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WeldingSymbolsAnIntroductiontoReadingDrawings
>CommonWeldDefects<
(Note:YoucandowloadaprintablePDFversionofthissection.)
Althoughweldingisastraightforwardprocess,metalisadynamic
material,soyoucanexpectmanytwistsandturnsalongtheway.Your
workpiecesmayexpandwhenheated.Thegrainstructurecanweaken
andcausebrittleness.Andthemetal'sshapemaydeform,causing
cracks,whichcanspreadovertimeandpotentiallybreaktheweld.
Needlesstosay,suchgrislypossibilitieskeepinspectorsontheirtoes
andengineerslyingawakedeepintothenightwonderingiftheir
designscorrectlyanticipatedeverythingthatmightgowrong.
StructuresliketheGoldenGateBridge(whichwasriveted,notwelded),
demonstratethatsteelisthegotobuildingmaterialwhenitcomesto
strength.
CodeWelding
AnatomyofaWeld
TypesofBeads
WeldingParameters
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TheGood,theBadandtheUglyWeldingbeadsalongapracticeplateillustratewhat
cangowrongwhenawelderusesinpropertechniqueorthewrongmachinesettings.
Lowcarbon(akamild)steeliswidelyusedforstructuralwork,since
itsmorelikelytoretainitsductilitythanothermetalswhenoverheated
.Evenifyouquenchitinwatertooquickly,itmanages(mostofthe
time)tosurvivetheshockoftheordeal.Butlifeisnotsobreezyfor
aluminum,castiron,titanium,stainlessorhighcarbonsteels.
Inadditiontobrittleness,othercommonwelddefectslikedistortion,
crackingandmeltthroughcancompromisethedurabilityofmetals
(includingmildsteel).
Consequently,codesandstandardsdevelopedbytheAmerican
WeldingSocietyspecifyexactlyhowajointmustlookwhenthejobis
completed.Dependingontheapplication,othergroupsmayhaveasay
intheprojectaswell,suchastheAmericanSocietyofMechanical
Engineers(ASME),theAmericanPetroleumInstitute(API),andthe
AmericanSocietyforNondestructiveTesting(ASNT).Simplyput,when
thecodesarefollowed,eventslikethefailureofgussetplatesalongthe
I35bridgeinMinneapolismightnothaveoccurredinAugust2007,
causingthestructuretocollapse.Evenmoredeadlywasthecollapseof
twoskywalksattheHyattRegencyHotelinKansasCityin1981.(See
photosbelow.)
Codespecsforweldingaddressthefinishedshape,dimensionsand
extentofanyanomaliesinthefinishedweld.Asinglecrackis
consideredawelddefect,automaticallyfailinganinspection.However,
otherproblems,knownasdiscontinuities,maybeminuteenoughto
escapetheheavyhandofjustice.Whatsacceptabletotheinspectoris
spelledoutinthecode.
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Resources/Docs
PhotosofWeldDefects
SumitWaghmare
DiscontinuitiesinWelds
WeldingEngineer.com
AvoidingDefectsWhen
StickWelding
DeltaSchoolofTrades.com
WeldDefectsTheir
CausesandHowtoCorrect
ThemESAB
InspectingPipeDefects
TafaseelEngineering
WeldDefectsandQuality
Control(PDF)
AvoidingWeldDistortion
WeldingDesign.com
HowtoControlDistortion
LincolnElectric
HydrogenEmbrittlement
WeldingAdvisors.com
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TheskywalkcollapseinKansasCitywasattributedtoengineeringdesignmistakes
excaserbatedbyfurtherchangesmadeonsiteduringconstruction.Theweldsand
otherfastenersfailedtosustaintheweightofpeoplecrowdingontothewalkduringa
teadance.
Codespecsforweldingaddressthefinishedshape,dimensionsand
extentofanyanomaliesinthefinishedweld.Asinglecrackis
consideredawelddefect,automaticallyfailinganinspection.However,
otherproblems,knownasdiscontinuities,maybeminuteenoughto
escapetheheavyhandofjustice.What'sacceptabletotheinspectoris
spelledoutinthecode.
Takealookatthephotobelow.Itshowsarelativelyuniformweldwith
goodtiein,aslighlyconvexfaceandnospatter,cratersorother
visiblediscontinuities.Creatingweldslikethisrequiresbothpractice
andanunderstandingofhowmetalsreacttoheatandoxidation.
Here'sanexampleofarelativelyuniformweldwithgoodtiein,aslighlyconvexface
andnospatter,cratersorothervisiblediscontinuities.
