04- Soil Improvement

*01: Can a contractor attain 105% of Standard Proctor?

*02: Find the optimum moisture content (OMC).
*03: Find the maximum dry unit weight in SI units.
*04: What is the saturation S at the OMC?
*05: Number of truck loads required.
*06: What is the saturation S at the OMC?
*07: Definition of the relative compaction (RC).
*08: The relative compaction (RC) of a soil.
*09: Converting volumes from borrow pits and truck loads.
**10: Ranges of water and fill required for a road.
**11: Soil improvement techniques.
**12: Find the family of saturation curves for compaction.
**13: Water needed to reach maximum dry unit weight in the field.
**14: Multiple choice for fill volumes and truck load requirements for a levee.
**15: Multiple choice compaction of a levee.
Symbols for Soil Improvement.
e
Voids ratio.
GS
Specific gravity of the solids of a soil.
n
Porosity of the soil.
OMC Optimum moisture content.
S
Degree of saturation.
V
( 1 ft 3 9.44 *10 4 m 3 Standard Proctor mold, ASTM D-698).
30
Va
Volume of air.
Volume of solids.
VS
VV Volume of voids (water + air).
VW Volume of water.
w
Water content.
VS Volume of soil sample.

Unit weight of the soil.

d
Dry unit weight.
b
Buoyant unit weight of the soil.
SAT Saturated unit weight of the soil.
S
Unit weight of the solid.
W Unit weight of water.
d.field Dry unit weight in the field.

90

*Compaction01: Can a contractor attain 105% of Standard Proctor?

(Revision: Aug-09)

A contractor has reported several compaction tests that have exceeded the 98% Standard
Proctor required by the Specifications of a paving project. In fact, several of the field tests
reported Relative Compactions of 105% of Standard Proctor.
Is this possible?

Solution:
Definitely yes!
Remember that the Proctor test series (Standard and Modified) prescribes a specific
amount of energy into a standard mold (1/30th of 1 ft3).
Therefore, the contractor could impart more energy into the field compaction than was
performed in the laboratory to attain the 100% of Standard (or Modified) Proctor.
Standard Proctor follows the procedure of ASTM D-698 or AASHTO T-99.
Modified Proctor follows the procedure of ASTM D-1557 or AASHTO T-180.

91

*Compaction02: Find the optimum moisture content (OMC).

(Revision: Aug.-09)

A Standard Proctor test has yielded the values shown below. Determine:
a) The maximum dry unit weight d and its OMC; remember V = 1/30 ft3.
b) The moisture range for 93% of maximum dry unit weight.
No

Weight of wet soil (lb)

1
2
3
4
5

3.26
4.15
4.67
4.02
3.36

Moisture %
8.24
10.20
12.30
14.60
16.80

Solution:

The formulas used are: =

W (lb)
3.26
4.15
4.67
4.02
3.36

w (%)
8.24
10.20
12.30
14.60
16.80

(lb/ft3)
97.8
124.5
140.1
120.6
100.8

and d =
1+ w
V
d (lb/ft3)
90.35
113.0
124.8
105.2
86.30

92

*Compaction03: Find the maximum dry unit weight in SI units.

(Revision: Aug.-09)

Using the table shown below:

a) Estimate the maximum dry weight of a sample of road base material, tested under Standard
Proctor ASTM D-698 (all weights shown are in Newton).
1 3 1 m3
= 9.44 104 m3
ft
Note that the volume V =
3
30 35.32 ft
b) Find the OMC.
c) What is the appropriate moisture range when attaining 95% of Standard Proctor?
Trial No.
W(Newton)
(%)

Solution:
Trial No.
W kN
=
m3
V

d =

1+

(kN m )
3

1
14.5
20

2
15.6
24

3
16.3
28

4
16.4
33

5
16.1
37

15.4

16.5

17.3

17.4

17.1

12.8

13.3

13.5

13.1

12.5

93

*Compaction-04: What is the saturation S at the OMC?

