CHAPTER

Introduction: Classification
and Properties of Materials

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Materials have always been an integral part of human civilization and social development, e.g. we
designate periods in the past as the stone, Bronze and Iron ages. Recent advances in technologies rely on
sophisticated materialsall of them used devices, products, and systems that consist of materials. With
the rapid advances in computer technology, design engineering have become quite sophisticated.
Nowadays, mathematical models have been developed to study stress and process kinetics; computers
are used to make detailed drawings and machines are controlled by minicomputers.
Materials that are used by us are in one form or anothersome in their pure elemental form, e.g.
copper, silver, nickel, etc.; some in the form of alloys and compounds, e.g. steel, brass etc. and some as
composites, e.g. fibreglass, wood, etc. The selection of materials and most appropriate manufacturing
process depends on several factors, but the most important considerations are shape complexity and
properties of material. However, the properties of materials are ultimately linked with the
microstructure and processing.
Many times, a materials problem is one of selecting the right material from many thousands that are
available. There are several criteria on which the final decision is normally based. First of all, the inservice conditions must be characterized, for these will dictate the properties required of the material.
However, rarely does a material possess the maximum or ideal combination of properties. Clearly, it
may be necessary to trade off one characteristic for another. For example, a material having a high
strength will have only a limited ductility. This means, one will have to make a reasonable compromise
between two or more properties may be necessary.
The second consideration in the selection of a material is any deterioration of material properties that
may occur during service operation, e.g. significant reductions in mechanical strength may result from
exposure to elevated temperatures or corrosive environments.
Finally, probably the overriding consideration is that of cost. A material may have the ideal set of
properties but is prohibitively expensive. Obviously, some compromise will have to be made.
An engineer must have a good knowledge of the various characteristics and structureproperty
relationships, as well as processing techniques of materials. This helps him to make judicious materials
choices based on these criteria.

Engineering Materials

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS

Based on chemical make up and atomic structure, solid materials have been conveniently grouped into
three basic categories: metals, ceramics and polymers. Most materials fall into one distinct grouping or
another, although there are also some intermediates. In addition to these, there are also three other
groups of important engineering materials: composites, semiconductors and biomaterials. There are
also advanced materials utilized in high-technology (or high-tech). Recently, a group of new and stateof-the art materials called as smart (or intelligent) materials being developed. Very recently, scientists
have developed nano-engineering materials. A brief description of the material types and representative
characteristics are:
(i) Metals
Normally metallic materials are combinations of metallic elements. Metallic materials have large number
of nonlocalized electrons, i.e. electrons are not bound to particular atoms. Many properties of metals are
directly attributable to these electrons. All metals are characterized by metallic properties, e.g. luster,
opacity, malleability, ductility and electrical conductivity. Although metals compose about three fourth
of the known elements but few find service in their pure form. The desired properties for engineering
purposes are often found in alloys. Typical examples of metallic materials are iron, aluminium, copper,
zinc, etc. and their alloys. They can be used either in bulk or powder form. Metals are extremely good
conductors of electricity and heat are not transparent to visible light; a polished metal surface has a
lustrous appearance. Moreover, metals are quite strong, yet deformable, which accounts for their extensive
use in structural applications.
Metallic materials are always crystalline in nature. Scientists have developed amorphous
(non-crystalline) alloys by very rapid cooling of a melt or by very high-energy mechanical miling.
Recently, scientists have developed materials through rapid solidification called as quasicrystals.
These are neither crystalline nor amorphous, but form an ordered structure somewhere between two
known structures. These materials are expected to exhibit far reaching electrical properties.
(ii) Ceramics
These are crystalline compounds between metallic and non-metallic elements. They are most frequently
oxides, nitrides and carbides. Nowadays graphite is also categorized in ceramics. The wide range of
materials which falls within this classification include ceramics that are composed of clay minerals,
cement and glass. Glass is grouped with this class because it has similar properties but most glasses are
amorphous. Ceramics are characterised by high hardness, abrasion resistance, brittleness and chemical
inertness. Ceramics are typically insulative to the passage of electricity and heat, and are more resistant
to high temperatures and harsh environments than metals and polymers. With regard to mechanical
behaviour, these materials are hard but very brittle. These materials are widely categorized into oxide
and non-oxide ceramics.
(iii) Polymers
Many of these are organic substances and derivatives of carbon and hydrogen. Polymers include the
familiar plastic and rubber materials. Usually polymers are classified into three categories: thermoplastic
polymers, thermosetting polymers and elastomers, better called as rubbers. Polymers have very large
molecular structures. Most plastic polymers are light in weight and are soft in comparison to metals.
Polymer materials have typically low densities and may be extremely flexible and widely used as
insulators, both thermal and electrical. Few examples of polymers are polyesters, phenolics, polyethylene,

