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1.1 Understand Signals
1.1.1 Definition Signals
A function of one or more independent variables which contain
some information is called signal.
Examples:
i. Electric voltage or current, such as radio signal, TV signal, telephone
signal, computer signal etc.
ii. Pressure signal, sound signal etc.
1.1.2 Types of Signals
A. Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals
i. A continuous-time signal is one which is defined for all values of time.
Therefore, a continuous-time signal is defined as the signal whose
variables (amplitude, frequency and phase) are of continuous type.
A signal x(t) is a continuous-time signal if t is a continuous variable.
Illustration of a continuous-time signal x(t) is shown in Figure 1-1.

Figure 1-1: Graphical illustration of continuous time

Example 1-1: Plot the following continuous-time signals
(a)
(b)
Solutions 1-1: The waveforms of the given signals are shown in Figure 1-2

(a)

(b)

Figure 1-2: Graphical illustration of (a) and (b) of Example 1-1.

(a)

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Example 1-2: A continuous-time signal x(t) is shown in Figure 1-3. Sketch and
label each of the following signals.

Figure 1-3: A continuous-time signal for x(t)

Solution 1-2:
(a)

Therefore, a continuous-time signal for

is sketched in figure 1- 4(a).

(b)

Therefore, a continuous-time signal for

is sketched in figure 1- 4(b).

(c)

Therefore, a continuous-time signal for

is sketched in figure 1- 4(c).

(d)

Therefore, a continuous-time signal for

is sketched in figure 1- 4(d).

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Figure 1-4
ii. A signal is said to be a discrete-time signal if the independent variables
(such as amplitude, frequency and phase) are taken at a discrete interval
of time. The discrete interval of time is defined by the sampling theorem.
Since a discrete-time signal is defined at discrete times, a discrete-time
signal is often identified as a sequence of numbers, denoted by {xn} or
x[n], where n=integer. Illustration of a discrete-time signal x[n] are
shown in figure 1-5.

Figure 1-5: Graphical illustration of discrete time

A discrete-time signal x[n] can be defined in two ways:
1. We can specify a rule for calculating the nth value of the sequence.
For example,

or

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2. We can also explicitly list the values of the sequence. For example,
the sequence shown in Figure 1-5 can be written as
or

We use the arrow to denote the n=0 term.

Example 1-3: A discrete-time signal x[n] is shown in Figure 1-6. Sketch and
label each of the following signals

Figure 1-6
Solution 1-3:
Amplitude

x[n]

-2

-1

Figure 1-7(a)

x[n-2]

Figure 1-7(b)

x[2n]

-1

-1/2

1/2

3/2

5/2

Figure 1-7(c)

x[-n+2]

-1

-2

-3

-4

Figure 1-7(d)

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Figure 1-7
Example 1-4:Given the continuous-time signal specified by

Determine the resultant discrete-time sequence obtained by uniform sampling of

x(t) with a sampling interval of (a) 0.25s, (b) 0.5s and (c) 1.0s
Solution 1-4: It is easier to take the graphical approach for this problem. The
signal x(t) is plotted in Figure 1-8 (a). Figure 1-8(b), 1-8(c) and 1-8(d) give plots
of the resultant sampled sequences obtained for the three specified sampling
intervals.

Figure 1-8

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(a) Ts=0.25 s, from Figure 1-8(b) we obtain

(b) Ts=0.5 s, from Figure 1-8(c) we obtain

(c) Ts=1 s, from Figure 1-8(d) we obtain

B.Analog and Digital Signals

If a continuous-time signal x(t) can take on any value in the continuous
interval (a,b), where a may be - and b may be +, then the continuous-time
signal x(t) is called an analog signal. If a discrete-time signal x[n] can take on
only a finite number of distinct values, then we call this signal a digital
signal.
C. Real and Complex Signals
A signal x(t) is a real signal if its value is a real number, and a signal x(t) is a
complex signal it its value is a complex number. A general complex
signalx(t) is a function of the form

where
and
are real signals and j=
Note that t represents in the equation above represents either a continuous or a
discrete variable.
D. Deterministic and Random Signals
i.
A signal is said to be deterministic if there is no uncertainty over the
signal at any instant of time. In other words, a signal is said to be
deterministic if it is expressible through a mathematical equation.
Therefore, any signal which can be determined by a mathematical
expression is called a deterministic signal.
For example, sine wave, cosine wave, ramp signal, exponential wave,
delta function, etc are deterministic signal.