(Revision: Aug.-09)

The results of a Standard Compaction test are shown in the table below:
6.2
8.1
9.8
11.5
12.3
(%)
3
16.9
18.7
19.5
20.5
20.4
(kN/m )
15.9
17.3
17.8
18.4
18.2

d =
1+

13.2
20.1
17.8

a) Determine the maximum dry unit weight and the OMC.

b) What is the dry unit weight and moisture range at 95% RC (Relative Compaction)?
c) Determine the degree of saturation at the maximum dry density if Gs = 2.70.
Solution:
a) d max = 18.4 kN/m3, OMC = 11.5%
b) d at 95% = (0.95)(18.4) = 17.5 kN/m3
The moisture range w for 95% RC is from 8.75% to 13.75%.

c)

wGs d max

S=

Gs d max
w

( 0.115 )( 2.70 )(18.4 )

( 9.81)
=
= 0.71
18.4
( 2.70 )

9.81

Saturation S = 71%

94

*Compaction-05: Number of truck loads required.

(Revision: Feb.-09)

The in-situ moisture content of a soil is 18% and its moist unit weight is 105 pcf. The
specific gravity of the soil solids is 2.75. This soil is to be excavated and transported to a
construction site, and then compacted to a minimum dry weight of 103.5 pcf at a moisture
content of 20%.
a) How many cubic yards of excavated soil are needed for 10,000 yd3 of compacted fill?
b) How many truckloads are needed to transport the excavated soil, if each truck can carry
20 tons?
Solution:

Wborrow site = Wconstruction site

but W = V

therefore,

Vborrow site borrow site = Vconstruction site construction site

105 pcf
= 89 pcf versus d ( construction site ) = 103.5 pcf
1 + w 1 + 0.18
103.5 pcf
3
a ) Volume to be excavated = 10, 000 yd 3
= 11, 630 yd
89 pcf

d ( borrow site ) =

27 feet 3 105 lb
(11, 630 yd ) yd 3 feet 3
= 824 truck loads

b) Number of truck loads =

20 ton 2, 000 lb

truck ton
3

95

*Compaction-06: What is the saturation S at the OMC?

(Revision: Aug.-09)

The Standard Proctor test results of a clayey gravel soil are shown below. Find the degree
of saturation S at the optimum condition; assume that Gs = 2.60.
Test
1
2
w%
3.00
4.45
d
1.94
2.01
w
19.4
20.1
d kN/m3
3
Use w = 10 kN/m for simplicity.

3
5.85

4
6.95

5
8.05

6
9.46

7
9.90

2.06

2.09

2.08

2.06

2.05

20.6

20.9

20.8

20.6

20.5

Solution:

wGs
but e = s 1 = s d
e
d
d

therefore, at the OMC the saturation is,

It is known that Se = wGs S =

20.9
SOMC = wOMC Gs d OMC = ( 0.0695 )( 2.60 )
= 0.74
2.6
0
10
20.9

(
)(
)
s d

The degree of saturation at the OMC is 74%.

96

*Compaction-07: Definition of the relative compaction (RC).

(Revision: Aug.-09)

The relative compaction (RC) of a sandy road base in the field is 90%. The maximum and
minimum dry unit weights of the sand are d(max) = 20.4 kN/m3 and d(min) = 13.9 kN/m3.
Determine the field values of:
a) The dry unit weight in the field;
b) Relative density (of compaction) Dr;
c) The moist unit weight when its moisture content is 15%.
Solution:
The relative compaction RC is the dry unit weight obtained in the field, as compared to the
Standard Proctor obtained in the laboratory.

a ) The relative compaction RC is,

RC = 0.90 =

d ( field )
d ( field )
=
d (max)
( 20.4 kN / m3 )

d ( field ) = ( 0.90 ) 20.4 kN / m3 = 18.4 kN / m3

b) The relative density Dr is,
d ( field ) d (min)
Dr =
d (max) d (min)

d (max) (18.4 13.9 ) 20.4

=
= 0.768 = 76.8%

d ( field ) ( 20.4 13.9 ) 18.4

c) The moist unit weight is,

= d (1 + w ) = (18.4 kN / m3 ) (1 + 0.15 ) = 21.2 kN / m3

97

*Compaction-08: The relative compaction (RC) of a soil.