Introduction: Classification and Properties of Materials

nylon and rubber. The overriding consideration of the selection of a given polymer is whether or not the
material can be processed into the required article easily and economically.
(iv) Composites
A composite is a composition of two or more materials in the first three categories, e.g. metals, ceramics
and polymers, that has properties from its constituents. Large number of composite materials have been
engineered. Few typical examples of composite materials are wood, clad metals, fibre glass, reinforced
plastics, cemented carbides, etc. Fibre glass is a most familiar composite material, in which glass fibres
are embedded within a polymeric material. A composite is designed to display a combination of the best
characteristics of each of the component materials. Fibre glass acquires strength from the glass and the
flexibility from the polymer. A true composite structure should show matrix material completely
surrounding its reinforcing material in which the two phases act together to exhibit desired characteristics.
These materials as a class of engineering material provide almost an unlimited potential for higher
strength, stiffness, and corrosion resistance over the pure material systems of metals, ceramics and
polymers. Many of the recent developments of materials have involved composite materials. Probably,
the composites will be the steels of this century.
Nowadays, the rapidly expanding field of nano composites is generating many exciting new
materials with novel properties. The general class of nano composite organic or inorganic material is a
fast growing field of research. Significant efforts are going on to obtain control of nano composite
materials depend not only on the properties of their individual parents but also on their morphology and
interfacial characteristics. The lamellar class of intercalated organic/inorganic nano composites and
namely those systems that exhibit electronic properties in atleast one of the composites offers the
possibility of obtaining well ordered systems some of which may lead to unusual electrical and
mechanical properties. Polymer-based nano composites are also being developed for electronic
applications such as thin-film capacitors in integrated circuits and solid polymer electrolytes for
batteries. No doubt, the field of nano composites is of broad scientific interest with extremely
impressive technological promise.
The properties of these four varieties of materials have been contrasted in Table 1.1. Figure 1.1
shows the evolution of various types of composites along with the classification of the engineering
materials.
Table 1.1 Four varieties of materials and the contrast between their properties
Properties
Strength
Resistance to loss of
strength with rise in
temperature
Ease of fabrication
Conduction (Thermal and electrical)
Resistance to chemical attack
Dimensional stability (stiffness)
Specific gravity
Lusture

Metals

Ceramics

Polymers

Moderately high
Moderate

High (hard)
High

Low
Poor

Good (ductile)
Good conductor
Poor
High
Very high
Excellent

Poor (brittle)
Insulator
Inert
High
Low (light)
Poor

Very good (ductile)

Insulator
Inert
Poor
Low (light)
Poor

Composites

Engineering Materials

Metals

Steel reinforced
concrete

Cements: (ceramic
particles bonded
together by metals)

Steel-cord
tyres
Composites

Ceramics
and glasses

Polymers
Carbon fibres reinforced polymer
(CFRP) glass fibre reinforced
polymer (GFRP)

Fig. 1.1 Evolution of various types of composites. Figure also shows the classification of engineering materials.

