
Most cadmium in nature occurs as an atomic substitution for zinc in zinc minerals,
usually making up less than 1% of the mineral. Only a few relatively pure cadmium
minerals are known. The best known of these is the mineral greenockite, but even
these mineral forms rare and rather small crystals.
Table-4:
Typical
levels
of
cadmium
in
environment
and
biological
materials:
Material
Air borne:
Cadmium content
Unit
3

Industrial areas
Urban areas
Rural areas
Wet precipitation:
Industrial areas
Urban areas
Rural areas
Natural waters and sediments:
River water
Estuarine water
Sea water
River sediments
Terrestrial materials:
Soils polluted
Sewage sludge
Fossil fuels
Human materials:
Kidneys
Liver
Bones
Whole blood
Sources: Stoepler, 1992.
20-300
0.1-50
0.003-4
ngm3
ngm3
ngm3
0.07-10
0.25-0.9
<0.05-0.30
gl
gl
gl
<0.05-0.2
<0.04-2
0.001-0.05
30-800
gl
gl
gl
mgkg
0.2-50
2-50
<0.03-400
mgkg
mgkg
mgkg
Up to 500
0.1-3
<0.01-3.0
Up to 0.2
mgkg
mgkg
mgkg
mgkg
Cadmium in soils is derived from both natural and anthropogenic sources. The major
factors governing cadmium speciation, adsorption and distribution in soils are pH,
soluble organic matter content, hydrous metal oxide content, clay content and type,
presence of organic and inorganic ligands, and competition from other metal ions
(OECD 1994). The use of cadmium-containing fertilizers and sewage sludge is most
often quoted as the primary reason for the increase in the cadmium content of soils
over the last 20 to 30 years in Europe (Jensen and Bro-Rasmussen 1992).
Atmospheric cadmium emissions deposition onto soils has generally decreased
significantly over that same time period (Cook and Morrow 1995, Mukunoki and
Fujimoto 1996). On the agricultural lands, the major sources of cadmium are:
1. Application of phosphate fertilizer (in which cadmium is trace impurity), and
2. Atmosphere Deposition (Joardar, 2003).
4.
Uses of cadmium:
Cadmium is intentionally added to six major classes of products where it imparts
distinct performance advantages and is present as an impurity in five major classes
of products where its presence is regarded as an environmental disadvantage but
which generally does not affect the performance of the product. The major
intentional uses of cadmium are Ni-Cd batteries, cadmium pigments, cadmium
4

stabilizers, cadmium coatings, cadmium alloys and cadmium electronic compounds
such as cadmium telluride (CdTe). Trends in cadmium consumptions patterns from
2000 to 2005 are shown in figure-3 below:
Figure-3: Trends in cadmium consumption patterns.

Sources: www.cadmium.org.
4.1 Patterns of Consumption:
In recent years, the consumption pattern of cadmium in its various end use
applications has increasingly shifted away from the traditional market areas of
pigments, stabilizers and coatings to rapidly growing applications in Ni-Cd batteries.
The relative distribution of cadmium uses is shown in figure-4.
Reference Year: 2003

Figure-4: Relative distribution of cadmium uses.
4.2 Nickel-Cadmium Batteries:
5

Cadmium hydroxide is utilized as one of the two principal electrode materials in NiCd batteries. Ni-Cd batteries are cost-effective well suited for high power
applications, and have high cycle lives and excellent low temperature and high
temperature performance relative to other battery chemistries (Morrow and Keating
1997).
4.3 Cadmium Pigments:
Cadmium sulphide and cadmium sulphoselenide are utilized as bright yellow to deep
red pigments in plastics, ceramics, glasses, enamels and artists colors. They are well
known for their ability to withstand high temperature and high pressure without
chalking or fading, and therefore are used in applications where high temperature or
high pressure processing is required (Cook 1994).
4.4 Cadmium Stabilizers:
Cadmium-bearing stabilizers retard the degradation processes in polyvinylchloride
(PVC) which occur upon exposure to heat and ultraviolet light. These stabilizers
contain organic cadmium salts, usually carboxylates such as cadmium laureate or
cadmium stearate, which ensure a long service life (Cadmium Association and
Cadmium Council 1991).
4.5 Cadmium Coatings:
Cadmium coatings are utilized on steel, aluminum, and certain other non-ferrous
metal fasteners and moving parts to provide the best available combination of
corrosion resistance, particularly in salt and alkali media, and lubricity or low
coefficient of friction. In addition, cadmium coatings exhibit excellent plating
characteristics on a wide variety of substrates, have good galvanic comparability
with aluminum, and are readily solder able (Morrow 1996).
4.6 Alloys:
Cadmium alloys include (a) electrical conductivity alloys, (b) heat conductivity
alloys, and (c) electrical contact alloys.
4.7 Minor uses:
In addition to the major uses of cadmium there are a wide variety of uses which
consume only small amounts of cadmium. These minor uses, however, often have
considerable technological and social importance.
5.
Cadmium emissions:
Cadmium emissions arise from two major source categories, natural sources and
man-made
or anthropogenic sources.
Emissions occur to the
three major
compartments of the environment - air, water and soil, but there may be
considerable transfer between the three compartments after initial deposition.
5.1 Natural Cadmium Emissions:
6