(Revision: Aug-09)

A Standard Proctor compaction test performed on a crushed limestone (Gs = 2.70) obtained
a maximum dry unit weight of 90 pcf at OMC. A field compacted sample showed a
moisture of 28% and a unit weight of 103.7 pcf.
a) Find the relative compaction (RC).
b) Find the degree of saturation S of the field soil sample.
Solution:

moist

103.7
= 81.0 pcf
1 + w 1 + 0.28
d ( field ) 81.0 pcf
RC =
=
= 0.90 Relative Compaction = 90%
d max 90.0 pcf

a ) d ( field ) =

b) d =

Gs w
G
1+ e = s w
1+ e
d

G
( 2.70 )( 62.4 )
e = s w 1 =
1 = 1.08
( 81.0 )
d

Se = wGs

S=

wGs ( 0.28 )( 2.70 )

=
= 0.70 Saturation S=70%
e
(1.08)

98

*Compaction-09: Converting volumes from borrow pits and truck loads.

(Revision: Aug.-09)

The sandy base course of a highway embankment is 30 m wide and 1.5 m thick. The sandy
soil is trucked in from a borrow pit with a water content of 15% and a voids ratio of 0.69.
Specifications require the base to be compacted to a dry unit weight of 18 kN/m3.
Determine, for 1 km of length of embankment, the following:
a) The dry unit weight of sandy soil from the borrow pit assuming that GS = 2.70;
b) The number of 20 m3 truckloads of sandy soil required to construct the base course;
c) The weight of water per truck load of sandy soil; and
d) The degree of saturation S of the in-situ sandy soil.
Solution:

a) T he borrow pit soil dry unit w eight d =

( 2.7 ) (9.8) = 15.7 k N

GS w
=
m3
1+ e
1 + 0.69

b) T he volum e of the finished em bankm ent V = ( 30 m )(1.5 m )(1km lon g ) = 45 x10 3 m 3

V olum e of borrow pit soil require d =

N um ber of truck trips

18
=
15.7

d ( base )
d ( borrow pit )

(V ) =

18
3
3
( 45 x10 ) m
15.7

3
3
45 x10 m
= 2, 58 0 truck-loads

3
20 m

kN

c) W eight of dry soil in 1 truck-load W d = ( 20 m 3 ) 15.7 3 = 314 kN

m

W eight of w ater = w W d = ( 0.15)(314 kN ) = 47 kN per truck load

d) D egree of saturation S =

( 0.15 )( 2.70 ) = 0.59 = 59%

wGS
=
0.69
e

99

**Compaction-10: Ranges of water and fill required for a road.

(Revision: Aug.-09)

From the Standard Proctor compaction curve shown below:

a) Give two possible reasons that may cause a Proctor test curve to cross the ZAV curve?
b) What is the water content range (in gallons) needed to build a 24 ft wide street 1,000
feet long with a 16 thick compacted base at 98% Standard Proctor?

Solution.
a) The two relationships that describe the zero-air-voids unit weight are,

zav =

Gs w
=
1+ e

Gs w
wGs
1+

and

zav =

1+ w

The only way these curves could cross are (1) a wrong value for Gs, and (2) wrong values
for the moisture w, the saturation S and the moist unit weight.

100

b ) The total volume V for the street is,

1 ft
V = (16" thick )
( 24 ft wide )(1, 000 ft long ) = 32 , 000 ft 3

12in
The maximum dry unit weight d-max = 119.5 pcf a t an OMC = 11%
The moisture range at 98% of Standard Proctor is 8.3% to 14.3%.
The dry unit weight at 98% SP is = (0.98)(119.5pcf) = 117.1pcf
The total weight of the soil in the base W is,

W = V = (117.1 pcf ) 32 , 000 ft 3 = 3.75 (10 ) lbs

6

To find the amount of water, calculate the amount of water at the low end
versus the high end of the moisture range at 98% SP:
3.75 x106 lb 7.48 gallons
( 0.083)

1 + 0.083
1 ft 3
Ww
34 , 500 gal

Low end at 8.3%: Vw =

=
w

lb
62
4
.

ft 3

3.75 x106 lb 7.48 gallons

( 0.143)

1 + 0.143
1 ft 3
56 , 200 gal

High end at 14.3%: Vw =

lb
.
62
4

ft 3

The spread is 21,700 gallons, so that the answer can be expressed as an

average with a range,
The volume of water required is 45,350 gallons 10,850 gallons.

101

*Compaction 11. Soil improvement techniques.

(Revision: Aug.-09)

What types of soil improvements would you consider for a clay soil, using the
liquefiable methods shown below?