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ii.

A signal is said to be random or non-deterministic if there is

uncertainty over the signal at the instant of time. In other words,
a signal is said to be random or non-deterministic if it is not
expressible by a mathematical equation.
As the random signal is uncertain at the next instant of time, it cannot
be predicted by an exact mathematical expression. However,
deterministic signals are certain or known at every instant of time and
hence can be modeled into mathematical expression.

E. Even and Odd Signals.

i.
A signal is said to be an even signal if
for a continuous-time signal
(1.1)
for a discrete-time signal
(1.2)
A simple example of an even signal both in continuous-time and discretetime is represented graphically in Figure 1-9.

Figure 1-9: Even Signal

ii.

A signal is said to be an odd signal if

for a continuous-time signal (1.3)
for a discrete-time signal
(1.4)

A simple example of an odd signal both in continuous-time and discretetime is represented graphically in Figure 1-10.

Figure 1-10: Odd Signal

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Therefore, in general, any signal can be expressed as a sum of two signals; an
even function and an odd function, that is
for a continuous-time signal
for a discrete-time signal
Substituting

(1.5)
(1.6)

in Eq. (1.5), we get

(1.7)

But from Eqs. (1.1) and (1.3), we have

(1.8)
(1.9)
Substituting Eqs. (1.8) and (1.9) in Eq. (1.7), we get
(1.10)
Adding Eqs. (1.5) and (1.10), we get
(1.11)
Subtracting Eq. (1.10) from Eq. (1.5), we get
(1.12)
Similarly, for a discrete-time signal the even and odd components can be
obtained as
(1.13)
(1.14)
Example 1-5:Test whether the given signals are an even function or an odd
function.
(a)
(b)
Solution 1-5:
(a) Substituting
Again substituting
Since

on both sides, we get

on both sides, we get
the given signal

is an even function.

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(b) Substituting n

on both sides, we have

Again substituting

Since

on both sides, we get

the given signal

is an odd function.

F. Periodic and Non periodic Signals.

i. A signal is said to be periodic if it repeats at a definite interval of time.
Let us analyses first the continuous-time domain and then the discretetime domain.
Continuous domain
Mathematically, a continuous-time signal x(t) is said to be periodic if
(1.15)
where is a definite time period or fundamental period.
However, if there are two or more than two signals in summation, then the
overall system is said to be periodic if
(1.16)
Equation (1.16) will be periodic only when
rational number
And the overall period

(1.17)

is obtained by
(1.18)

where

and
= fundamental periods of the first and second signals
p and q = positive integers
= overall fundamental period, and
(1.19)

fundamental frequency (in hertz or cycles per second)

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Discrete domain
Mathematically, a discrete-time signal x[n] is said to be periodic if
for all values of

(1.20)

However, if there are two or more than two signals in summation, then the
overall system is said to be periodic if
(1.21)
And the overall fundamental period
LCM(Least Common Multiple),

can be obtained by taking the

(1.22)

where
and

= fundamental sample durations of the first and second

samples
= overall fundamental sample duration

fundamental frequency (in cycles per sample)

The graphical representation of a typical periodic continuous-time signal as
well as that of a discrete-time signal is shown in Figure 1-11(a) and Figure
1.11(b), respectively

Figure 1-11 (a): Graphical representation of a continuous-time periodic signal.

Figure 1-11 (b): Graphical representation of a discrete-time periodic signal.

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ii.