Tomastercodewelding,youshouldalsogetonafirstnamebasiswith
thedefectsthatcauseweldstoberejected.Keepinmindthatmost
problemsyoullencounterhaveasingleidentifiablecauseand
solution.Moreover,thatcausemayhavenothingtodowithyourability
tolaydownaweldingbead.Instead,theculpritwillprovetobeoneof
thefollowing:
poorjointdesignandfitup
incorrectmachinesettings
wrongshieldinggasorflowrateinadequatepreorpostheat
treatment
usingthewrong(ordefective)rod/wire
ahotorcoldambienttemperature,highhumidity,orother
atmosphericconditions
Asyouacquireproficiencywithvariousweldingprocessesandwork
materials,youlllearntotroubleshootanydifficultiesandmake
adjustmentsquickly.Untilthen,besuretostopweldingassoonasyou
noticesomethingswrong.Consultwithafellowworker,supervisoror
yourinstructorbeforeyoucontinue.Remember,themoreheatyou
applytometal,themoreitsmolecularorchemicalstructurebecomes
compromised.Dooversshouldthereforebeavoidedwhenever
possible.
Asyouacquireproficiencywithvariousweldingprocessesandwork
materials,youlllearntotroubleshootanydifficultiesandmake
adjustmentsquickly.Untilthen,besuretostopweldingassoonasyou
noticesomethingswrong.Consultwithafellowworker,supervisoror
yourinstructorbeforeyoucontinue.Remember,themoreheatyou
applytometal,themoreitsmolecularorchemicalstructurebecomes
compromised.Dooversshouldthereforebeavoidedwhenever
possible.
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Cracks
Nomatterhowsmall,everycrackisconsideredadefect,andittakes
justonetofailaweldinspection.Thatsbecauseacrackspreadsover
time.Unlikecarpentry,youcantjustfilltheopeningwithalittleglue
andsawdust.Cracksmustbegroundoutwithafileorgrinder,thena
newweldperformed.Herearefourcommontypestowatchfor:
hotcrackingThiscrackappearssoonafterwelding,usuallyinsidethe
weld,asaresultofsomethingcalledhotshortness.Poorfitupor
designmayberesponsible,butthepresenceofsulphurinthebaseor
weldmetalcanlikewisecauseproblems,ascandifferentratesof
coolingwithintheweld.Often,thecrackformsalongtheaxis(center)
ofthejointasthetwosidespullapart.
coldcrackThisdoesntshowupatfirst,butwithinadayorsoofthe
weld.Itsinducedbyhydrogenabsorbedintotheweldviatheweld
puddle.Hydrogenmaybepresentduetomoistureseepingintoan
electrodepriortowelding,whichiswhyitsimportanttokeeplow
hydrogenrodsinanovenuntiltheyreneed.Anothercauseforacold
crackisbasemetalcontamination,sobesuretocleananyold,soiled
ordiscoloredmetalbeforeyoustartyourweld.
microfissureThisismoreofafuturecrackwhichdevelopesduring
thelifeoftheweld.Itsgeneratedbyaseismicdisturbance,metal
fatigueorstressesintheheataffectedzone,orHAZ.
cratercrackThiscrackdevelopsattheendofthejointwhenevera
welderneglectstobackfillthegap.Itsstandardpracticetoweldalittle
pasttheendofthejointorgobackwardsandontopoftheweldmetal
tomakesuretheresnocraterleftbehind.
Toavoidthepotentialforcracksinyourwelds,yourfitupshould
alwaysbeasspotonaspossible,justasifyouwereamastercabinet
maker.Dontassumeanygapcaneasilybeeliminatedbyaddingextra
weldmetal.Again,metalisamuchdifferentanimalthanwood.It
expandswhenheated,makingitdifficulttocompensatehereandthere
forsidesthatdontfittogetherwell.Eventhoughthejointmightlook
OKrightafteryouweldit,moreoftenthannotyourworkplateswill
reassumetheiroriginalorientationoncetheweldcools.Soheresthe
recipetogetaroundthat:
Spendthenecessarytimegrinding,cleaning,filingand/ordeburring
theedgesoftheplatessotheyeasilyfittogether.
Preheatbothsidesofthejoint(ifnecessary).
Clampand/ortackyourplatestogether.
Beforewelding,testyourmachinesettingstoseeifyouhavetheright
amountofheatdialedup.
Porosity
Porosityisthetechnicaltermforgasbubbles.Thesedevelopinsideor
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onthefaceofweldsbecausemetalinamoltenstateishighly
vulnerabletoimpurities.Forthisreason,someformofshieldinggas
(orgasingredientsinrods)areusedinmostweldingprocesses.
Porositycanbecausedbyoneofthefollowing:
Theflowmetersettingontheshieldinggastankistoohigh.
Youreusingthewronggasmixtureorrod/wire.
Theweldpuddleiscontaminatedduetouncleanmetal,surface
moistureorcontactbetweendissimilarmetals.