(v) Semiconductors
These materials have electrical properties that are intermediate between electrical conductors and insulators.
Moreover, the electrical characteristics of semiconducting materials are extremely sensitive to the presence
of minute concentrations of impurity atoms; these concentrations may be controlled over very small
spatial regions. Silicon, Germanium and compounds listed in Table 1.2 form the vast majority of
semiconducting crystals.
Table 1.2 Semiconducting compounds
Column in periodic table
IV IV
III V
II VI
I VII

Compounds
SiC
AlP, AlAs, AlSb, GaP, GaAs, GaSb, InP, InAs, InSb
ZnO, ZnS, CdS, CdSe, CdTe
CuCl, AgI

These semiconducting materials are used in a number of solid state devices, e.g. diodes, transistors,
photoelectric devices, solar batteries, radiation detectors, thermistors and lasers. The semiconductors
have made possible the advent of integrated circuitary that has completely revolutionized the
electronics and computer industries.
(vi) Biomaterials
These materials are employed in components implanted into the human body for replacement of diseased
or damaged body parts. Biomaterials should not produce toxic substances and must be compatible with
body tissues, i.e. should not cause adverse biological reactions. We may note all of the above materials,

Introduction: Classification and Properties of Materials

i.e. metals, ceramics, polymers, composites, semiconductors, etc. may be used as biomaterials. Some of
the biomaterials are utilized in artificial hip replacements.
(vii) Advanced Materials
These are new engineering materials which exhibit high strength, great hardness, and superior thermal,
electrical, optical and chemical properties. Advanced materials have dramatically altered communication
technologies, reshaped data analysis, restructured medical devices, advanced space travel and transformed
industrial production process. These materials are often synthesized from the biproducts of conventional
commodity materials and often possess following characteristics:
These materials are created for specific purposes,
These materials are highly processed and possess a high value-to weight ratio,
These materials are developed and replaced with high frequency, and
These materials are frequently combined into new composites.
Nowadays, there is considerable interest in making advanced materials that are usually graded by
chemical composition, density or coefficient of thermal expansion of material or based on microstructural features, e.g. a particular arrangement of second-phase particles or fibres in a matrix. Such
materials are referred as functionally graded materials. Instead of having a step function, one may
strive to achieve a gradual change. Such gradual change will reduce the chances of mechanical and
thermal stresses, generally present otherwise. We may note that the concept of a functionally graded
material is applicable to any material metal, polymer or ceramic. A lot of research work is going on
these materials.
(viii) Materials of the Future
(a) Smart Materials
Smart or intelligent materials form a group of new and state of art materials now being developed that
will have a significant influence on many of present-day technologies. The adjective smart implies that
these materials are able to sense changes in their environments and then respond to these changes in
predetermined mannerstraits that are also found in living organisms. In addition, the concept of smart
materials is being extended to rather sophisticated systems that consist of both smart and traditional
materials.
The field of smart materials attempts to combine the sensor (that detects an input signal), actuator
(that performs a responsive and adaptive function) and the control circuit or as one integrated unit.
Acutators may be called upon to change shape, position, natural frequency, or mechanical
characteristics in response to changes in temperature, electric fields, and or magnetic fields.
Usually, four types of materials are commonly used for actuators: shape memory alloys, piezoelectric ceramics, magnetostrictive materials, and electrorheological/magnetorheological fluids.
Shape memory alloys are metals that, after having been deformed, revert back to their original shapes
when temperature is changed. Piezoelectric ceramics expand and contract in response to an applied
electric field (or voltage); conversely these materials also generate an electric field when their
dimensions are altered. The behaviour of magnetostrictive materials is analogous to that of the
piezoelectric ceramic materials, except that they are responsive to magnetic fields. Also,
electrorheological and magnetorheological fluids are liquids that experience dramatic changes in
viscocity upon application of electric and magnetic fields, respectively.
The combined system of sensor, actuator and control circuit or as one IC unit, emulates a biological
system (Fig. 1.2).