A signal is said to be non-periodic or not periodic if it does not repeat

at a definite interval of time.
Mathematically, a signal is said to be non-periodic if
for a continuous-time signal
for a discrete-time signal

Example 1-6:Let
and
be the periodic signals with fundamental
periods
and
. Under what condition will the sum of two
be also periodic?
Solution 1-6:For period

, we have
where p is a positive integer.

Similarly for periodic

, we have
where q is a positive integer.

If

be the overall fundamental duration of

The sum function

then

is periodic only when

rational number

And, the overall fundamental duration is

Example 1-7:Test the periodicity of the following given functions and find their
fundamental intervals:
(a)
(b)
(c)
Solution 1-7:
(a) By definition, a function is said to be periodic if
Left Hand Side(LHS)=
=0,
That is, Left Hand Side (LHS) RHS (Right Hand Side)
Therefore the given function
is not periodic for a

0.

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(b) By definition, a function is said to be periodic if
(LHS)=
When

, then

=
Therefore, at

That is, LHS=RHS. Hence the given function

fundamental period

is periodic with

(c) By definition, a function is said to be periodic if

LHS =

The first component

will be

That is, the first component

is periodic with fundamental period

The second component

will be

That is, the first component

only when

only when

is periodic with fundamental period

The overall fundamental period of a given function is the LCM of both the
periods, that is

Therefore, when

, LHS change to

that is, LHS = RHS.

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Hence, the given function
fundamental period

is periodic with

G. Energy and Power Signals.

i.
Energy Signals
Continuous domain: The normalized energy or energy of a continuous-time
signal x(t) can be defined as:

or

If the signal is periodic with a fundamental period

into

, then it can be modified

or

Discrete domain: The energy of a discrete-time signal x[n] can be defined as:

In general, a signal x(t) or x[n] is said to be an energy signal if the normalized

energy of the signal is finite. Mathematically, a signal x(t) or x[n] is said to be
an energy signal if

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ii.
Power Signals
Continuous domain: The normalized power or average power of a
continuous-time signal x(t) can be defined as:

or

Discrete domain: The normalized average power or simply, the average

power of a discrete-time signal x[n] can be defined as:

or

In general, a signal x(t) or x[n] is said to be a power signal if the normalized

average power of the signal is finite. Mathematically, a signal x(t) or x[n] is
said to be power signal if

Example 1-8: Determine whether the following CT signals are power signals or
energy signals or neither.
(a)
(b)

Solution 1-8:
(a) The energy of a real signal is given by

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E is a finite value.
Since, the given signal
be a power signal. Therefore, the given signal
energy signal but not a power signal.

is an energy signal, it cannot

is an

(b) The energy of a real signal is given by

E is not a finite value.

Since, it is not a periodic signal, it cannot be a power signal.
Hence, the given signal
is neither an energy signal nor a power
signal.
Example 1-9:Determine whether the discrete-time signal for

is a power signal or energy signals or neither.

Solution 1-9:Given signal
in nature. Therefore, the magnitude of the given signal is

is a complex

The energy of a complex signal is given by

E is not a finite value.

The average power of a complex signal is given by

Hence, the given signal

is a power signal but not an energy signal.

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1.1.3 (i) Basic Continuous-Time Signals
A. The Unit Step Function
The unit step function u(t), also known as the Heaviside unit function, is
defined as

which is shown in Figure 1-12(a). Note that it is discontinuous at t = 0 and that

the value att = 0 is undefined. Similarly, the shifted unit step function u(t - to)
is defined as

which is shown in Figure 1-12(b).

Figure 1-12:(a)Unit step function; (b)shifted unit step function

B. The Unit Impulse Function
The unit impulse function (t), also known as the Dirac delta function, plays a
centralrole in system analysis. Traditionally, (t) is often defined as the limit
of a suitably chosenconventional function having unity area over an
infinitesimal time interval as shown in Figure 1-13.