Notice the portion of the chart that includes clays. The soil improvement methods
include, (1) compaction grouting, (2) vibro-replacement, (3) drains, (4) compaction
piles, (5) jet grouting, (6) admixtures, (7) deep soil mixing, (8) soil reinforcement, (9)
surcharging fills, (10) electro-kinetic injection, and (11) pre-compression.

102

**Compaction-12: Find the family of saturation curves for compaction.

(Revision: Aug-09)

This problem expands Compaction-06, where a Modified Proctor compaction test is

performed on a clayey gravel road base. The solids have a specific gravity of 2.65. The
compaction data yielded the following binomial values for d/w versus w %:
w(%)
d / w

3.00
1.94

4.45
2.01

5.85
2.06

6.95
2.09

8.05
2.08

9.46
2.06

9.90
2.05

a) Find the d max and the OMC from the compaction curve;
b) Find the degree of saturation S at the above conditions.
c) Calculate the percentage of air for a given porosity n and the saturation S.
d) Find the equation that describes the points of equal saturation.
e) Determine the equation for S = 100%
f) Discuss the characteristics of this last curve and equation.
Solution:

d max

22

= 20.9 kN/m3

OMC (7.7%)

21.5

(kN/m3)

21
20.5
20
19.5
19
18.5
18

10

11

w (%)

103

b)

Se = wGs S =

c)

wGs d max
2.09
=
7.7%
2.65
(
)(
)

= 76%
e w d max
2.65 2.09

a
n

S
ns =

nS

1-n

VV VW VW VW
=
=
= VW
1
V VV
V

a = 1 nS (1 n ) = 1 nS 1 + n
a = n(1 S ) = Va
That is, the percentage of air a is equal to the porosity n times the factor (1 - S), where
S is the degree of saturation.
d) Consider a family of curves of equal saturation,

S=

volume of water
volume of water
=
=
volume of air+volume of water 1 volume of soil grains

w d

w S
S s

S = w d + S d =
w w s + S w

w s
1 d
s
Curves can be plotted for varying values of a and saturation S.

104

12

10

d = (1-a2)s
6

Asymptotes

a=0

4
a1
a2
a3

0
0

12

15

18

21

24

27

1.2

If w = 0 all curves pass thru s

0.8

0.6

0.4
S = 100%
S1
0.2

S2

0
0

10

20

30

40

These are hyperbolas with the w-axis as an asymptote.

105

**Compaction-13: Water needed to reach maximum dry unit weight in the field.
(Revision: Aug.-09)

A Standard Proctor test yields the values listed below for a soil with Gs = 2.71. Find:
(a) The plot of the dry unit weight versus the water content;
(b) The maximum dry unit weight;
(c) The optimum moisture content;
(d) The dry unit weight at 90% of Standard Proctor;
(e) The moisture range for the 90% value;
(f) The volume of water (in gallons) that must be added to obtain 1 cubic yard of soil at the
maximum density, if the soil was originally at 10% water content.
w (%)
(pcf)

10
98

13
106

16
119

18
125

20
129

22
128

25
123

d (pcf)

89

94

102.6

105.9

107.5

104.9

98.4

Solution:

115
d max

110

= 107.5 pcf

OMC (20%)
105

Moisture Range (13% - 26%)

(pcf)

100
d field =(0.90)(107.5)

105

= 96.8 pcf

100
95
90
85
0

10

w (%)

20

30

a) The plot of d (dry unit weight) versus w (water content):

(b) From the plot, the maximum dry unit weight is dmax = 107.5 pcf.
(c) From the plot, the optimum moisture content is OMC = 20%.
(d) The 90% value of the maximum dry unit weight dmax = (0.9)(107.5) = 96.8 pcf

106

(e) The moisture range for the 90% value is approximately from 13% to 26%.
(f) Soil at 10% moisture,
W
w = 0.10 = w Ww = 0.10Ws
Ws

but Ws = 89 lb and Ww = 0.10Ws = ( 0.1)( 89 ) = 9 lb W = Ws + Ww = 89 + 9 = 98 lb

Soil at 20% moisture,

w = 0.20 =

Ww
Ww = 0.20Ws
Ws

but Ws = 107.5 lb and Ww = 0.20Ws = ( 0.2 )(107.5 ) = 21.5 lb W = Ws + Ww = 129 lb

Therefore, need to add the following water: (21.5 lb) (9 lb) = 12.5 lb/ft3

Added water =

12.5lb ft 3 7.48 gallons 27 ft 3

= 40 gallons / yd 3
3
3
3
ft 62.4 lb
ft
1 yd

Add 40 gallons of water per cubic yard of compacted soil.