Even though the average cadmium concentration in the earth's crust is generally
placed between 0.1 and 0.5 ppm, much higher levels may accumulate in
sedimentary rocks, and marine phosphates and phosphorites have been reported to
contain levels as high as 500 ppm (Cook and Morrow 1995, WHO 1992). Volcanic
activity is also a major natural source of cadmium release to the atmosphere, and
estimates on the amount have been placed as high as 820 mt per year (WHO 1992,
OECD 1994, Nriagu 1980, Nriagu 1989).
5.2 Anthropogenic Cadmium Emissions:
5.2.1 Cadmium-Containing vs. Non-Cadmium Con Products:
Man-made cadmium emissions arise either from the manufacture, use and disposal
of products intentionally utilizing cadmium, or from the presence of cadmium as a
natural but not functional impurity in non-cadmium containing products. In the
former category of cadmium-containing products are included:
Nickel-Cadmium Batteries
Cadmium Pigmented Plastics, Ceramics, Glasses, Paints and Enamels
Cadmium Stabilized Polyvinylchloride (PVC) Products
Cadmium Coated Ferrous and Non-ferrous Products
Cadmium Alloys and Cadmium Electronic Compounds.
5.2.2 Factors in Anthropogenic Emissions Analyses:
There are many studies which attempt to present a comprehensive overview of
anthropogenic cadmium emissions to air, water and soil and their specific sources
(Cook and Morrow, 1995). Examination of these analyses immediately indicates that
there are three factors of primary importance in determining the levels of cadmium
emissions. First, cadmium emission factors which are the amounts of cadmium
emitted to the environment per unit of cadmium processed are generally much
lower in the more technologically advanced regions of the world such as North
America, Western Europe and Japan than in other regions (WHO 1992, Jackson and
MacGillivray 1993, Nriagu and Pacyna 1988). Secondly, many countries have only
partial data and often do not include significant cadmium emission sources
particularly those where cadmium is not intentionally added. Third and most
significantly, cadmium emissions have declined dramatically over the past thirty to
forty years and are still declining today.
5.2.3 Point Sources vs. Diffuse Sources:
Cadmium emissions may be considered as arising from either point sources such as
large manufacturing or production facilities or from diffuse sources such as may
occur from the use and disposal of products by many consumers over large areas.
Emissions from point sources have been stringently regulated over the past twenty
years, and cadmium emissions from point sources have decreased dramatically
7