Figure 1-13

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and possesses the following properties:

But an ordinary function which is everywhere 0except at a single point must

have theintegral 0 (in the Riemann integral sense). Thus, (t) cannot be an
ordinary function andmathematically it is defined by

Where
is any regular function continuous at t=0.
An alternative definition of (t)is given by

In this sense,
is often called a generalized function and (t) is known as a
testing function. Similarly, the delayed delta function
isdefined by

Where (t)is any regular function continuous at

. For convenience,
and
are depicted graphically as shown in Figure 1-14.

Figure 1-14: (a)Unit impulse function; (b)shifted unit impulse function

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Some additional properties of

are

If x(t) is continuous at
If x(t) is continuous at
.
Using Equation (1.23) and (1.25), any continuous-time signal x(t) can be
expressed as

Example 1-10:A continuous-time signal

following sequences.
(a)
(c)

is shown in Figure 1-15. Sketch the

(b)
(c)

Solution 1-10:

Figure 1-15: Waveform of

of Example 1-10

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(a) By definition

Hence, the graphical representation of

is shown in Figure 1-15(a).

Figure 1-15(a)
(b) By definition

Hence, the graphical representation of

is shown in Figure 1-15(b)

Figure 1-15(b)

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(c) By definition

Hence, the graphical representation of

1-15(c)

is shown in Figure

Figure 1-15(c)
(d) By definition

Hence, the graphical representation of

is shown in Figure 1-15(d)

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Figure 1-15(d)

C .Complex Exponential Signals

The complex exponential signal
(1.29)

Figure 1-16: (a) Exponentially increasing sinusoidal signal;

(b) Exponentially decreasing sinusoidal signal

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is an important example of a complex signal. Using Eulers formula, the signal
can be defined as

Thus,

is a complex signal whose real part is

and imaginary part is
. An important property of the complex exponential signal
in
Equation (1.29) is that it is periodic. The fundamental period of
is
given by

Note that

is periodic for any value of

D. Sinusoidal Signals
A continuous-time sinusoidal signal can be expressed as

whereA is the amplitude (real), is the radian frequency in radians per second,
and isthe phase angle in radians. The sinusoidal signal x(t) is shown in Figure
1-17, and it is periodicwith fundamental period

The reciprocal of the fundamental period

frequency fo:

is called the fundamental

From Equation (1.32) and (1.33) we have

which is called the fundamental angular frequency. Using Euler's formula, the
sinusoidal signal in Equation (1.31) can be expressed as

where Re denotes real part of. We also use the notation Im to denote
imaginary part of. Then

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Figure 1-17: Continuous-time sinusoidal signal.

(ii) Basic Discrete-Time Signals

A. The Unit Step Sequence
The unit step sequence u[n] is defined as

which is shown in Figure 1-18(a). Note that the value of u[n] at n=0 is defined
[unlike the continuous-time step function u(t) at t=0 and equals unity.
Similarly, the shifted unit step sequence u[n-k] is defined as

which is shown in Figure 1-18(b).

Figure 1-18: (a) Unit step sequence; (b)shifted unit step sequence.

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B. The Unit Impulse Sequence
The unit impulse (or unit sample) sequence

is defined as

which is shown in Figure 1.19(a). Similarly, the shifted unit impulse (or
sample) sequence
is defined as

which is shown in Figure 1-19(b).

Figure 1-19: (a) Unit impulse (sample) sequence;

(b)shifted unit impulse sequence.
Unlike the continuous-time unit impulse function
mathematical complication or difficulty. Any sequence
as

is defined without
can be expressed

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Example 1-11: A discrete-time signal
label each of the following signals.
(a)

is shown in Figure 1-20. Sketch and

(b)

(c)

Figure 1-20
Solution 1-11:
(a) By definition

Hence, the graphical representation of

is shown in Figure 1-20(a)

Figure: 1-20(a)

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(b) By definition

Hence, the graphical representation of

is shown in Figure 1-20(b)

Figure: 1-20(b)

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(c) By definition

Hence, the graphical representation of

is shown in Figure 1-20(c)

Figure 1-20(c)
C. Complex Exponential Sequences:
The complex exponential sequence is of the form

Again, using Eulers formula,

Thus
part is

can be expressed as

is a complex sequence whose real part is

.

and imaginary

D. Sinusoidal Sequences:
A sinusoidal sequence can be expressed as

If n is dimensionless, then both

sequences can be expressed as

and

have units of radians. The sinusoidal

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1.1.4 Sketch to solve the problem for Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals
Exercise 1:
Sketch each of the following continuous-time signals with respect to x(t). A waveform of
x(t) is given in Figure 1.21.