107

**Compaction-14: Fill volumes and truck load requirements for a levee.

(Revision: Aug.-09)

Your company has won a contract to provide and compact the fill material for an earth
levee, with the dimensions shown below. The levee fill is a silty clay soil to be compacted to
at least 95% of maximum Standard Proctor of d-max = 106 pcf at an OMC of 18%. Your
borrow pit has a silty clay with an in-situ moist density of 112.1 pcf at 18%, and a Gs = 2.68.
When the soil is excavated and loaded on to your trucks, the voids ratio of the material is e
= 1.47. Your trucks can haul 20 cubic yards of material per trip.
a) Determine the volume of fill required for the levee;
b) Determine the volume required from the borrow pit;
c) Determine the required number of truckloads.

Solution:

450 ft long
1

1
a) Volume of levee = ( 20')( 40') + ( 20')( 20') + ( 20')( 60') ( ft 2 )
= 23,300 cy
3
2
2

27 ft / cy
b) To find the volume required from the borrow pit consider that the weight of solids is the same
in both,
But d =

Ws (borrow) = Ws (levee )
Ws
V

or Ws = dV

112.1
= 95 pcf and
1 + w 1 + 0.18

100.7 pcf
= Vlevee d (levee ) = ( 23,300 cy )
d (borrow)
95 pcf

where d (borrow) =
Vborrow

or d (borrow)Vborrow = d (levee )Vlevee

d (levee) = ( 0.95)(106 ) = 100.7 pcf

= 24, 700cy

108

Number of truck-loads required is based on,

Ws ( hauled ) = Ws (levee )

d ( hauled )Vhauled = d (levee )Vlevee

Vhauled = Vlevee d (levee )

d ( hauled )

but d (levee ) = 100.7 pcf

and d ( hauled ) =

GS w ( 2.68 )( 62.4 )
= 67.7 pcf
=
1 + e
1 + 1.47

100.7 pcf
= 34, 700 yd 3
Vhauled = Vlevee d (levee ) = ( 23,300 yd 3 )

67.7 pcf
d ( hauled )

Vhauled
34, 700 yd 3
Number of truck-loads =
=
= 1, 735

3
truck capacity 15 yd / truck load

109

**Compaction-15: Multiple-choice compaction of a levee.

(Revision: Aug.-09)

A towns new reservoir will impound its fresh water with a small earth levee, rectangular
in plan. The perimeter of the levee wall will be 2,200 feet long by 1,750 feet wide, and its
cross-section is shown below. The reservoir is to be built with a silty clay soil, with a
specific gravity of 2.70, available from three different local sources. Specifications call for a
compacted soil at the levee with a dry unit weight of 97 pcf at an OMC of 31 percent.
Assume all voids are totally devoid of any gas (or air). The borrow suppliers quoted the
following:
Pit
Price ($/yd3)
Gs
S (%)
w (%)
A
1.05
2.69
65
22
B
0.91
2.71
49
22
C
0.78
2.66
41
18

Water supply reservoirs top view:

Levee cross-section:

110

Questions:
1. What is the levees cross-sectional area?
a) 675 ft2
b) 2,100 ft2
c) 2,350 ft2
d) 2,700 ft2
e) 2,550 ft2
2. What is the approximate total volume V of soil required for the levees?
a) 2,550 ft3
b) 300,000 yd3
c) 900,000 yd3
d) 1.22 Myd3
e) 0.75 Myd3
3. What is the approximate volume of water impounded (stored) in the reservoir?
a) 6,300,000 ft3
b) 134 acre-ft
c) 7 Mft3
d) 154 acre-ft
e) 45 106 gallons
4. What is the unit weight of soil of the compacted earth levee?
a) 127 pcf
b) 97 pcf
c) 86 pcf
d) 98 pcf
e) 128 pcf
5. What is the designed voids ratio e of the compacted soil in the levee?
a) 1.1
b) 0.92
c) 0.84
d) 0.79
e) 1.2
6. What is the voids ratio e of the material in pit A?
a) 0.98
b) 0.91
c) 1.02
d) 1.1
e) 0.72
7. What is the voids ratio e of the material in pit B?
a) 0.93
b) 1.22
c) 0.81