Yourweldingtravelspeedistoofast,notallowingenoughtimeforthe
shieldinggasorrodfluxingredientstodotheirjob.
Adraft,orbreezyconditionsoutdoorsareblowingthegasawayfrom
theweldpuddle.
Oxygenandhydrogenarethetwobigenemiesofwelders.Oxidized
surfaceswhichappearasrust,corrosionormillscaleinferrous
metalsshouldberemovedfromallweldableareasjustpriorto
welding(andnotthedaybefore).Remember,wateriscomposedoftwo
partshydrogen,onepartoxygen.Oncethehydrogengetsinsidemetal,
itcreatesaconditionknownashydrogenembrittlement.
AcloggedgasnozzleonaMIGweldingguncanalsopreventshielding
gasfromreachingtheweldpuddle,sobesuretocleantheorifice
often.Instickwelding,electrodesshouldbestoredawayfromany
sourceofmoisture.Inparticular,lowhydrogenrodslikeE7018mustbe
placedinarodovensetto250degreesF,oncetheboxhasbeen
opened.(Dontheatothertypesofrods,however,asthiswillcause
theircellulosecoatingstocrumble.)
InMIGwelding,alwayschecktheflowmetersettingbeforestartingyour
firstweld,andmakesurethegasmixture(argon,CO2,etc.)istheright
oneforyourapplication.
LackofPenetrationandFusion
GoWelding.com
Thisweldlacksbothpenetrationintothebasemetalandfusionwitheitherside.Thus,
itwontserveitspurposeofprovidingasolid,lastingconnectionbetweenthetwo
plates.
Dependingonthejoint,youmayhavetoweldallthewaydowntothe
bottomoryourplatestoachievewhatsknownasCompleteJoint
Penetration(CJP).Mostfilletwelds,ontheotherhand,requireonly
PartialJointPenetration(PJP).Eitherway,youllhavetosetyour
weldingmachinesoyouhavesufficientvoltageandcurrenttogetthe
jobdone.
Aweldbeadthatsimplyridesthesurfaceofthebasemetaliseasyto
spotbecausethebeadlookslikeabullettrain.Sufficientpenetrationis
achievedbysettingtherightamperageorvoltageonyourwelding
machine.Toofastatravelspeed,orholdingyourtorchtoohighabove
thejoint,willusuallylimitpenetration.(Forsomemetals,suchas
aluminumandstainlesssteel,youllhavetomovefasterbecause
theyrebothsensitivetoheat.)
Fusionreferstotyingthesidesoftheweldtothebasemetalsothat
theresnodividingline.Thisrequiresalittlemoretimeandattention
forgrooveweldswithanopenroot,sincetheresalotofspacethereto
fill.Anygapwillproducecracks.Thecrackswilleventuallyexpandand
resultinleaks(inthecaseofpipe)ordetachmentandinabilityto
supportaload(instructuralsteel).
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Theresnopenetrationorfusionherewiththebottomplate.Onthestandingplate,you
seeunevenpenetrationandagapatthebottom.
Tofusethesidesofthejoint,aweldermustpausebrieflyoneachside
whiledepositingtheweldmetal.Asageneralrule,youmovequickly
acrossthecenteroftheweldtoavoidglobbingnewmetalinthatarea.
Butthesidesofjointsarepronetoundercutting,sopausingisneeded
topreventthesegapsfromforming.Thus,aflatorslightlyconvexbead
isdepositedwithgoodtieinatthetoesoftheweld.
Inthisweld,amuchbetterjobisdonepenetratingandfusingthesidesofthebase
metal.Theweldsfaceisslightlyconvex,whichisgenerallypreferredoveraflator
concaveshape.
Instickweldingmildsteel,E6010or6011electrodesarethestandard
rodsused,becausetheyredesignedfordeeppenetration.Thewelder
thenswitchestoanotherrodtype,oftenalowhydrogenE7018forthe
fillerandcappasses.
Undercutting
Asnotedearlier,failuretogetgoodtieinwithbothtoesofaweldcan
resultinundercutting.Thatsbecausemetalmeltsfasteratitsedges
thaninthemiddle.OnaTjoint,liketheoneshownabove,thestanding
plateismostoftenweldedonitsedge,whereitsmoresusceptibleto
meltthrough.Sincethebottomplateisweldedatthemiddle,itmakes
sensetofocusmoreheatonitasyoumovealongthejoint.Manyentry
levelweldersforgetthisbasicruleofthumbabouthowmetalresponds
toheat.
WeldReality.com
Thetoesofthisweldarebadlyundercut.Thisiscausedbytheweldernotpausinglong
enoughoneachsideoftheweldashezigzags(orrollsacurlyQ)alongthejoint.
Also,theweldpenetratedclearthroughthestandingplate,whichsuggesttomuchheat
(orcurrent)wasapplied.