Figure 1.21
(a)

(b)
(d)

(c)

Exercise 2:
Sketch and label each of the following signals with respect to the given signal x[n],which
is shown in Figure 1.22.

Figure 1.22
(a)
(c)

(b)
(d)

Exercise 3:
A continuous-time signal x(t) is shown in Figure 1.23. Sketch and label each of the
following signals.
(a)
(b)
(c)

Figure 1.23

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Exercise 4:
A discrete-time signal x[n] is shown in Figure 1.24. Sketch the following sequences:
(a)
(b)

Figure 1.24
1.15 Sketch to identify the signals
Exercise 5:
Identify the signals shown in Figure 1.25 in terms of unit step function.

Figure 1.25
Exercise 6:
Identify the signals shown in Figure 1.26 in terms of unit step function.

Figure 1.26

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1.1.6 Construct the basic continuous-time and discrete-time signals using Matlab.
1. Creating and Plotting Variables (Continuous-time Variables)
Matlab does not have support for true continuous-time functions e.g. sin(t).
However,we can easily create such functions in an approximate way by choosing
discrete-time functions with a very small step size. For example:
t = 0:0.01:10;
y = sin(t);
creates an approximation of a continuous-time function. Note the use of the :
operatorwith three arguments this creates a vector t = {0.00, 0.01, 0.02, . . . ,
4.98, 4.99, 5.00}.
To plot a continuous function, use the plot command, e.g.
>> t = 0:0.01:10;
>> y = sin(t);
>>plot(t,y)

2. Creating and Plotting Variables (Discrete-time Variables)

MATLAB has built-in support for vectors (arrays) and matrices. All indices start
from 1,i.e. y(1) is the first element of the vector y. You will find it benefical to
create a vectorto represent the indices of your signal as well as a vector containing
the signal itself. Forexample, given the discrete-time signal
x[n] =
0, otherwise

2n,

3 n 3

you could use the following MATLAB commands to create vectors representing
the indices and signal
>> n = [-3:3];
>> x = 2*n;
Note that the : is a Matlab shortcut for all the integers between, i.e. in this case
weobtain {3,2,1, 0, 1, 2, 3}. The ; at the end of each line tells Matlab to be
quiet. If you

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leave off the semicolon, Matlab will echo to the screen what it is doing, for
example;
>> n = [-3:3]
n=
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Now, try plotting this signal using the stem command to plot discrete-time
sequences:
>>stem(n,x)
A window will appear showing the signal for n = [3,2, . . . , 2, 3]. If you would
like to see the signal in a larger range, try the following
>> x = [zeros(1,3) n zeros(1,3)];
>> n2 = [-6:6];
>>stem(n2,x)
The command zeros(N,M) creates an NxM matrix of zerosin this case a vector
[0, 0,0].

1.2. Understand Systems

1.2.1

Define systems
A system is a process for which cause-and-effect relations exist. The cause
is the system input signal, the effect is the system output signal, and the relations
are expressed as equations (the system model).
A system is a set of elements or functional block that are connected
together and produces an output in response to an input signal

Example:
i. An audio amplifier, attenuator, TV set, transmitter, receiver etc. all are
system
ii. Any machine or engine are also system

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1.2.2 Explain systems
An example of a physical system is an electric heater, for example, electric
heaters have wide applications in the chemical processing industry. The input
signal is the AC voltage, v(t), applied to the heater. Consider the output signal to
be the temperature, (t), of a certain point in space that is close to the heater. The
Figure 1.27 shows the representation of this system. The units of the input are
volts, and the units of the output are degrees Celsius. The input signal is
sinusoidal. If the system has settled to steady state, the output signal (the
temperature) is constant.