Engineering Materials

These are known as smart sensors, microsystem technology (MST) or micromechanical systems
(MEMS). Materials/devices employed as sensors include optical fibres, piezoelectric materials
(including some polymers) and MEMS.
Sensor

Control and
computation

Actuators and
motors

Brain

Muscles

Fig. 1.2 Integrated sensoractuator systems with controller are analogous to biological systems.

For example, one type of smart system is used in helicopters to reduce aero-dynamic cockpit noise
that is created by the rotating rotor blades. Piezoelectric sensors inserted into the blades, monitor blade
stresses and deformations; feedback signals from these sensors are fed into a computer controlled
adaptive device, which generates noise cancelling antidose.
MEMS devices are small in size, light weight, low cost, reliable with large batch fabrication
technology. They generally consist of sensors that gather environmental information such as pressure,
temperature, acceleration, etc., integrated electronics to process the data collected and actuators to
influence and control the environment in the desired manner.
The MEMS technology involves a large number of materials. Silicon forms the backbone of these
systems also due to its excellent mechanical properties as well as mature micro-fabrication technology
including lithography, etching, and bonding. Other materials having piezoelectric, piezoresistive,
ferroelectric and other properties are widely used for sensing and actuating functions in conjunction
with silicon.
(b) Nano Materials
Nano-structured (NS) materials are defined as solids having microstructural features in the range of
1100 nm (= (1100) 109m) in at least in one dimension. These materials have outstanding mechanical
and physical properties due to their extremely fine grain size and high grain boundary volume fraction.
Usually, the clusters of atoms consisting of typically hundreds to thousands on the nanometer scale are
called as nanoclusters. These small group of atoms, in general, go by different names such as nano
particles, nanocrystals, quantum dots and quantum boxes. Significant work in being carried out in the
domain of nano-structured materials and nano tubes since they were found to have potential for high
technology engineering applications. Nano-structured materials exhibit properties which are quite different
from their bulk properties. These materials contain a controlled morphology with atleast one nano scale
dimension. Nano crystals, nano wires and nano tubes of a large number of inorganic materials have
been synthesized and characterized in the last few years. Some of the nano materials exhibit properties
of potential technological value. This is particularly true for nano-structures of semiconducting materials
such as metal chalcogenides and nitrides. The mixing of nano-particles with polymers to form composite
materials has been practiced for decades. For example, the clay reinforced resin known as Bakelite is
the first mass-produced polymer-nanoparticle composites and fundamentally transformed the nature of
practical household materials. Even before bakelite, nano composites were finding applications in the
form of nano particle-toughened automobile tires prepared by blending carbon black, zinc oxide, and/or
magnesium sulfate particles with vulcanized rubber. Despite these early successes, the broad scientific
community was not galvanized by nano composites until the early 1990s, when reports revealed that
adding mica to nylon produced a five-fold increase in the yield and tensile strength of the material.
Subsequent developments have further contributed to the surging interest in polymernano particle
composites.

Introduction: Classification and Properties of Materials

Significant progress has been made in various aspects of synthesis of nano-structured materials. The
explosion of both academic and industrial interest in these materials over the past decade arises from
the remarkable variations in fundamental electrical, optical and magnetic properties that occur as one
progresses from an infinitely extended solid to a particle of material consisting of a countable number
of atoms. The focus is now shifting from synthesis to manufacture of useful structures and coatings
having greater wear and corrosion resistance.
Materials produced out of nano particles have some special features, e.g. (i) very high ductility
(ii) very high hardness ~4 to 5 times more than usual conventional materials (iii) transparent ceramics
achievable (iv) manipulation of colour (v) extremely high coercivity magnets (vi) developing
conducting inks and polymers.