during that time period (Elgersma et al. 1992, Mukunoki and Fujimoto 1996, U.S. EPA
1996, Van Assche and Ciarletta 1992) as a result of these regulations and markedly
improved emission control technology. Considerable progress is now being made in
reduction of diffuse contamination from cadmium products through collection and
recycling programs of cadmium-containing products (Morrow 1997, Cook and
Morrow 1995, Morrow and Keating 1997, Mukunoki and Fujimoto 1996).
5.2.4 Cadmium Emissions from Municipal Solid Waste Incineration:
One of the concerns expressed by some is that increasing incineration of cadmiumcontaining products will eventually lead to increased cadmium emissions to the
environment and increased risk to human health and the environment. While there
are large differences from country to country in the amounts of municipal solid
waste incinerated, from 10% to 90%, it is clear that modem state-of-the-art emission
control devices on these incinerators result in a capture efficiency of better than
99% compared with previous estimates as low as 50% to 75% (Chandler 1996,
OECD 1996). Finally, it must also be pointed out that there are many sources of
cadmium in municipal solid waste, not just products to which cadmium has
intentionally been added.
5.2.5 Partitioning of Cadmium Emissions to Compartments:
Most of the studies cited above indicate that the vast majority of cadmium
emissions, approximately 80% to 90%, partition initially to soils. The remaining 10%
to 20% of anthropogenic cadmium emissions partition between air and water and
depend largely on the type of source.
5.2.6 Anthropogenic Sources of Cadmium Emissions to Air Water and Soil:
Cadmium emissions to air arise, in decreasing order of importance, from the
combustion of fossil fuels, iron and steel production, non-ferrous metals production
and municipal solid waste combustion (Cook and Morrow 1995, ERL 1990, Jackson
and MacGillivray 1993, Jones et al. 1993, Van Assche and Ciarletta 1992). Cadmium
emissions to water arise, in decreasing order of importance, from phosphate
fertilizers, non-ferrous metals production, and the iron and steel industry (OECD
1994, ERL 1990, Van Assche and Ciarletta 1992). In the first case, the main inputs to
agricultural soils which are of primary relevance to human exposure to cadmium
arise from atmospheric deposition, sewage sludge application, and phosphate
fertilizer application (Jensen and Bro-Rasmussen 1992, Van Assche and Ciarletta
1992).
5.3 Anthropogenic Cadmium Emissions vs. Natural Cadmium Emissions:
Earlier estimates of anthropogenic cadmium emissions vs. natural cadmium
emissions
had
indicated
approximately 8,000
to
10,000 mt
per year
for
8

anthropogenic emissions compared to 800 to 1,000 mt per year for natural cadmium
emissions (Nriagu 1980, Nriagu 1989, WHO 1992).
6.
Cadmium exposure and human health:

It has been well established that excess cadmium exposure produces adverse health
effects on human beings The relevant questions with regard to cadmium exposure
are the total exposure levels and the principal factors which determine the levels of
cadmium exposure and the adsorption rate of the ingested cadmium by the
individual, other words, the pathways by which cadmium enters the food chain, the
principal pathway of cadmium exposure for most human beings. Relative
contribution of sources of cadmium human exposure is shown in Figure-5.
Figure-5: Relative contribution of sources of cadmium human exposure

6.1 Principal Factors Which Determine Levels of Human Exposure:
Humans normally absorb cadmium into the body either by ingestion or inhalation
dermal exposure (uptake through the skin) is generally not regarded to be of
significance (Lauwerys 1986). It is widely accepted (WHO 1992, ATSDR 1997) that
approximately 2% to 6% of the cadmium ingested is actually taken up into the body.
Factors influencing cadmium absorption are the form in which cadmium is present in
the food, and the iron status of the exposed individual. The exception to this
generalization is the cigarette smoker. One model for human cadmium intake (Van
Assche 1998) has estimated that ingestion accounts for 95% of total cadmium
intake in a non-smoker.
6.2 Human Intake of Cadmium:
9

6.2.1. Ingestion:
Much of the cadmium which enters the body by ingestion comes from terrestrial
foods. This is to say, from plants grown in soil or meat from animals which have
ingested plants grown in soil. Thus, directly or indirectly, it is the cadmium present
in the soil and the transfer of this cadmium to food plants together with the
cadmium deposited out of the atmosphere on edible plant parts which establishes
the vast majority of human cadmium intake, Some have estimated that 98% of the
ingested cadmium comes from terrestrial foods, while only 1% comes from aquatic
foods such as fish and shellfish, and 1% arises from cadmium in drinking water (Van
Assche 1998).
6.2.2. Cadmium Intake from Foods:
Many studies have attempted to establish the average daily cadmium intake
resulting from foods; In general, these studies show that the average daily diet for
non-smokers living in uncontaminated areas is at present at the low end of the
range of 10 to 25 g of cadmium (Elinder 1985, OECD 1994, ATSDR 1997).
The World Health Organisation (WHO) has established a provisional tolerable weekly
intake (PTWI) for cadmium at 7 g/kg of body weight. The average daily cadmium
intake for the general population in the Western World has shown a distinct
downward trend from 1970 through 1992 (Van Assche and Ciarletta 1992), a
reduction presumed to be due to the marked decreases in direct atmospheric
deposition of cadmium onto crops and soils. Monthly cadmium intake for the general
population is shown in Figure-6.
Figure-6: Monthly cadmium intake for the general population.