Input Signal
Voltage
v (t)

System
Electric heater

Output Signal
Degrees Celsius
(t)

Figure 1.27: System

Signal and system relationship:
Every system has one or more input. It called excitation.
Every system has one or more outputs. It is called response.
The inputs and outputs of the systems are always signals.
A. Continuous Time and Discrete-Time Systems
-

Signals are represented mathematically as functions of one or more

independent variables.
Continuous-Time (CT) signals are defined for a continuous independent
variable. Discrete-Time(DT) signals are defined at discrete times.
Example of CT: speech signal, atmospheric pressure.
Example of DT: weekly stock market index, number of goals scored in one
season.

If the input and output signals x and y are continuous, then the system is called
a continuous-time system. If the input and output signals are discrete or
sequence, then the system is called a discrete-time system.

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x(t)

System
T

y(t)

x(n)

(a)

System
T

y(n)

(b)

Figure 1.28: (a) Continuous-time systems; (b) discrete-time system

B. Systems with Memory and without Memory
A system is said to be memoryless if the output at any time depends on only the
input. At the same time. Otherwise, the system is said to have memory. An
example of a memoryless system is a resistor R with the input x(t) taken as the
current and the voltage taken as the output y(t). The input-output relationship of a
resistor is
y(t) = Rx(t)
An example of a system with memory is a capacitor C with the current as the
input x(t) and the voltage as the output y(t); then

A second example of a system with memory is a discrete-time system whose

input and output sequences are related by

C. Causal and Noncausal Systems

A system is called causal if its output at the present time depends on only the
present and/or past values of the input. Thus, in a causal system, it is not possible
to obtain an output before an input is applied to the system. A system is called
noncausal if its output at the present time depends on future values of the input.
Example of noncausal systems;
y(t) = x(t+1)
y [ n ] = x [ -n ]

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D. Linear Systems and Nonlinear Systems
A system is a mathematical model of a physical process that relates the input
signal to the output signal. Let x and y be the input and output signals,
respectively, of a system. Then the system is viewed as a transformation (or
mapping) of x into y represented by the equation below:
Y=Tx
If the operator T satisfies the following two conditions, then T is called a linear
operator and the system represented by a linear operator T is called a linear
system.Examples of linear systems are the resister and the capacitor and the
examples of nonlinear system are:
Y = x2
y = cos x
E. Time-Invariant and Time-Varying System
A system is said to be time-invariant or shift-invariant if the relationship between
the input and output does not change with time.
For a continuous time signal, if y(t) be the transformation of x(t), i.e x(t) y(t)
or y(t) = T[x(t)], then a system is said to be time-invariant or shift-invariant if
x (t t0)} y (t t0). (a)
T { x (t t0) } = y (t t0). (b)
Therefore, if T { x (t t0)} y (t t0),hence the given system is not time/shiftinvariant.
F. Linear Time-Invariant Systems
If the system is linear and also time-invariant, then it is called a linear timeinvariant (LTI) system.
G. Stable Systems
Stability is the conditional property so that a small input leads the responses
which do not diverge. A system is stable when a bounded input gives a bounded
output. For a continuous-time signal, if the input x(t) is bounded (finite), that is:
0 x(t)

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Then a necessary and sufficient condition for a system to be stable is
0 y(t)
That is, the output also should be bounded or finite. In other words, a system is
said to be stable if the resultant of the input, i.e. the response, is finite and nonzero. From the convolution integral, the output from any system is given by;

Since x(t) is bounded (i.e finite) , x(t- ) is also bounded (finite) for every value of
t and . Let x(t- ) = B, then taking the magnitude, we have

Therefore, a continuous-time system is said to be stable if the impulse response is

absolutely integrable, that is

Condition for stability

0y(t) or 0

H. Feedback Systems
A special class of system of great importance consists of systems having
feedbacksystem, the output signal is feedback and added to the input to the
system as shown below;
Input, x(t)

System

Output, y(t)

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