Youcanalsoundercutthetoeonthebottomplatebynotspending
enoughtimeweldingonthatsideofthejoint.Soinadditiontofocusing
moreheatonit,besuretomanipulateyourelectrodelaterally,pausing
oneachtoe,sotheweldpuddlecoversboththoseedgesofthejoint.
Thisisanessentialskilltomaster,asitwillcomeuprepeatedlyin
almosteverytypeofweldingassignmentyouundertake.
Correctsidetosidemovementinsuresfusionwiththebasemetaloneachwelding
pass.Whenyoureachthefinalpass(cap),makesuretheweldpuddlereachesand
coverseithertoe.
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Asyoupracticesidetosidemovement,youllbecomeadeptat
performingthismanipulationatasufficientspeedtoavoidoverheating,
andatthesametimenotdeposittoomuchmaterialacrossthethroatof
thejoint.
Overlap
Whereastoomuchheatcausesundercut,toolittlecreatesoverlap,wheretwoseparate
layersofmetalareleftbehindalongthetoe.Weldingtocoderequiresthoroughfusion
ofthebasemetal.
Thisistheoppositeextremefromundercutting.Here,theweldmetal
flowsacrossthebasemetalatthetoewithoutproducinganyfusion
betweenthetwo.Thismaybecausedbyinsufficientheattomeltthe
basemetal,and/orimpropermanipulationoftheelectrode.Makesure
yourrodorgunworkangleiscorrectotherwisetheheatwontbe
directedatthetoe.
Distortion
Becausemetalexpandswhenheated,thenshrinksaftercooling,the
twosidesofajointmayshiftpositioninthecourseofwelding.Thats
whytackingand/ortheuseofclampsisanintegralpartofmanyweld
operations.Stainlesssteelisespeciallypronetomovement.
TWI
Thebasemetalwillfoldinwardtowardsthefaceoftheweldunlessclampedintoplace.
Sometimesyoucanprepositionyourplateswithalittletiltintheoppositedirectionto
compensatefortheinevitabledistortion.
Ongrooveorothermultipasswelds,thetwobaseplatesmaylikewise
starttoshrinkandfoldinthedirectionofthejoint,regardlessoftacks
orclamps.Controlofheat(i.e.correctmachinesettings,abrisktravel
speed,etc.)willhelppreventdistortion.Changingthesequenceof
welds,orthelocationofthejoint,ormakingfewerpasses,canalso
helptoreducetherisk.Onoccasion,youmaydecidetostartyourfirst
weldwiththeplatesslightlytippedawayfromthedirectionyouexpect
themtofold.Thatwillcompensatefortheinevitablebendinginward.
Asarule,thebiggertheweld,andthesmallertheplates,thegreater
thechanceforshrinkage,twistingorwarping.
Whenpreventiondoesntwork,tryapostheattreatmenttorelaxany
thermallyinduceddistortion.Sometimesyoucangettheplatestobend
backtothewaytheywere.Andsometimesyoucant.
Clickhereformoresuggestions.
Spatter,ArcStrikesandOtherSurfaceDisruptions
Whenweldingtomeetcoderequirements,maintaininganunblemished
surfaceonyourworkplatesorpipesectionsisabigdeal.Evena
singleburrleftbehindaftergrindingcaninterferewithamechanical
assemblyorcatchanotherworkersclothesorskinandcauseinjury.
(Burrscanalsoblocktheflowofweldmetalduringawelding
operation.)
Adentinthemetalleftbyawaywardarcstrikecouldbethestartofa
transversecrack.Soalwaysstrikeyourarcsinsidethejointaheadof
yourweld,orontheedgeofyourworkplatesorotherareathatwillbe
groundorremovedlater.
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Spatterdescribesthebitsofmoltenmetalthataresentflyingupouta
weldwhenusinganarcweldingprocess.Thismaterialhardensinto
littleballsthataffixtothesurfaceofyourweldplates.Instickwelding,
spatteriscausedbyexcessivevoltageortoolonganarc.InMIG
welding,toohighasettingonthewirefeedwillgeneratethesame
result.Insomecases,youcangrindorsandoffanyblemisheson
metalsurfacesbeforecallingovertheinspector.Forotherjobs,you
canonlyusehandfilestodressupthemetalafterwelding.
Discolorationaroundweldsiscommonandnotusuallyconsidereda
defect.However,withmoreheatsensitivemetalslikealuminumand
stainlesssteel,excessivediscolorationintheHAZmayindicatethat
metalhasbeenoverheated,alteringitsmechanicalpropertiesor
chemicalcomposition.Inthiscase,grindingoffthecolorwont
eliminatetheproblem.Consultwithasupervisororinstructoronhow
toproceed.
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