10

6.2.3 Inhalation:
Cadmium inhalation is a far smaller contributor to total cadmium body burden
except, as previously noted, in the cases of smokers or some highly exposed
workers of the past. Today, the inhalation route is well controlled in the occupational
setting, and is well-controlled from point sources such as those which directly
pertain to the non-ferrous, cadmium or cadmium products industries.
6.2.4. Cadmium Intake from Cigarette Smoking:
Smokers absorb amounts of cadmium comparable to those from food, about 1 to 3
g of cadmium per day, from the smoking of cigarettes. It has been reported that
one cigarette contains about 1 - 2 g of cadmium and that about 10% of the
cadmium content is inhaled when the cigarette is smoked (WHO 1992). Cigarette
smokers (WHO) are also occupationally exposed may increase their total cadmium
intake even further.
6.2.5. Cadmium Intake from Occupational Exposure:
Up to the l960s, very elevated cadmium in air exposure levels were measured in
some workplaces, sometimes as high as 1 mg/m. Since that time, workplace
exposures and standards have decreased markedly so that most occupational
exposure standards today are in the range from 2 to 50 g/m. The result has been
that occupational exposures today are generally below 5 g/m, and most cadmium
workers are exposed at levels which are considered to be safe (ATSDR 1997).
Extensive preventative hygiene programs and medical follow-up programs have
been developed to control the risk related to cadmium exposure at the workplace
(ACGIH 1996, OSHA 1992, Lauwerys 1986).
6.3. Human Health Effects of Cadmium:
The kidney is the critical target organ for the general population as well as for
occupationally exposed populations. Cadmium is known to accumulate in the human
kidney for a relatively long time, from 20 to 30 years, and, at high doses, is also
known to produce health effects on the respiratory system and has been associated
with bone disease.
6.3.1 General Population:
Ingestion of cadmium in food is the major source of cadmium for non-smokers.
Average daily intakes from food in non-contaminated areas is at the lower end of the
10 to 25 g range of which approximately 0.5 to 1.0 g is actually retained in the
body. Uptake of cadmium from smoking could more than double that amount.
Individuals (WHO) consume large amounts of these materials might thus at first
seem to be at increased risk. Thus, individuals (WHO) ingest large amounts of
sunflower seeds may invest up to 100 g cadmium per day, yet these individuals do
11

not have levels of cadmium in blood or urine which are higher than individuals with
far lower levels of cadmium intake (Reeves et al. 1997).
6.3.2 Occupationally Exposed Populations:
Occupational exposure to cadmium is mainly by inhalation but also may include
additional intakes through food, tobacco, and poor personal hygiene practices. Acute
poisoning by inhalation may lead to respiratory manifestations such as severe
bronchial and pulmonary irritation, subacute pneumonitis, lung emphysema, and, in
the most severe situations, death from pulmonary oedema may occur (Lauwerys,
1986). Chronic obstructive airway disease has been associated with long-term highlevel occupational exposure by inhalation (WHO 1992, OECD 1994).
For chronic cadmium exposure, effects occur mainly on the kidneys, lungs, and
bones. A relationship has been established between cadmium air exposure and
proteinuria (WHO 1992, OECD 1994). However, recent work has demonstrated that
these effects are reversible at low exposure levels once the cadmium exposure has
been removed or reduced (Roels et al. 1997).
6.4. Sources of Human Cadmium Exposure:
While sources of cadmium emissions to the environment have been listed in some
detail in this report and others (Cook and Morrow 1995, WHO 1992, OECD 1994),
there have been very few attempts to partition human cadmium exposure to its
various sources. Van Assche (Van Assche and Ciarletta 1992) has developed a model
for cadmium exposure for human beings and allocated this exposure to the various
sources. The analysis acknowledges that most human cadmium exposure comes
from ingestion of food, and most of that arises from the uptake of cadmium by
plants from fertilizers, sewage sludge, manure and atmospheric deposition,
specifically, the model estimated that the relative importance of various cadmium
sources to human exposure is as follows (Van Assche 1998):
Phosphate Fertilizers 41.3 %
Fossil Fuel Combustion
22.0 %
Iron & Steel Production
16.7 %
Natural Sources
8.0 %
Non-ferrous Metals
6.3 %
Cement Production
2.5 %
Cadmium Products
2.5 %
Incineration
1.0 %
7.
Level of cadmium in the environment:

Cadmium levels in the environment vary widely. As stated above, cadmium
emissions to the environment are normally transported continually between the
12

three main environmental compartments, air, water and soils, but a steady state
flux is probably achieved and the general levels can reasonably well be established.
7.1 Cadmium in Air:
Three distinct categories may be recognized with respect to cadmium-in-air
concentrations - cadmium in ambient air, cadmium air levels in occupational
exposure situations, and cadmium in air from the smoking of tobacco. Cadmium in
ambient air represents, by far, the majority of total airborne cadmium. Inputs from
all three categories may affect human cadmium intake and human health, but the
levels and the transfer mechanisms to humans are substantially different for the
three.
7.1.1 Cadmium in Ambient Air:
Ambient air cadmium concentrations have generally been estimated to range from
0.1 to 5 ng/m in rural areas, from 2 to 15 ng/m in urban areas, and from 15 to 150
ng/m in industrialized areas (Elinder 1985, WHO 1992, OECD 1994) although some
much lower values have been noted in extremely remote areas and some much
higher values have been recorded in the past near uncontrolled industrial sources.
7.1.2 Cadmium in Occupational Environments:
Cadmium air concentrations may be elevated in certain industrial settings, but these
exposures are closely controlled today by national occupational exposure standards.
Occupational exposure standards which were formerly set at 100 to 200 g/m are
now specified at 2 to 50 g/m along with requirements to maintain biological
indicators such as cadmium-in-blood and cadmium-in-urine below certain levels to
assure no adverse human health effects from cadmium occupational exposure
(International Labor Organization 1991, ACGIH 1996, OSHA 1992).
7.1.3 Cadmium in Tobacco Smoke:
Tobacco leaves naturally accumulate and concentrate relatively high levels of
cadmium, and therefore smoking of tobacco is an important source of air cadmium
exposure for smokers. It has been reported that one cigarette contains about 0.5 - 2
g of cadmium and that about 10% of the cadmium content is inhaled when the
cigarette is smoked (Elinder 1985, WHO 1992).
7.2 Cadmium in Water:
The average cadmium content in the world's oceans has variously been reported as
low as <5 ng/L (WHO 1992) and 5-20 ng/L (OECD 1994, Jensen and Bro-Rasmussen
1992) to as high as 110 ng/L (CRC 1996), 1 00 ng/L (Cook and Morrow 1995) and 10
to 100 ng/L (Elinder 1985). Higher levels have been noted around certain coastal
areas (Elinder 1985) and variations of cadmium concentration with the ocean depth,
13

presumably due to patterns of nutrient concentrations, have also been measured
(WHO 1992, OECD 1994).
7.3. Cadmium in soil:
7.3.1 Sources:
Cadmium in soils is derived from both natural and anthropogenic sources. Natural
sources include underlying bedrock or transported parent material such as glacial till
and alluvium. Anthropogenic input of cadmium to soils occurs by aerial deposition
and sewage sludge, manure and phosphate fertilizer application. The major factors
governing cadmium speciation, adsorption and distribution in soils are pH, soluble
organic matter content, hydrous metal oxide content, clay content and type,
presence of organic and inorganic ligands, and competition from other metal ions
(OECD 1994). The use of cadmium-containing fertilizers and sewage sludge is most
often quoted as the primary reason for the increase in the cadmium content of soils
over the last 20 to 30 years in Europe (Jensen and Bro-Rasmussen 1992).
7.3.2 Cadmium Levels in Soils:
The average natural abundance of cadmium in the earth's crust has most often
been reported from 0.1 to 0.5 ppm, but much higher and much lower values have
also been cited depending on a large number of factors.
7.3.3 Cadmium Emissions to Soils
Cadmium in soils must be distinctly classified in three separate areas with regard to
their relative effects on human health and the environment. These three areas are
agricultural soils, non-agricultural soils, and controlled landfills. Cadmium in
controlled landfalls is virtually immobile, and is unlikely to have any effect on human
health or the environment simply because it is so well contained (Eggenberger and
Waber 1998, NUS 1987).
7.3.4 Cadmium in Agricultural Soils:
Numerous agencies have focused upon the presence of cadmium in agricultural
soils, the means by which agricultural soils may be enriched by cadmium. Except in
cases of extreme contamination, the concentration of cadmium in soils is not the
primary determinant of cadmium in the human diet.
7.3.5 Cadmium Levels in Foodstuffs:
Cadmium levels can vary widely in various types of foodstuffs. Leafy vegetables
such as lettuce and spinach and certain staples such as potatoes and grain foods
exhibit relatively high values from 30 to 150 ppb. Peanuts, soybeans and sunflower
seeds also exhibit naturally high values of cadmium with seemingly no adverse
health effects. Meat and fish normally contain lower cadmium contents, from 5 to 40
ppb. Animal offal such as kidney and liver can exhibit extraordinarily high cadmium
14