111

d) 1.01
e) 1.00
8. What is the voids ratio e of the material in pit C?
a) 1.10
b) 1.12
c) 1.08
d) 1.05
e) 1.17
9. Assume that the voids ratio e of pit A is 0.98. What is the equivalent volume required of
pit A to place 1.2 million cubic yards of compacted soil in the levees?
a) 1.29 Myd3
b) 1.20 Myd3
c) 0.95 Myd3
d) 0.97 Myd3
e) 0.96 Myd3
10. Assume that the voids ratio e of pit B is 0.81, what is the equivalent volume required of
pit B to place 1.2 million cubic yards of compacted soil in the levees?
a) 1.00 Myd3
b) 1.02 Myd3
c) 1.18 Myd3
d) 1.05 Myd3
e) 1.07 Myd3
11. Assume that the voids ratio e of pit C is 1.10, what is the equivalent volume required of
pit C to place 1.2 million cubic yards of compacted soil in the levees?
a) 1.34 Myd3
b) 1.37 Myd3
c) 1.25 Myd3
d) 1.23 Myd3
e) 1.21 Myd3
12. Which pit offers the cheapest fill?
a) Pit A
b) Pit B
c) Pit C
d) Both A and C
e) Both B and C

112

Solutions:
1. Answer is e.

Cross-sectional area
1
1
A = (30)(90) + (30)(10) + (30)(60) = 1350 + 300 + 900 = 2,550 ft2 = 283 yd2
2
2

2. Answer is e.
Perimeter (approx.) p = (2)(2,200) ft + (2)(1750) ft = (4400 + 3500) = 7,900 ft = 2,633 yd
Volume (approx.), V = p A = (283 yd2)(2,633 yd) = 746,000 yd3 = 0.75 Myd3
3. Answer is d.

Perimeter of inner bottom of reservoir,

P = 2 x 2010 + 2 x 1560 = 4020 + 3120 = 7140ft = 2,380 yd

113

Cross-sectional area, A =

1
(25 x 75) = 937.5 ft2 = 104 yd3
2

Volume of water (approx.), V = P x A = 7,140 ft x 938 ft3 = 6.7 Mft3

1
= 50.1x106 gal =
6
3
= (6.7)(106 ft3) 7.48 gallons
6.7
10
ft
-acre
(
)
(
)

= 154 acre-ft
2

ft 3
243,560 ft

4. Answer is a.

From d =
= d (1 + w) = ( 97 )(1 + 0.31) = 127 pcf
(l + w)
5. Answer is c.
In general Se = Gsw but S = 1 (from statement Va = 0) e = Gsw = (2.70)(0.31) = 0.84
6. Answer is b.
For Pit A: e =

GSw
0.22
= (2.69)
= 0.91
S
0.65

7. Answer is b.
For Pit B: e =

GSw
0.22
= (2.71)
= 1.22
S
0.49

8. Answer is e.
For Pit C: e =

GSw
0.18
= (2.66)
= 1.17
S
0.41

9. Answer is a.
The levees voids ratio e = 0.84 = Vv / Vs therefore, for 1yd3 of solids we will need 1.84 yd3 of
soil; since pit A has an e = 0.98 need 1.98 yd3 of soil for each 1 yd3 of solids or:
1.98
3
VA = 1.2 x 106 yd3
= 1.29 Myd
1.84
10. Answer is c.
Pit B has an e = 0.81
1.81
3
VB = 1.2 x 106 yd3
= 1.18 Myd
1.84

11. Answer is b.
Pit C has an e = 1.10
2.10
3
VC = 1.2 x 106 yd3
= 1.37 Myd
1.84
12. Answer is e.

114

The cost of Pit A = (1.29 x 106 yd3) ($1.05 / yd3) = $1.35 106
The cost of Pit B = (1.18 x 106 yd3) ($0.91 / yd3) = $1.07 106
The cost of Pit C = (1.37 x 106 yd3) ($0.78 / yd3) = $1.07 106
Both pits B and C are lowest.

115