1.3 MODERN MATERIALS NEEDS

Material science has expanded from the traditional metallurgy and ceramics into new areas such as
electronic polymers, complex fluids, intelligent materials, organic composites, structural composites,
biomedical materials (for implants and other applications), biomimetics, artificial tissues, biocompatible
materials, auxetic materials (which grow fatter when stretched), elastomers, dielectric ceramics (which
yield thinner dielectric layers for more compact electronics), ferroelectric films (for non-volatile
memories), more efficient photovoltaic converters, ceramic superconductors, improved battery
technologies, self-assembling materials, fuel cell materials, optoelectronics, artificial diamonds, improved
sensors (based on metal oxides, or conducting polymers), grated light values, ceramic coatings in air
(by plasma deposition), electrostrictive polymers, chemicalmechanical polishing, alkali-metal
thermoelectric converters, luminescent silicon, planar optical displays without phosphors, MEMS, and
super molecular materials. However, there still remain technological challenges, including the
development of even more sophisticated and specialized materials, as well as consideration of the
environmental impact of materials production. Material scientists are interested in green approaches, by
entering the field of environmentalbiological science, by developing environmentally friendly
processing techniques and by inventing more recyclable materials.
Nano materials is another emerging field called as Nano materials by severe plastic deformation
(SPD) which involves the application of very high strains and flow stresses to work pieces. The
respective new processes yields microstructural features and properties in materials (notably metals and
alloys) that differ features and properties in materials (notably metals and alloys) that differ from those
known for conventional cold worked materials. Specifically, pore-free grain refinements down to
nanometer dimensions, and dislocation accumulations upto the limiting density of 1016 m2 are
observed. SPD yields an increase in tensile ductility without a substantial loss in strength and fatigue
behaviour. Furthermore, unusual phase transformations leading to highly metastable states have been
reported and are associated with a formation of supersaturated solid solutions, disordering,
amorphization, and a high thermal stability. Moreover, superplastic elongations in alloys that are
generally not superplastic can be achieved. This affords a superplastic flow at strain rates significantly
faster than in conventional alloys, enabling the rapid fabrication of complex parts. Finally, the magnetic
properties of severely plastic deformed materials are different from their conventional counterparts. In
particular, one observes an enhanced zemanence in hard magnetic materials, a decrease of coercivity,
(i.e. energy loss) in soft magnetic materials, and an induced magnetic anisotropy.
Clearly, the fields of materials is extending into new territory, and this trend is expected to continue.
Figure 1.3 displays the development of essential material properties during the 20th century.

Engineering Materials
Strength of permanent magnets

Operating temperature of engines

Nd2Fe14B

40

1600

(BH)max(MGOe)

Sm2(Co, Fe, Cu)17

T
(C) 1200

30

Turbojet

800

20

Air-cooled
engine

CoSm
5
10

1900

20

Steam
engine

400

AlNiCo
Steel
40
Year

60

1900

80

20

40
Year

Critical temperature (TC)

for superconductors

Components per chip

23

17
4.2

10
10

10

M
O

10

3
2

10

la r

39

10

l
re e
Th siona
n
e
dim

po

Components per chip

10

Bi

10
133

1
1960

1953 1973 1989

Year

1970

1980
Year
(d)

(c)
60

Metal matrix
composites

50
Steel
40
% Weight

1911

80

(b)

(a)

T
(K)

60

30

Nickel

20
10

1960

Ceramic matrix
composites

Titanium
Aluminium

1970

Tyne Spey RB211

Resin based
composites

1980

1990

2000

2010

RB199 535E4
Year

(e) Trends in jet engine material usage

Fig. 1.3 Improvement of materials properties during the 20th century.