values, up to 1,000 ppb, as these are the organs in animals where cadmium
concentrates (WHO 1992, ATSDR 1997). There are strong indications that cadmium
levels in foodstuffs have substantially decreased during the past several decades
due to the progressive control of cadmium emissions to the environment (Van
Assche and Ciarletta 1993, Watanabe et al. 1993, Watanabe et al. 1994).
7.3.6 Cadmium Contamination of Agricultural Soils:
In the past, there have been examples of marked cadmium contamination in areas
where food has been grown. This was particularly so for rice crops in Japan in the
1950s and 1960s where cadmium concentrations from 200 to 2,000 ppb were found
(Elinder 1985).
7.3.7Cadmium contamination in Bangladesh soils:
Available data on the impact of industrial pollution in Bangladesh especially on soils
and crops and the mobility in the human food chain are quite limited. No systematic
research work has yet been done on the amelioration of heavy metal uptake into
crops from polluted soils. During the course of the research work-Amelioration of
Heavy Metals from Contaminated Soils of Hazaribagh and Tejgaon Areas
from Bangladesh Using Red Mud by Chamon et al., (2009) in the Department
of Soil, Water and Environment, University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh., oxides of
iron (as red mud) were tested as additives in two contaminated soil of Bangladesh,
in order to remediate heavy metals from those soil.
Pot experiments were conducted with heavy metals contaminated soil (0-15 cm
depth) from Tejgaon industrial and Hazaribagh tannery areas. The characteristics of
Tejgaon and Hazaribagh soil are given in Table-5.
Table-5.: The characteristics of Tejgaon and Hazaribagh Soil
Parameter
Tejgaon soil
pH
5.67
%C
8.24
%N
0.74
P(mg/kg)
415
K(mg/kg0
243
Cd (mg/kg)
2.6
Texture
Clay loam
Source: Chamon et al., 2009.
8.
Hazaribagh soil
7.08
1.02
0.16
229
213
0.08
Clay loam
Effects of cadmium:
8.1. Effects of cadmium on human health:

15

Cadmium is a pollutant which has strong negative effects on human and animal
health. Inhalation of cadmium fumes or particles can be life threatening, and
although acute pulmonary effects and deaths are uncommon, sporadic cases still
occur. Cadmium exposure may cause kidney damage. The first sign of the renal
lesion is usually a tubular dysfunction, evidenced by an increased excretion of low
molecular weight proteins.
Acute exposure to cadmium fumes may cause flu like symptoms including chills,
fever, and muscle ache. More severe exposures can cause trachea-bronchitis,
pneumonitis, and pulmonary edema. Symptoms of inflammation may start hours
after the exposure and include cough, dryness and irritation of the nose and throat,
headache, dizziness, weakness, fever, chills, and chest pain. Chronic exposure to
cadmium is associated with kidney damage, bone damage, cancer, low birth weight,
spontaneous abortion, and many other ailments.
Inhaling cadmium-laden dust quickly leads to respiratory tract and kidney problems
which can be fatal (often from renal failure). Ingestion of any significant amount of
cadmium causes immediate poisoning and damage to the liver and the kidneys.
Compounds containing cadmium are also carcinogenic.
The study of health effects of cadmium with respect to the cardiovascular system
and calcium metabolism disproved the hypothesis that exposure to cadmium would
lead to an increase in blood pressure and in the prevalence of hypertension and
other cardiovascular diseases. On the other hand, there was a positive relationship
between urinary cadmium (Cd-U) and both serum alkaline phosphatase activity and
urinary excretion of calcium. The regression coefficients obtained after adjustment
for significant co-variants indicated that, when Cd-U increased two-fold, serum
alkaline phosphatase and urinary calcium rose by 4% and 0.25 mmol/24 h,
respectively. These findings suggest that calcium metabolism is gradually affected
as cadmium accumulates in the body.
Cadmium derives its toxicological properties from its chemical similarity to zinc an
essential micronutrient for plants, animals and humans. Cadmium is bio persistent
and, once absorbed by an organism, remains resident for many years (over decades
for humans) although it is eventually excreted. Other patients lose their sense of
smell (anosmia).
Sources: medicaljournal.blogspot.com
16
The effects of cadmium on human health is shown in figure-7
Figure-7: The effect of cadmium on human health.

Sources: www.cadmium.org.
Itai itaidisease:
Itai-itai disease (ouch-ouch sickness"), was the documented case of mass cadmium
poisoning in the Jintsu River Valley region, Toyama Prefecture, Japan, starting around
1912. The cadmium poisoning caused softening of the bones and kidney failure. The
disease is named for the severe pains (Japanese: itai) caused in the joints and spine.
The term "itai-itai disease" was coined by locals. The cadmium was released into
rivers by mining companies in the mountains. The mining companies were
successfully sued for the damage. Itai-itai disease is known as one of the Four Big
Pollution Diseases of Japan.
In this disease, some of the Zn +2 ions in the bones are apparently replaced by Cd +2
ions, since they have the same charge and virtually the same size (figure-8). The
bones become porous, and can subsequently fracture and collapse. The intake of
17

cadmium by itaiitai sufferers was estimated at about 600 micrograms per day, which
is about 10 times the average ingestion of North America.
Cd +2
Inhalation
(g)
Free
Ingestion
(50gday)
Birds completely
with metallo
Exchange with
Zn containing
enzymes to
Kidney
99%
eliminated
Renal
dysfunc
tion
Ane
mia
Hyper
Bone
tensio
marrow
n
disorder
+2
Figure-8: Pathway of Cd in human body (De, 2000).
Canc
er
Sources: De, A.K., 2000.

8.2. Effects of cadmium on environment:
Naturally a very large amount of cadmium is released into the environment, about
25,000 tons a year. About half of this cadmium is released into rivers through
weathering of rocks and some cadmium is released into air through forest fires and
volcanoes. The rest of the cadmium is released through human activities, such as
manufacturing.
Cadmium can be transported over great distances when it is absorbed by sludge.
This cadmium-rich sludge can pollute surface waters as well as soils.
Cadmium strongly adsorbs to organic matter in soils. When cadmium is present in
soils it can be extremely dangerous, as the uptake through food will increase. Soils
18

that are acidified enhance the cadmium uptake by plants. This is a potential danger
to the animals that are dependent upon the plants for survival. Cadmium can
accumulate in their bodies, especially when they eat multiple plants. Cows may
have large amounts of cadmium in their kidneys due to this.
In aquatic ecosystems cadmium can bio accumulate in mussels, oysters, shrimps,
lobsters and fish. The susceptibility to cadmium can vary greatly between aquatic
organisms. Salt-water organisms are known to be more resistant to cadmium
poisoning than freshwater organisms.
Animals eating or drinking cadmium sometimes get high blood-pressures, liver
disease and nerve or brain damage.
Sources: www.lenntech.com.
9.
Permissible limit:
1) Soil-0.3 (USA)
2) Water-0.01 mgl
3) Plant-5ppb (WHO); 10ppb (USA)
Normal concentration in various substances:
1) Earth crust: 0.15-0.20 ppm
2) Soil: Up to 22 ppm, average-<0.1-0.3 ppm
3) Alluvial soil: 1.5 ppm
4) Sedimentary rock: 0.3-11 ppm
5) Fresh water: 0.1 mgl
6) Sea water: 0.11 gl
7) Drinking water: 10 ppb (USA, EPA); 0.005 ppm (DOE); 5 ppb (WHO)
8) Irrigation water: 10 ppb (all soil, EPA); 50 ppb (neutral alkali soil)
Sources: www.cadmium.com.
10. Treatment technology:

Treatment of soils contaminated by trace metals is classically based on the
application of lime and phosphates and the addition of organic matter (Kabata and
Pendias, 1992). Immobilization of Cd in soil by either synthetic or natural zeolites
reduced the Cd contents of plant tissues (Chlopecka and Adriano, 1996). In soil,
heavy metal can be sorbed and immobilized by a large variety of substances, such
as the different iron oxides and clay minerals (Tiller et al., 1984). Studies have
shown that Fe oxides have a binding performance for specific metals (Yong et al.,
1992), which becomes important when high levels of several metals are applied to
soils. With high concentrations of metals added, the capacity of specific sorption
sites (strongly bound metals) could be exceeded and the metal cations would
19

compete with the bulk cations for adsorption sites. Rule and Martin (1999) reported
that bio solids treated with Fe-Rich TM (Fe-Rich Trace Metals) sorbed significantly more
of all metals.
For example, during the course of the research work-Amelioration of Heavy
Metals from Contaminated Soils of Hazaribagh and Tejgaon Areas from
Bangladesh Using Red Mud by Chamon et al. (2009) in the Department of Soil,
Water and Environment, University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh., oxides of iron (as
red mud) were tested as additives in two contaminated soil of Bangladesh, in order
to remediate heavy metals from those soil.
The experiment showed that in principle, the taken measures i.e. application of red
mud and selection of plant species ameliorated plant growth and/or heavy metal
toxicity. Applied in small amounts, the ferric oxides, present in red mud led to an
increase in biomass production and improved yield for tomato plants and caused
significant reductions of soil to plant transfer of Cd. Heavy metal uptake into tomato
plants was significantly ameliorated in both soils.
The treatment technology is shown in following table-6.
Table-6: Treatment technology in different route of exposure.
NOTE!
PREVENT
DISPERSION
OF
DUST! General First Aid: IN ALL CASES
STRICT HYGIENE!
Route
of
Symptoms
Exposure
Inhalation
Cough.
CONSULT A DOCTOR!
First Aid
Fresh
Headache.
air
rest.
Half-upright
Symptoms position. Artificial respiration if
may be delayed (see Notes).
indicated.
Refer
for
medical
attention.
Remove contaminated clothes.
Skin
Rinse and then wash skin with

water and soap.
First rinse with plenty of water
Eyes
for
Redness. Pain.
several
minutes
(remove
contact lenses if easily possible)

then takes to a doctor.
Ingestion
Abdominal
pain.
Diarrhoea.
Rest. Refer for medical attention.

Headache. Nausea. Vomiting.
Sources: medicaljournal.blogspot.com. And www.banglajol.info
20
Cadmium can be efficiently removed from source of waters by lime softening and
coagulation with ferric sulphate. Lime softening removes over 98% of an initial
cadmium concentration of 0.03mgl in the pH range 8.5 to 11.3; ferric sulphate
coagulation removes more than 90% above p H 8, but only 30% at pH 7. Alum
coagulation removes less than 50% in the pH range 6.5 to 8.3. Ion exchange is used
industrially to remove cadmium from waste waters, and it has been reported that a
home ion exchange water softener removes 99% of the cadmium present in drinking
water. Reverse osmosis has also been reported capable of removing 90% or more of
the cadmium present in drinking water (ottaway, 1980).
11.
Conclusion:
It has been clearly demonstrated that cadmium concentrations in agricultural soil,

wheat, and human kidneys have increased significantly during the last century.
Although there is no clear evidence of a further increase in the concentrations of
cadmium in diets, blood, urine, and human kidneys, there is a tendency towards an
increase for each medium. Taken together, it seems likely that the human exposure
to cadmium continues to increase. This assumption is supported by the reported
ongoing increases in concentrations of cadmium in soil and pig kidney.
The recovery of cadmium from cadmium products through recycling programs not
only ensures that cadmium will be kept out of the waste stream and out of the
environment, but it also conserves valuable natural resources as well. Attempts to
ban or restrict cadmium products are considered unnecessary, taking into account
the ever decreasing human cadmium intake level which is already below the WHO
standard, and the very small relative contribution of cadmium products in this
respect. Rather than restricting products, it is argued that the European Union
should co-operate with and encourage the industrys voluntary product stewardship
initiatives to cooct and recycle cadmium containing products, which would
contribute to the sustainable and safe use of cadmium in modern society.
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21
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25

Internet:
Associated links:
www.banglajol.info
www.cadmium.org
www.lenntech.com
www.chemicalelements.com
www.webelements.com
en.wikipedia.org
medicaljournal.blogspot.com
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2.1 Chemical properties of cadmium:

807 gcm-1 at 200c