1990

Introduction: Classification and Properties of Materials

One may only speculate what kinds of discoveries might be made by the next generation of scientists
and engineers if they would let their imagination roam freely into yet unexplored realms. Among these
discoveries may be
(i) A completely different family of materials which are not derived from already existing substances
but are instead newly created by modification of genes, i.e. by gene technology. These biologically
generated materials could possibly be custom-designed with respect to their physical properties,
stability, and their recyclability. They may be created from renewable, inexhaustible resources or
by bacteriologic transformations of already existing products.
(ii) The energy of the future may not be generated by burning wood, coal, or oil, or by involving
fissionable or fusionable elements, but by exploiting hitherto unknown disturbances that are
neither electromagnetic nor of particle nature. This energy source may be tapped, should it exist,
and it is hoped that mankind will have developed at that point a high degree of morality so that it
may not be misused for destructive purposes.
(iii) Presently, mankind is quite fixated on the concept that matter consists exclusively of atoms built
from protons, neutrons, electrons and a handful of other particles. It is not possible that another
type of matter does exist which is built of different particles beyond our imagination. May be this
alternate form of matter will be discovered in this century, should it exist.
(iv) The abundance of radioactive waste produced from reactors, etc. surely will be a challenge to
future generations. New techniques will have to be found which are capable of manipulating the
ratio of protons and neutrons in radioactive elements which will transform them into nonradioactive
isotopes.
(v) The transition temperature (Tc) at which superconduction commences may again be substantially
raised by employing new materials which have a striking similarity to fibres spun by animals or
which are otherwise created in the body of animals or humans such as in nerve cells.
(vi) Smart acoustic materials may be discovered which compensate incoming sound with a
complementary sound, thus eliminating any noise. In particular, the acoustical properties of materials
will probably be studied more intensely in the future than they have been in the past.
(vii) The storage of energy in batteries, etc. is at present most inefficient and requires bulky devices.
New techniques will probably be discovered that raise the energy to mass ratio and increase the
efficiency by involving a plasma technology, which is harnessed in containers consisting of hightemperature resistant materials.
(viii) Materials may be found which, when weakened by fatigue or cracking, will activate a self-healing
mechanism that returns the material, while in use, to its originally intended properties without
external intervention.
(ix) New types of trees or plant species may be genetically engineered which can be harvested in about
7-8 years rather than in the present 30-year time interval.
(x) The process of photosynthesis may be copied and used to create new materials and energy.
These few instances may serve as stimuli for research scientists and engineers and thus may lead
materials science into new dimensions for the betterment of mankind. We hope that future
developments will definitely be linked to societal issues.

1.4 THE PROPERTY SPECTRUM OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Properties of materials play an important role in their selection for specific purposes. The engineer has
to decide the properties required of a material for a part under design and then he has to weigh the

10

Engineering Materials

properties of candidate materials. There are literally speaking hundreds of properties that are measured
in laboratories for the purpose of comparing various materials, but one has to concentrate on the more
important ones.
The major properties to be considered in material selection can be put under four categories:
chemical, physical, mechanical and dimensional properties. Figure 1.4 gives a brief account of these
properties.
Physical

Mechanical

Dimensional

Composition

Colour

Size

Structure

Density

Strength
(Tensile, compressive,
Shear, Yield, Bend
Fatigue, Creep)

Corrosion resistance

Melting point

Chemical

Surface smoothness

Ductility

Conductivity
(Electrical, Thermal)

Toughness

Heat capacity

Fatigue toughness

Reflectivity

Rigidity

Dielectric strength

Wear resistance

Shape

Tolerence

Micrography

Magnetic permeability
Opacity

Service life

Fig. 1.4 Major categories of the properties of materials.

(a) Chemical properties: These properties are characteristics of a material which relate to the
structure of a material and its formation from the elements. Composition, structure and corrosion
resistance are the important chemical properties of a material.
One can determine the composition of a material by analytical chemistry in metals, the composition
usually refers to the percentage of various elements present and make up the metal. The composition is
a fundamental consideration while selecting a material. The engineer should have atleast some idea
about the composition of the material.
The chemical properties describe the combining tendencies, corrosion characteristics, reactivity,
solubilities, etc., of a material. Few of the chemical properties are: