Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
WORLD
INVESTMENT
REPORT
2015
ii
NOTE
The Division on Investment and Enterprise of UNCTAD is a global centre of excellence, dealing with issues related
to investment and enterprise development in the United Nations System. It builds on four decades of experience
and international expertise in research and policy analysis, fosters intergovernmental consensus-building, and
provides technical assistance to over 150 countries.
The terms country/economy as used in this Report also refer, as appropriate, to territories or areas; the designations
employed and the presentation of the material do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part
of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its
authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. In addition, the designations of country
groups are intended solely for statistical or analytical convenience and do not necessarily express a judgment
about the stage of development reached by a particular country or area in the development process. The major
country groupings used in this Report follow the classification of the United Nations Statistical Office:
Developed countries: the member countries of the OECD (other than Chile, Mexico, the Republic
of Korea and Turkey), plus the new European Union member countries which are not OECD
members (Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta and Romania), plus Andorra, Bermuda,
Liechtenstein, Monaco and San Marino.
Transition economies: South-East Europe, the Commonwealth of Independent States and Georgia.
Developing economies: in general, all economies not specified above. For statistical purposes, the
data for China do not include those for Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (Hong Kong SAR),
Macao Special Administrative Region (Macao SAR) and Taiwan Province of China.
Reference to companies and their activities should not be construed as an endorsement by UNCTAD of those
companies or their activities.
The boundaries and names shown and designations used on the maps presented in this publication do not imply
official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
The following symbols have been used in the tables:
Two dots (..) indicate that data are not available or are not separately reported. Rows in tables have
been omitted in those cases where no data are available for any of the elements in the row.
A dash () indicates that the item is equal to zero or its value is negligible.
A blank in a table indicates that the item is not applicable, unless otherwise indicated.
A slash (/) between dates representing years, e.g., 2010/11, indicates a financial year.
Use of a dash () between dates representing years, e.g., 20102011, signifies the full period involved,
including the beginning and end years.
Reference to dollars ($) means United States dollars, unless otherwise indicated.
Annual rates of growth or change, unless otherwise stated, refer to annual compound rates.
Details and percentages in tables do not necessarily add to totals because of rounding.
The material contained in this study may be freely quoted with appropriate acknowledgement.
UNITED NATIONS PUBLICATION
Sales No. E.15.II.D.5
ISBN 978-92-1-112891-8
eISBN 978-92-1-057403-7
Copyright United Nations, 2015
All rights reserved
Printed at United Nations, Geneva
iii
PREFACE
This years World Investment Report, the 25th in the series, aims to inform global debates on the future of the
international policy environment for cross-border investment.
Following recent lackluster growth in the global economy, this years Report shows that Foreign Direct Investment
(FDI) inflows in 2014 declined 16 per cent to $1.2 trillion. However, recovery is in sight in 2015 and beyond. FDI
flows today account for more than 40 per cent of external development finance to developing and transition
economies.
This Report is particularly timely in light of the Third International Conference on Financing for Development in
Addis Ababa and the many vital discussions underscoring the importance of FDI, international investment policy
making and fiscal regimes to the implementation of the new development agenda and progress towards the
future sustainable development goals.
The World Investment Report tackles the key challenges in international investment protection and promotion,
including the right to regulate, investor-state dispute settlement, and investor responsibility. Furthermore, it
examines the fiscal treatment of international investment, including contributions of multinational corporations in
developing countries, fiscal leakage through tax avoidance, and the role of offshore investment links.
The Report offers a menu of options for the reform of the international investment treaties regime, together with a
roadmap to guide policymakers at the national, bilateral, regional and multilateral levels. It also proposes a set of
principles and guidelines to ensure coherence between international tax and investment policies.
I commend this publication as an important tool for the international investment community in this crucial year for
sustainable development.
BAN Ki-moon
Secretary-General of the United Nations
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The World Investment Report 2015 (WIR15) was prepared by a team led by James X. Zhan. The team members
included Richard Bolwijn, Kwangouck Byun, Bruno Casella, Joseph Clements, Hamed El Kady, Kumi Endo,
Masataka Fujita, Noelia Garcia Nebra, Axle Giroud, Joachim Karl, Ventzislav Kotetzov, Guoyong Liang, Hafiz
Mirza, Shin Ohinata, Sergey Ripinsky, Diana Rosert, William Speller, Astrit Sulstarova, Claudia Trentini, Elisabeth
Tuerk, Joerg Weber and Kee Hwee Wee.
WIR15 benefited from the advice of Jeffrey Owens, Senior Tax Advisor.
Research and statistical assistance was provided by Bradley Boicourt, Mohamed Chiraz Baly and Lizanne
Martinez. Contributions were also made by Bekele Amare, Ana Conover Blancas, Hasinah Essop, Charalampos
Giannakopoulos, Thomas van Giffen, Natalia Guerra, Rhea Hoffmann, Mathabo Le Roux, Kendra Magraw,
Abraham Negash, Chloe Reis, Davide Rigo, Julia Salasky, John Sasuya, Carmen Saugar Koster, Catharine Titi,
as well as interns Anna Mouw and Elizabeth Zorrilla.
The manuscript was copy-edited with the assistance of Lise Lingo, and typeset by Laurence Duchemin and
Teresita Ventura.
Sophie Combette and Nadege Hadjemian designed the cover, and Pablo Cortizo designed the figures and maps.
Production and dissemination of WIR15 was supported by Elisabeth Anodeau-Mareschal, Anne Bouchet, Nathalie
Eulaerts, Rosalina Goyena, Tadelle Taye and Katia Vieu.
At various stages of preparation, in particular during the experts meetings organized to discuss drafts of WIR15, the
team benefited from comments and inputs received from external experts: Wolfgang Alschner, Carlo Altomonte,
Douglas van den Berghe, Nathalie Bernasconi, Yvonne Bol, David Bradbury, Irene Burgers, Jansen Calamita,
Krit Carlier, Manjiao Chi, Steve Clark, Alex Cobham, Aaron Cosbey, Lorrain Eden, Maikel Evers, Uche Ewelukwa,
Michael Ewing-Chow, Alessio Farcomeni, Michael Hanni, Martin Hearson, Steffen Hindelang, Lise Johnson,
Michael Keen, Eric Kemmeren, Jan Kleinheisterkamp, Victor van Kommer, Markus Krajewski, Federico Lavopa,
Michael Lennard, Jan Loeprick, Ricardo Martner, Makane Mbengue, Nara Monkam, Hans Mooij, Ruud de Mooij,
Peter Muchlinski, Alexandre Munoz, Thomas Neubig, Andrew Packman, Joost Pauwelyn, Facundo Perez Aznar,
Raffaella Piccarreta, Andrea Saldarriaga, Mavluda Sattorova, Ilan Strauss, Lauge Skovgaard Poulsen, Christian
Tietje, Jan van den Tooren, Gerben Weistra and Paul Wessendorp. MEED provided assistance in obtaining data
for the West Asia region.
Also acknowledged are comments received from other UNCTAD divisions, including from the Division for Africa,
Least Developed Countries and Special Programmes, the Division on Globalization and Development Strategies,
and the Division on Technology and Logistics, as part of the internal peer review process, as well as comments
from the Office of the Secretary-General as part of the review and clearance process. The United Nations
Cartographic Section provided advice for the regional maps.
Numerous officials of central banks, government agencies, international organizations and non-governmental
organizations also contributed to WIR15. The financial support of the Governments of Finland, Norway, Sweden
and Switzerland is gratefully acknowledged.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv
ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii
KEY MESSAGES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
CHAPTER I. GLOBAL INVESTMENT TRENDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. CURRENT TRENDS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1. FDI by geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. FDI by mode of entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3. FDI by sector and industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4. FDI by selected types of investors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
B. INTERNATIONAL PRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
C. PROSPECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1. UNCTADs econometric forecasting model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2. UNCTAD business survey ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
vi
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
CHAPTER V. INTERNATIONAL TAX AND INVESTMENT POLICY COHERENCE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
INTRODUCTION: THE TAX AND INVESTMENT POLICY IMPERATIVE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
A. MNEs AS A SOURCE OF GOVERNMENT REVENUES FOR DEVELOPMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
1. Government revenues and revenue collection in developing countries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
2. The contribution of MNEs to government revenues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
vii
EPILOGUE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
ANNEX TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A1
Chapters I and II
Detailed FDI, M&A, greenfield projects data tables
Chapter III
List of IIAs as of end 2014 (see also UNCTADs Investment
Policy Hub)
Chapter V
Annex I. Establishing the baseline: estimating the fiscal contribution
of multinational enterprises
Annex II. An FDI-driven approach to measuring the scale and economic
impact of BEPS
Annex III. Policy action against tax avoidance by multinational
enterprises: existing measures and ongoing discussions
viii
ABBREVIATIONS
ADR
AGOA
APEC
ASEAN
BEPS
BIT
BOT
BRICS
CETA
CFIA
CIL
CIS
CLMV
COMESA
CSR
DTT
EPZ
ETR
FDI
FET
FTA
GATS
GCC
GFCF
GVC
IIA
IPA
IPFSD
ISDS
LDC
LLDC
M&As
MFN
MNE
NAFTA
NEM
ODA
PPP
RCEP
SEZ
SDT
SIDS
SME
SOE
SPE
SWF
TPO
TPP
TRIMs
TTIP
UNCITRAL
WIPS
WTO
KEY MESSAGES
ix
KEY MESSAGES
GLOBAL INVESTMENT TRENDS
Global FDI inflows declined in 2014. Global foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows fell by 16 per cent to $1.23
trillion in 2014, mostly because of the fragility of the global economy, policy uncertainty for investors and elevated
geopolitical risks. New investments were also offset by some large divestments.
Inward FDI flows to developing economies reached their highest level at $681 billion with a 2 per cent rise.
Developing economies thus extended their lead in global inflows. China became the worlds largest recipient of
FDI. Among the top 10 FDI recipients in the world, 5 are developing economies.
The low level of flows to developed countries persisted in 2014. Despite a revival in cross-border mergers and
acquisitions (M&As), overall FDI flows to this group of economies declined by 28 per cent to $499 billion. They
were significantly affected by a single large-scale divestment from the United States.
Investments by developing-country multinational enterprises (MNEs) also reached a record level: developing Asia now
invests abroad more than any other region. Nine of the 20 largest investor countries were from developing or transition
economies. These MNEs continued to acquire developed-country foreign affiliates in the developing world.
Most regional groupings and initiatives experienced a fall in inflows in 2014. The groups of countries negotiating
the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP) and Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) saw their combined
share of global FDI inflows decline. ASEAN (up 5 per cent to $133 billion) and the RCEP (up 4 per cent to $363
billion) bucked the trend.
By sector, the shift towards services FDI has continued over the past 10 years in response to increasing
liberalization in the sector, the increasing tradability of services and the growth of global value chains in which
services play an important role. In 2012, services accounted for 63 per cent of global FDI stock, more than twice
the share of manufacturing. The primary sector represented less than 10 per cent of the total.
Cross-border M&As in 2014 rebounded strongly to $399 billion. The number of MNE deals with values larger than
$1 billion increased to 223 the highest number since 2008 from 168 in 2013. At the same time, MNEs made
divestments equivalent to half of the value of acquisitions.
Announced greenfield investment declined by 2 per cent to $696 billion. Developing countries continued to
attract two thirds of announced greenfield investment. Greenfield investment by both developed- and developingcountry MNEs remained unchanged.
FDI by special investors varied. The significance of private equity funds in the global M&A market, with $200 billion
in acquisitions in 2014, was reflected mainly in transactions involving large companies. Sovereign wealth funds,
which invested $16 billion in FDI in 2014, are increasingly targeting infrastructure internationally. State-owned MNEs
international expansion has decelerated; in particular, their cross-border M&As declined by 39 per cent to $69 billion.
International production by MNEs is expanding. International production rose in 2014, generating value added
of approximately $7.9 trillion. The sales and assets of MNEs foreign affiliates grew faster than their domestic
counterparts. Foreign affiliates of MNEs employed about 75 million people.
FDI recovery is in sight. Global FDI inflows are projected to grow by 11 per cent to $1.4 trillion in 2015. Expectations
are for further rises to $1.5 trillion in 2016 and to $1.7 trillion in 2017. Both UNCTADs FDI forecast model and
its business survey of large MNEs signal a rise of FDI flows in the coming years. The share of MNEs intending
to increase FDI expenditures over the next three years (20152017) rose from 24 to 32 per cent. Trends in
cross-border M&As also point to a return to growth in 2015. However, a number of economic and political risks,
including ongoing uncertainties in the Eurozone, potential spillovers from conflicts, and persistent vulnerabilities
in emerging economies, may disrupt the projected recovery.
KEY MESSAGES
xi
xii
system; (iii) promoting and facilitating investment by effectively expanding this dimension in IIAs; (iv) ensuring
responsible investment to maximize the positive impact of foreign investment and minimize its potential negative
effects; and (v) enhancing the systemic consistency of the IIA regime so as to overcome the gaps, overlaps and
inconsistencies of the current system and establish coherence in investment relationships.
UNCTAD presents policy options for meeting these challenges. This report sets out options for addressing the
standard elements found in an IIA. Some of these reform options can be combined and tailored to meet several
reform objectives:
Safeguarding the right to regulate: Options include clarifying or circumscribing provisions such as mostfavoured-nation (MFN) treatment, fair and equitable treatment (FET), and indirect expropriation, as well as
including exceptions, e.g. for public policies or national security.
Reforming investment dispute settlement: Options include (i) reforming the existing mechanism of ad hoc
arbitration for ISDS while keeping its basic structure and (ii) replacing existing ISDS arbitration systems. The
former can be done by fixing the existing mechanism (e.g. improving the arbitral process, limiting investors
access, using filters, introducing local litigation requirements) and by adding new elements (e.g. building in
effective alternative dispute resolution or introducing an appeals facility). Should countries wish to replace
the current ISDS system, they can do so by creating a standing international investment court, or by relying
on State-State and/or domestic dispute resolution.
Promoting and facilitating investment: Options include adding inward and outward investment promotion
provisions (i.e. host- and home-country measures), and joint and regional investment promotion provisions,
including an ombudsperson for investment facilitation.
Ensuring responsible investment: Options include adding not lowering of standards clauses and establishing
provisions on investor responsibilities, such as clauses on compliance with domestic laws and on corporate
social responsibility.
Enhancing systemic consistency of the IIA regime: Options include improving the coherence of the IIA
regime, consolidating and streamlining the IIA network, managing the interaction between IIAs and other
bodies of international law, and linking IIA reform to the domestic policy agenda.
When implementing IIA reform, policymakers have to determine the most effective means to safeguard the right
to regulate while providing for the protection and facilitation of investment. In so doing, they need to consider the
compound effect of options. Some combinations of reform options may overshoot and result in a treaty that is
largely deprived of its traditional investment protection rationale.
In terms of process, IIA reform actions should be synchronized at the national, bilateral, regional and multilateral
levels. In each case, the reform process includes (i) taking stock and identifying the problems, (ii) developing a
strategic approach and an action plan for reform, and (iii) implementing actions and achieving the outcomes.
All of this should be guided by the goal of harnessing IIAs for sustainable and inclusive development, focusing on
the key reform areas and following a multilevel, systematic and inclusive approach. In the absence of a multilateral
system, given the huge number of existing IIAs, the best way to make the IIA regime work for sustainable
development is to collectively reform the regime with a global support structure. Such a structure can provide
the necessary backstopping for IIA reform, through policy analysis, coordination among various processes at
different levels and dimensions, management of the interaction with other bodies of law, technical assistance and
consensus-building. UNCTAD plays a key role in this regard. Only a common approach will deliver an IIA regime
in which stability, clarity and predictability help achieve the objectives of all stakeholders: effectively harnessing
international investment relations for the pursuit of sustainable development.
KEY MESSAGES
xiii
xiv
Tax avoidance practices by MNEs lead to a substantial loss of government revenue in developing countries.
The basic issues of fairness in the distribution of tax revenues between jurisdictions that this implies must be
addressed. At a particular disadvantage are countries with limited tax collection capabilities, greater reliance on
tax revenues from corporate investors, and growing exposure to offshore investments.
Therefore, action must be taken to tackle tax avoidance, carefully considering the effects on international
investment. Currently, offshore investment hubs play a systemic role in international investment flows: they
are part of the global FDI financing infrastructure. Any measures at the international level that might affect the
investment facilitation function of these hubs, or key investment facilitation levers (such as tax treaties), must
include an investment policy perspective.
Ongoing anti-avoidance discussions in the international community pay limited attention to investment policy.
The role of investment in building the corporate structures that enable tax avoidance is fundamental. Therefore,
investment policy should form an integral part of any solution to tax avoidance.
A set of guidelines for coherent international tax and investment policies may help realize the synergies between
investment policy and initiatives to counter tax avoidance. Key objectives include removing aggressive tax
planning opportunities as investment promotion levers; considering the potential impact on investment of antiavoidance measures; taking a partnership approach in recognition of shared responsibilities between host,
home and conduit countries; managing the interaction between international investment and tax agreements;
and strengthening the role of both investment and fiscal revenues in sustainable development as well as the
capabilities of developing countries to address tax avoidance issues.
WIR14 showed the massive worldwide financing needs for sustainable development and the important role that
FDI can play in bridging the investment gap, especially in developing countries. In this light, strengthening the
global investment policy environment, including both the IIA and the international tax regimes, must be a priority.
The two regimes, each made up of a spaghetti bowl of over 3,000 bilateral agreements, are interrelated, and
they face similar challenges. And both are the object of reform efforts. Even though each regime has its own
specific reform priorities, there is merit in considering a joint agenda. This could aim for more inclusiveness, better
governance and greater coherence to manage the interaction between international tax and investment policies,
not only avoiding conflict between the regimes but also making them mutually supportive. The international
investment and development community should, and can, eventually build a common framework for global
investment cooperation for the benefit of all.
Global
Investment Trends
C H A P T E R
A. CURRENT TRENDS
Global foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows fell by 16
per cent in 2014 to $1.23 trillion, down from $1.47
trillion in 2013.1 The decline in FDI flows was influenced
mainly by the fragility of the global economy, policy
uncertainty for investors and elevated geopolitical
risks. New investments were also offset by some large
divestments. The decline in FDI flows was in contrast
to growth in GDP, trade, gross fixed capital formation
and employment (table I.1).
UNCTAD forecasts an upturn in FDI flows to $1.4 trillion
in 2015 and beyond ($1.5 trillion in 2016 and $1.7
trillion in 2017) due to growth prospects in the United
States, the demand-stimulating effects of lower oil prices
and accommodating monetary policy, and continued
investment liberalization and promotion measures.
Forecasts for macroeconomic fundamentals and
continued high levels of profitability and cash reserves
among multinational enterprises (MNEs) support the
expectation of higher FDI flows. However, a number
of economic and political risks, including ongoing
uncertainties in the Eurozone, potential spillovers from
geopolitical tensions, and persistent vulnerabilities in
emerging economies, may disrupt the projected recovery.
Figure I.1.
Developed economies
Developing economies
Transition economies
World total
2 000
1. FDI by geography
1 500
a. FDI inflows
1 000
Table I.1.
Variable
GDP
Trade
GFCF
Employment
FDI
Memorandum
FDI value (in $ trillions)
500
55%
0
1995
2000
2005
2010
2014
Growth rates of global GDP, GFCF, trade, employment and FDI, 20082016
(Per cent)
2008
1.5
3.0
3.0
1.2
-20.4
2009
-2.0
-10.6
-3.5
1.1
-20.4
2010
4.1
12.6
5.7
1.2
11.9
2011
2.9
6.8
5.5
1.4
17.7
2012
2.4
2.8
3.9
1.4
-10.3
2013
2.5
3.5
3.2
1.4
4.6
2014
2.6
3.4
2.9
1.3
-16.3
2015a
2.8
3.7
3.0
1.3
11.4
2016a
3.1
4.7
4.7
1.2
8.4
1.49
1.19
1.33
1.56
1.40
1.47
1.23
1.37
1.48
Source: UNCTAD, FDI/MNE database for FDI in 20082014; United Nations (2015) for GDP; IMF (2015) for GFCF and trade; ILO for employment; and UNCTAD
estimates for FDI in 20152016.
a
Projections.
Note:
FDI excludes Caribbean offshore financial centres. GFCF = gross fixed capital formation.
UNCTAD.
Full details on methodological changes in UNCTADs FDI data series are available online.
Figure I.2.
465
401
428
2012
401
326
2013
301
289
178 186
209
159
146
85 100
48
Developing Asia
Europe
2014
North America
Transition economies
56
54
54
Africa
engaged
in
regional
integration
b. FDI outflows
Investment by MNEs from developing and
transition economies continued to grow.
Figure I.3.
(Billions of dollars)
China (2)
Hong Kong, China (3)
74
Canada (4)
Australia (8)
52
54
71
30
32
Netherlands (14)
Chile (21)
23
17
Spain (12)
23
Mexico (10)
23
Indonesia (19)
23
19
34
28
India (15)
62
64
54
42
45
22
-23
21
69
19
-5
Colombia (22)
16
16
France (11)
15
Poland (148)
231
68
65
Brazil (7)
Finland (185)
72
48
Singapore (6)
Switzerland (187)
103
92
14
0
Developed economies
2014
2013
43
Developing and
transition economies
2014
2013
FDI inflows to selected regional and interregional groups, 2013 and 2014
Figure I.4.
Regional/
interregional groups
2013
2014
FDI inflows
APEC
349
TTIP
564
TPP
517
BRICS
MERCOSUR
363
30
38
350
28
35
345
28
83
52
24
126
53
635
21
252
24
346
652
20
294
NAFTA
(Billions of dollars)
61
894
RCEP
FDI inflows
57
837
G20
ASEAN
(Billions of dollars)
14
169
11
133
73
Developing economies:
FDI outflows and their share
in total world outflows,
20002014
Figure I.5.
Value
Developing economies
Share
600
40
35
500
400
300
200
100
0
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
30
25
20
15
10
Natural-resource-based
2014
MNEs,
mainly
from
the
Figure I.6.
(Per cent)
Equity outflows
Reinvested earnings
Developed-economya MNEs
100
75
5
12
Developing-economyb MNEs
1
27
34
23
50
59
51
53
51
45
41
2008
2009
2010
10
40
34
2011
2012
100
75
74
0
2007
10
62
50
25
81
10
2013
2014
20
27
31
54
50
2007
2008
4
10
16
40
45
49
44
49
35
50
25
17
2
20
66
0
2009
-6
54
45
40
47
55
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Figure I.7.
432
299
335
390
365 379
2012
2014
317 316
Developing Asia
2013
376
North America
Europe
Other developed
countries
91
63
Transition
economies
44
28
23
16
12
13
Africa
Figure I.8.
(Billions of dollars)
101
Germany (10)
56
France (15)
43
25
41
Netherlands (6)
29
Ireland (16)
32
24
Spain (14)
31
26
31
28
Italy (9)
23
31
Switzerland (25)
Malaysia (22)
16
14
Kuwait (19)
57
13
17
Chile (29)
13
8
Taiwan Province
of China (21)
13
14
19
21
17
10
41
Singapore (12)
87
53
51
Canada (7)
136
112
30
116
114
Japan (2)
Norway (17)
143
81
of
FDI
internationalization.
The
narrow
Host economies
Strong
relationship
Strong
relationship
34.8
28.8
15.1
13.8
13.7
13.1
13.0
12.3
11.7
Angola
Zimbabwe
Afghanistan
Tajikistan
Guinea-Bissau
Cambodia
Myanmar
5.8
4.1
4.0
3.2
2.5
Peru
Netherlands
Hungary
10.2
Luxembourg
Argentina
15.6
Uruguay
9.9
29.9
Austria
Paraguay
51.5
Angola
Brazil
43.4
Burundi
China
Host economies
Kenya
Bangladesh
Gabon
Singapore
Sri Lanka
Bahrain
Bhutan
Timor-Leste
Nepal
India
Solomon Islands
China
Philippines
Viet Nam
Myanmar
Yemen
Cambodia
Madagascar
Republic of Korea
1.2
2.9
3.5
5.3
7.9
14.7
22.2
32.3
32.5
177.6
Home economy
5.7
5.8
6.9
8.7
11.2
12.7
16.5
21.9
23.6
Home economy
Viet Nam
India
Australia
Thailand
China
Philippines
Indonesia
Malaysia
Singapore
Australia
Philippines
Thailand
Singapore
Viet Nam
Cambodia
Indonesia
Malaysia
Relative bilateral FDI intensity of selected major developing home economies, 2012
1.8
1.8
2.4
3.1
4.0
4.2
4.6
7.0
7.1
10.1
2.1
2.3
3.4
4.7
5.3
7.3
10.9
13.4
Luxembourg
Kenya
Ghana
Lesotho
Mozambique
Malawi
Namibia
Botswana
Zimbabwe
Swaziland
South Africa
Colombia
Brazil
Dominican Republic
Nicaragua
Costa Rica
Ecuador
El Salvador
Guatemala
Honduras
Mexico
16.0
22.1
24.1
27.8
32.0
49.2
64.0
64.7
71.6
101.0
4.9
5.3
7.4
9.7
9.8
18.6
20.2
20.4
25.5
Host economies
Table I.2.
10
Figure I.9.
India
Hong Kong,
China
28
6
7
Others
Latin America
West Asia (1) and the Caribbean
Africa
4 4
South Asia
Malaysia
South Africa
3 3
Mexico
3
3
Rep. of Korea
15
13
14
Taiwan Province
of China
Brazil
Singapore
China
North America
East Asia
43
9
13
14
South-East Asia
Europe
Others
11
Figure I.10.
(Billions of dollars)
1 400
Value of announced
FDI greenfield projects
1 200
1 000
707
800
-2%
696
600
28%
Net value of
cross-border M&As
400
313
200
0
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
399
2014
Source: UNCTAD, cross-border M&A database for M&As (www.unctad.org/fdistatistics); Financial Times Ltd, fDi Markets (www.fDimarkets.com) for greenfield projects.
(figure I.11) and the highest value since 2008. This value
was split almost equally in transactions between sales
to other MNEs (52 per cent) and transfers from MNEs to
domestic companies (48 per cent).
12
Figure I.11.
539
511 (381)
403
359
351
276
2005
324
307
245
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
0.46
0.47
0.42
0.51
0.48
0.56 (0.42)
0.36
0.33
0.46
Figure I.12.
Developed economies
237
226
-1%
222
Services
Manufacturing
Primary
2012
2013
2014
Developing economies
452
-1%
448
356
2012
2013
2014
Source: UNCTAD, information from the Financial Times Ltd, fDi Markets
(www.fDimarkets.com).
13
Figure I.14.
-2%
Services
341
403
Manufacturing
Primary
312
275
Figure I.13.
30
42
2013
2014
Services
Manufacturing
28%
Primary
63
26
Unspecified
155
116
2013
213
146
41
40
2014
14
In developing economies, the growth engine of crossborder M&As in services was the increase in finance
(from $18 billion to $61 billion), in particular in East
and South-East Asia. For developed economies, the
picture is multifaceted. While the traditionally largest
FDI industries, business services and finance, saw a
considerable increase, from $36 billion to $66 billion and
from $9 billion to $30 billion respectively, the value of
information and communication took a sharp downturn
to a negative value ($73 billion against $29 billion in
2013) because of the Vodafone divestment.
15
Table I.3.
Year
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Number
970
1 057
1 228
1 451
1 457
1 435
1 281
1 555
1 675
1 842
1 859
2 046
1 946
2 083
2 195
1 953
2 209
1 964
2 358
Gross M&As
Net M&As
b. SWFs
16
Figure I.15.
Value
United States
Europe
Asia
Share
40
600
35
500
30
400
25
20
300
15
200
10
100
5
0
0
1995 1996
Source:
Note:
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Figure I.16.
(Billions of dollars)
Annual flows (left scale)
30
180
160
25
140
20
120
100
15
80
10
60
40
5
20
0
0
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
17
c. State-owned MNEs
SO-MNEs.
Figure I.17.
146
149
109
88
94
102
Cross-border M&As
113
96
99
83
82
77
82
60
-39%
-18%
69
49
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Source: U NCTAD, cross-border M&A database for M&As (www.unctad.org/fdistatistics) and information from the Financial Times Ltd, fDi Markets
(www.fDimarkets.com) for greenfield projects.
Table I.4.
SO-MNE
Volkswagen Group
Eni SpA
Enel SpA
Germany
Italy
Italy
EDF SA
France
GDF Suez
France
Deutsche Telekom AG
CITIC Group
Statoil ASA
Airbus Group NV
General Motors Co
Germany
China
Norway
France
United States
Motor vehicles
Petroleum
Utilities (electricity,
gas and water)
Utilities (electricity,
gas and water)
Utilities (electricity,
gas and water)
Telecommunications
Diversified
Petroleum
Aircraft
Motor vehicles
Assets
Foreign
Total
176 656 446 555
141 021 190 125
140 396 226 006
Sales
Foreign
Total
72 133 118 561
211 488 261 560
109 886 152 313
Employment
Foreign
Total
73 000 147 199
317 800 572 800
56 509
83 887
Transnationality
Indexa
50
70
67
130 161
353 574
61 867
106 924
37 125
71 394
49
121 402
219 759
46 978
100 364
28 975
158 467
40
120 350
97 739
78 185
77 614
70 074
162 671
703 666
144 741
128 474
166 344
50 049
11 127
23 953
72 525
56 900
79 835
60 586
105 446
78 672
155 427
111 953
25 285
3 077
89 551
104 000
228 596
125 215
23 413
144 061
219 000
62
17
30
72
42
Source: UNCTAD, cross-border M&A database for M&As and information from the Financial Times Ltd, fDi Markets (www.fDimarkets.com) for greenfield projects.
a
The Transnationality Index is calculated as the average of the following three ratios: foreign assets to total assets, foreign sales to total sales, and foreign employment
to total employment.
Note:
These MNEs are at least 10 per cent owned by the State or public entities, or the State/public entity is the largest shareholder.
18
B. INTERNATIONAL PRODUCTION
Despite the uncertainty of global economic
recovery, international production continued to
strengthen in 2014, with all indicators of foreign
affiliate activity rising. Indicators of international
production production of MNE foreign affiliates
(table I.5) show a rise in sales by 7.6 per cent, while
employment of foreign affiliates reached 75 million.
Exports of foreign affiliates remained relatively stable,
registering a 1.5 per cent rise. Value added increased by
4.2 per cent. Assets of foreign affiliates rose by 7.2 per
cent over the previous year. The financial performance
of foreign affiliates in host economies improved, with the
rate of return on inward FDI rising from 6.1 per cent in
2013 to 6.4 per cent in 2014. However, this level is still
lower than that in the pre-crisis average (2005-2007).
Table I.5.
higher
than
for
their
developed-country
counterparts.
Item
FDI inflows
FDI outflows
FDI inward stock
FDI outward stock
Income on inward FDIa
Rate of return on inward FDIb
Income on outward FDIa
Rate of return on outward FDIb
Cross-border M&As
1990
205
244
2 198
2 254
82
4.4
128
5.9
98
2013
2014
1 467
1 306
26 035
25 975
1 517
6.1
1 453
5.8
313
1 228
1 354
26 039
25 875
1 575
6.4
1 486
5.9
399
4 723
881
3 893
1 444
20 625
21 469
4 878
42 179
4 976
53 306
31 687
7 105
88 536
7 469
69 359
33 775c
7 562c
95 230c
7 688d
71 297c
36 356c
7 882c
102 040c
7 803d
75 075c
Memorandum
GDPe
Gross fixed capital formatione
Royalties and licence fee receipts
Exports of goods and servicese
22 327
5 592
31
4 332
51 799
12 219
172
14 927
73 457
17 650
277
22 407
75 453
18 279
298
23 063
77 283
18 784
310
23 409
Source: UNCTAD.
a
B ased on data from 174 countries for income on inward FDI and 143 countries for income on outward FDI in 2014, in both cases representing more than 90 per
cent of global inward and outward stocks.
b
Calculated only for countries with both FDI income and stock data.
c
Data for 2013 and 2014 are estimated based on a fixed effects panel regression of each variable against outward stock and a lagged dependent variable for the
period 19802012.
d
For 19982014, the share of exports of foreign affiliates in world exports in 1998 (33.3%) was applied to obtain values. Data for 19951997 are based on a linear
regression of exports of foreign affiliates against inward FDI stock for the period 19821994.
e
Data from IMF (2015).
Note:
Not included in this table are the value of worldwide sales by foreign affiliates associated with their parent firms through non-equity relationships and
of the sales of the parent firms themselves. Worldwide sales, gross product, total assets, exports and employment of foreign affiliates are estimated by
extrapolating the worldwide data of foreign affiliates of MNEs from Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, the Czech Republic, Finland, France, Germany,
Greece, Israel, Italy, Japan, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Portugal, Slovenia, Sweden, and the United States for sales; those from the Czech Republic,
France, Israel, Japan, Portugal, Slovenia, Sweden, and the United States for value added (product); those from Austria, Germany, Japan and the United
States for assets; those from the Czech Republic, Japan, Portugal, Slovenia, Sweden, and the United States for exports; and those from Australia, Austria,
Belgium, Canada, the Czech Republic, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macao (China), Portugal, Slovenia, Sweden,
Switzerland, and the United States for employment, on the basis of three years average shares of those countries in worldwide outward FDI stock.
19
Table I.6.
Figure I.18.
Value
Cash holdings
Share
1 400
13
1 200
12
1 400
1 200
1 000
1 000
11
800
10
600
400
800
600
400
200
0
2006
7
200
0
6
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Value
2012
2013a
20122013
% change
2014b
20132014
% change
2012
2013
% change
Assets
Foreign
Domestic
Total
Foreign as % of total
7 942
5 421
13 363
59
8 249
5 759
14 008
59
3.9
6.2
4.8
-0.5c
8 266
5 581
13 847
60
0.2
-3.1
-1.1
0.8c
1 506
4 025
5 531
27
1 632
4 403
6 034
27
8.4
9.4
9.1
-0.2c
Sales
Foreign
Domestic
Total
Foreign as % of total
5 885
3 072
8 957
66
6 053
3 263
9 316
65
2.9
6.2
4.0
-0.7c
6 132
3 101
9 233
66
1.3
-5.0
-0.9
1.4c
1 690
2 172
3 863
44
1 806
2 415
4 221
43
6.8
11.1
9.3
-1.0c
Employment
Foreign
Domestic
Total
Foreign as % of total
9 831
7 106
16 937
58
9 562
7 135
16 697
57
-2.7
0.4
-1.4
-0.8c
9 599
7 211
16 810
57
0.4
1.1
0.7
-0.2c
4 103
6 493
10 596
39
4 226
6 688
10 914
39
3.0
3.0
3.0
0.0c
Source: UNCTAD.
a
Revised results.
b
Preliminary results.
c
In percentage points.
Note:
Data refer to fiscal year results reported between 1 April of the base year to 31 March of the following year. Complete 2014 data for the 100 largest MNEs
from developing and transition economies are not yet available.
20
Figure I.19.
Cash holdings and capital expenditures of the top 5,000 MNEs, by sector,
20082012 average and 2014 (Billions of dollars)
Capital expenditures
Cash holdings
Telecommunications
Health Care
102
129
80
111
249
317
353
371
Basic Materials
308
285
521
Technology
139
127
711
306
381
52
54
223
185
165
49
911
Industrials
Consumer Services
138
1185
516
311
326
394
Consumer Goods
582
203
179
619
232
803
Average 20082012
315
2014
Figure I.20.
Value
Profits
Profitability
Share
1400
9
8
1200
1000
800
600
4
3
400
200
1
0
0
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
21
C. PROSPECTS
Global FDI flows are expected to reach $1.4 trillion
in 2015 an 11 per cent rise. Flows are expected
to increase further to $1.5 trillion and $1.7 trillion
in 2016 and 2017, respectively. These expectations
are based on current forecasts for a number of macroeconomic indicators, the findings of an UNCTAD
business survey carried out jointly with McKinsey &
Company, UNCTADs econometric forecasting model for
FDI inflows, and data for the first four months of 2015 for
cross-border M&As and greenfield investment projects.
Macroeconomic factors and firm-level factors are
expected to influence flows positively. Indeed, the gradual
improvement of macroeconomic conditions, especially
in North America, and accommodating monetary policy,
coupled with increased investment liberalization and
promotion measures, are likely to improve the investment
appetite of MNEs in 2015 and beyond. Global economic
Table I.7.
Variable
GDP growth rate
Real growth rates of GDP and gross fixed capital formation (GFCF),
20142016 (Per cent)
Region
World
Developed economies
Developing economies
Transition economies
World
Advanced economiesa
Emerging and developing economiesa
2014
2.6
1.6
4.4
0.7
2.9
2.7
3.2
2015
2.8
2.2
4.9
-2.0
3.0
3.3
2.9
2016
3.1
2.2
4.8
0.9
4.7
3.9
5.3
Source: UNCTAD, based on United Nations (2015) for GDP and IMF (2015) for GFCF.
a
IMFs classifications of advanced, emerging and developing economies are not the same as the United Nations classifications of developed and developing
economies.
Table I.8.
Projections of FDI flows, by group of economies (Billions of dollars and per cent)
Averages
20052007
20092011
1 397
1 359
917
718
421
561
60
81
2013
1 467
697
671
100
Memorandum
Global FDI flows
Developed economies
Developing economies
Transition economies
Growth rates
2013
2014
4.6
-16.3
2.7
-28.4
5.0
1.6
17.0
-51.7
Source: UNCTAD.
Note:
Excludes Caribbean offshore financial centres.
2014
1 228
499
681
48
2015
1 368
634
707
45
Projections
2016
1 484
722
734
47
2017
1 724
843
850
53
22
services functions.
functions.
Figure I.21.
Cross-border M&As,
JanuaryApril of each year,
20052015 (Billions of dollars)
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Source: UNCTAD, cross-border M&A database (www.unctad.org/fdistatistics).
Figure I.22.
23
Factors influencing future global FDI activity (Per cent of all executives)
Macroeconomic factors
State of the
United States economy
17
24
Regional economic
integration
19
Changes in
corporate tax laws
19
19
6
Concerns over
sovereign-debt defaults
39
25
22
30
20
Austerity policies
19
23
16
40
37
9
Commodity prices
15
Offshore outsourcing of
manufacturing functions
42
Quantitative-easing programs
Offshore outsourcing of
service functions
46
21
28
Reshoring of
manufacturing functions
26
Natural disasters
(including pandemics)
32
22
Reshoring of service
functions
42
36
28
17
37
14
42
Share of executives who think factor will lead to decrease in FDI globally
Share of executives who think factor will lead to increase in FDI globally
Source: UNCTAD business survey.
Note:
BRICS = Brazil, the Russian Federation, India, China and South Africa.
Figure I.23.
Expectations for global FDI activity level from beginning 2015 until 2017
(Per cent of executives based in each region)
All
Africa and Middle East
18
12
North America
20
53
21
18
19
Decrease
45
11
8
30
55
17
63
Increase
7
12
49
20
Developed economies
17
41
61
15
8
18
64
10
15
67
Developing Asia
Europe
58
No change
10
12
Don't know
24
Global FDI spending intentions with respect to 2014 levels, by headquarters region,
20152017 (Per cent of executives based in each region)
Figure I.24.
2015
All 10
Other developed
countries
24
49
28
2017
42
22
32
34
28
41
20
49
52
25
19
23
33
25
24
61
14
24
10
47
16
36
10
44
33
15
37
20
22
52
20
31
41
24
26
46
23
North America 5 18
56
50
7
31
42
21
17
31
Europe 6
33
36
29
21
25
43
29
16
2016
32
17
18
37
25
43
14
14
Decrease
16
11
29
37
18
36
36
18
Increase
No change
31
7
35
40
30
26
27
Don't know
FDI spending intentions with respect to 2014 levels, by selected industries, 20152017
Figure I.25.
All
2016
10
24
49
16
Financial
31
48
15
Business services
27
Telecommunication
25
28
2017
42
22
17
25
14
32
34
28
50
56
20
16
35
31
24
14
45
28
21
30
35
39
18
39
Pharmaceuticals
46
25
53
21
41
23
29
23
36
36
25
32
35
32
Other manufacturing
19
23
50
Decrease
Source: UNCTAD business survey.
33
Increase
46
14
51
No change
Don't know
26
20
Figure I.26.
25
IPAs selection of most promising industries for attracting FDI in their own country
(Per cent of all IPA respondents)
Developed countries
Business services
60
Machinery and
equipment
47
Agriculture, hunting,
forestry and fishing
52
45
40
Construction
32
Other services
40
32
40
32
32
The overall global FDI trend in 2014 was negative. Crossborder investment flows remain significantly (about one
third) below their 2007 peak. However, regional trends
varied, with the developing-country group showing
marginal positive growth. Inaddition, prospects for
global FDI flows to 2017 are somewhat more positive.
Nevertheless, in light of the important role that FDI is
expected to play in financing for development the
sustainable development.
26
Figure I.27.
Figure I.28.
China (1)
United States (1)
60
China (2)
50
50
Germany (5)
44
Japan (3)
22
India (6)
20
18
14
Italy (16)
10
10
Netherlands (12)
Source: UNCTAD IPA survey.
10
24
India (4)
14
Brazil (5)
10
Singapore (17)
10
10
Germany (6)
30
France (7)
28
Developed countries
Developing and
transition economies
Mexico (13)
Australia (10)
Canada (-)
France (12)
Japan (15)
Indonesia (3)
Malaysia (15)
Developed countries
Developing and
transition economies
27
Notes
7
8
9
10
11
REFERENCES
IMF (2015). World Economic Outlook April 2015: Uneven Growth: Short- and Long-Term Factors. Washington,
D.C.: International Monetary Fund.
United Nations (2015). World Economic Situation and Prospects 2015. Update as of mid-2015. New York:
United Nations.
WIR06. World Investment Report 2006: FDI from Developing and Transition Economies: Implications for
Development. New York and Geneva: United Nations.
WIR14. World Investment Report 2014: Investing in the SDGs: An Action Plan. New York and Geneva:
United Nations.
Regional
Investment Trends
C H A P T E R
II
30
INTRODUCTION
Global foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows fell by 16
per cent overall in 2014 to $1.23 trillion, down from
$1.47 trillion in 2013, but with considerable variance
between country groups and regions.
FDI flows to developing economies increased by 2
per cent to reach their highest level at $681 billion in
2014, accounting for 55 per cent of global FDI inflows
(table II.1). Five of the top 10 host economies now are
developing ones. However, the increase in developingcountry inflows is, overall, primarily a developing Asia
story. FDI inflows to that region grew by 9 per cent
to $465 billion, constituting the lions share of total
FDI in developing economies. Africas overall inflows
remained flat at $54 billion, while those to Latin America
and the Caribbean saw a 14 per cent decline to $159
Table II.1.
Region
World
Developed economies
Europe
North America
Developing economies
Africa
Asia
East and South-East Asia
South Asia
West Asia
Latin America and the Caribbean
Oceania
Transition economies
Structurally weak, vulnerable and small economiesa
LDCs
LLDCs
SIDS
Memorandum: percentage share in world FDI flows
Developed economies
Europe
North America
Developing economies
Africa
Asia
East and South-East Asia
South Asia
West Asia
Latin America and the Caribbean
Oceania
Transition economies
Structurally weak, vulnerable and small economiesa
LDCs
LLDCs
SIDS
2012
1 403
679
401
209
639
56
401
321
32
48
178
4
85
58
24
34
7
48.4
28.6
14.9
45.6
4.0
28.6
22.9
2.3
3.4
12.7
0.3
6.1
4.1
1.7
2.5
0.5
FDI inflows
2013
2014
1 467
1 228
697
499
326
289
301
146
671
681
54
54
428
465
348
381
36
41
45
43
186
159
3
3
100
48
51
52
22
23
30
29
6
7
47.5
22.2
20.5
45.7
3.7
29.2
23.7
2.4
3.0
12.7
0.2
6.8
3.5
1.5
2.0
0.4
40.6
23.5
11.9
55.5
4.4
37.9
31.0
3.4
3.5
13.0
0.2
3.9
4.3
1.9
2.4
0.6
2012
1 284
873
376
365
357
12
299
266
10
23
44
2
54
10
5
2
2
68.0
29.3
28.5
27.8
1.0
23.3
20.7
0.8
1.8
3.4
0.1
4.2
0.7
0.4
0.2
0.2
FDI outflows
2013
2014
1 306
1 354
834
823
317
316
379
390
381
468
16
13
335
432
292
383
2
11
41
38
28
23
1
0
91
63
13
10
7
3
4
6
1
1
63.8
24.3
29.0
29.2
1.2
25.7
22.4
0.2
3.1
2.2
0.1
7.0
1.0
0.6
0.3
0.1
60.8
23.3
28.8
34.6
1.0
31.9
28.3
0.8
2.8
1.7
0.0
4.7
0.8
0.2
0.4
0.1
31
2014 Inflows
A. REGIONAL TRENDS
54 bn
2014 Decrease
AFRICA
-0.1%
Share in world
4.4%
Egypt
$4.8 bn
+14.1%
Nigeria
$4.7 bn
-16.3%
Congo
$5.5 bn
+88.8%
Flows, by range
Above $3.0 bn
$2.0 to $2.9 bn
$1.0 to $1.9 bn
$0.5 to $0.9 bn
Below $0.5 bn
$6.9
Angola
$2.1
Nigeria
$1.6
Libya
$0.9
Togo
$0.5
Mozambique
$4.9 bn
-20.6%
South Africa
$5.7 bn
-31.2%
+4.3%
-65%
Primary
+30%
Manufacturing
+422%
..
21
Services
Unspecified
48
31
Source: UNCTAD.
Note:
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
Final boundary between the Republic of Sudan and the Republic of South Sudan has not yet been determined. Final status of the Abyei area is not yet determined.
HIGHLIGHTS
Figure A.
North Africa
East Africa
Figure B.
(Billions of dollars)
West Africa
75
(Billions of dollars)
Southern Africa
Central Africa
16
14
60
12
10
45
8
6
30
15
2
-2
0
-4
2008
3.9
2009
4.6
Table A.
2010
3.3
2011
2012
3.1
2013
4.0
2014
3.7
Share in
world total
4.4
Sector/industry
Total
Primary
Mining, quarrying and petroleum
Manufacturing
Food, beverages and tobacco
Textiles, clothing and leather
Non-metallic mineral products
Motor vehicles and other
transport equipment
Services
Electricity, gas and water
Construction
Transport, storage and
communications
Business services
Africa
as destination
2013
2014
Africa
as investors
2013 2014
55 124
6 114
3 750
14 722
1 437
1 744
3 921
17 402
7
7
8 013
535
126
2 805
88 295
21 974
21 974
28 787
2 099
2 091
2 213
13 386
48
48
3 848
1 214
23
1 918
1 642
1 585
98
15
34 287
11 537
3 536
37 534
10 648
9 229
9 382
1 005
9 490
125
462
7 774
5 909
2 919
2 305
7 099
6 323
2 656
4 949
East Asia
400
Table C.
Sector/industry
300
Total
3 829
Primary
135
200 Mining, quarrying and petroleum
135
Manufacturing
3 326
Food, beverages and tobacco
1 023
-5
100 Paper and paper products
Pharmaceuticals, medicinal
567
chemicals and botanical products
Basic metal and metal products
0Services
368
2008
2009water 2010
2012
Electricity,
gas,
and waste2011
250
management
Transportation and storage
27
15.9 and17.7
23.1
22.9
Financial
insurance
activities20.9
222
Business activities
104
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
0.6
0.6
0.7
0.4
1.0
1.2
1.0
Table B.
Purchases
2013 2014
3 019
289
289
1 632
244
-
5 446
1 595
1 595
209
35
-101
51
1 310
-51
301
2 166
1 098 3 642
2013
2014
58
- 1 176
27
74
65331.0 228
135
129
Partner region/economy
Africa
as destination
2013
2014
Africa
as investors
2013
2014
World
Developed economies
European Union
France
United States
Developing economies
Africa
Nigeria
South Africa
Asia
China
India
Transition economies
55 124
28 010
16 939
2 070
2 559
27 013
13 082
2 260
5 379
13 735
289
5 311
101
17 402
2 742
1 575
297
1 121
14 587
13 082
2 784
343
1 421
454
83
74
88 295
63 024
46 957
18 931
8 014
25 180
10 209
545
4 789
14 886
6 132
1 122
90
13 386
1 112
939
127
39
12 274
10 209
1 321
176
1 769
92
107
-
South-East Asia
400Table
5 058
2 566
2 556
326
22
-101
425
1 41923.7
12
2008
D.
Region/country
300
World
Developed economies
200European Union
France
United States
100
Developing economies
Africa
Latin America and the
0Caribbean
2009
2010
Asia2008
India
Share in
world total Qatar
9.8 Arab16.4
United
Emirates18.3
Transition economies
Sales
2013
2014
Purchases
2013
2014
3 829
-8 953
-4 831
-2 310
-4 751
12 769
130
5 058
-8 317
-6 886
-5 648
-1 801
13 331
2 424
3 019
2 288
1 641
147
-15
731
130
5 446
1 670
154
246
21
3 783
2 424
-430
400
1 094
2011
13
069
419
2 529
16.9
538
-
2012
10
507
2 730
729
520.7
677
-
2013
596
233
22.429
-
2014
265
137
28.3 -6
34
35
36
Figure II.1
Primary
Services
Unspecified
Africa as a whole
1
21
48
31
North Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa
61
20
27
45
35
Figure II.2.
Finance
Transport, storage
and communications
37
91
24
34
56%
62%
21%
20%
Business activities
14
2
9%
5%
Trade
12
3
8%
8%
2012
Construction
4
2
3%
4%
2001
Box II.1.
MTN, Bharti Airtel, and Orange SA have all sold off large portions of their tower networks in Africa in recent years to reduce
exposure arising from ownership and maintenance. Towers and the infrastructure that accompanies them can account for more
than 60 per cent of the expense to build a cell phone network in the continent.6 The towers are especially costly to run due
to electricity shortages, which means that backup generators and the employment of security personnel are required. Also,
revenue per user in Africa is generally lower. Selling the towers to third parties allows for the hosting of multiple tenantsmobile
operators and Internet providerson the same tower. HIS Holding, partially owned by a Goldman Sachsled consortium
and now Africas largest mobile telecommunications infrastructure provider, has purchased nearly 3,000 towers from MTN in
Rwanda, Zambia, Cameroon and Cte dIvoire since 2012. Airtel has also agreed to sell and lease back over 1,100 towers from
HIS in Zambia and Rwanda under a 10-year renewable contract. As a result, HIS now manages over 21,000 towers in Africa.
Source: UNCTAD, based on media sources.
38
Box II.2.
Intra-African FDI has played a vital role in driving Africas burgeoning financial industry, especially in retail banking services
(Krger and Strauss, 2015). Financial services accounted for about 50 per cent of intra-Africa greenfield investment projects
between 2003 and the start of 2014, with about 38 per cent of these projects in retail banking, and 5 per cent in insurance.
Intra-African FDI into the financial industry has been led by banks from Kenya (Kenya Commercial Bank and Guaranty Trust
Bank/Fina Bank), Nigeria (United Bank for Africa) and South Africa (FirstRand and Standard Bank). The geographical spread of
these services has been impressive: South Africas Standard Bank operates in 20 countries in Africa; Ecobank, a Togo-based
pan-African bank in 36; and Nigerias United Bank for Africa in 19. There has also been strong regional expansion by banks from
North Africa especially Banque Marocaine du Commerce Extrieur and Libya Foreign Arab Bank. Much of this expansion has
occurred since the 2008 financial crisis. For example, in response to the crisis, South Africas Standard Bank sold off its global
operations and focused on becoming an African bank.
UNCTADs database on foreign affiliates, which is based on data from Bureau van Dijks Orbis database, reports 114 financial
companies headquartered in Africa that have established 465 affiliates in other countries, three quarters of them located in the
continent.
Source: UNCTAD, based on various sources.
2014 Inflows
381 bn
2014 Increase
+9.6%
Share in world
31%
China
$128.5 bn
+3.7%
Thailand
$12.6 bn
-10.3%
Economy
$ Value of inflows
2014 % Change
Flows, by range
Above $50 bn
$10 to $49 bn
Indonesia
$22.6 bn
+20%
Singapore
$67.5 bn
+4.2%
$1.0 to $9.9 bn
$0.1 to $0.9 bn
Below $0.1 bn
$142.7
China
$116
Singapore
$40.7
Rep. of Korea
$30.6
Malaysia
(Billions of dollars)
29
+76.7%
+14.9%
+41.1%
+7.8%
$16.4 +16.6%
17
15
19
6
2012
2013
2014
Value of announced
greenfield projects
Source: UNCTAD.
Note:
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
HIGHLIGHTS
Figure A.
Figure B.
(Billions of dollars)
East Asia
(Billions of dollars)
South-East Asia
400
400
300
300
200
200
100
100
0
2008
15.9
2009
17.7
2010
23.1
2011
20.9
2012
2013
22.9
23.7
East and
East and
South-East Asia South-East Asia
as destination
as investors
2013
2014
2013
2014
Sector/industry
60
Total
158 851 192 612
Primary
1 045
4 056
50 Mining, quarrying and petroleum
823
4 056
Manufacturing
81 779 106 402
5 591
6 519
40 Textiles, clothing and leather
Chemicals and chemical
13 903 13 097
products
30 Electrical and electronic
9 132 20 158
equipment
20 Motor vehicles and other
18 155 28 896
transport equipment
76 028 82 154
10Services
Electricity, gas and water
17 946 10 521
Construction
11 317 24 593
0 Finance
11 466 11 149
2008
2009
2010
2011
Business services
10 148 2012
15 494
3.8
31.0
Share in
world total
Table A.
Table C.
2014
3.6
5 209
6 612
17 654
3 157
19 098
90 581
8 375
13 569
6 322
2013
42 912
69 718
14 289
26 231
5 418
2014
9 462
2.6
2.8 M&As
2.3by industry,
2.4
Cross-border
20132014 (Millions of dollars)
Sector/industry
Total
Primary
Mining, quarrying and petroleum
Manufacturing
Food, beverages and tobacco
Chemicals and chemical products
Basic metal and metal products
100 Computer, electronic, optical
products and electrical equipment
Services
80 Electricity, gas, water and waste
management
Trade
60 Financial and insurance activities
Business activities
Sales
2013 2014
3.4
Purchases
2013 2014
1 323
1 696
4 021
25 154
72 660
73 680
69 935
1 216
899
4 873
5 955
-4 630
15 010
10 149
6 213
53 781
7 453
792
59 246
3 714
2 373
54 103
5 418
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
9.8
16.4
18.3
16.9
20.7
22.4
28.3
Table B.
Partner region/economy
25
World
Developed economies
20 European Union
Germany
United Kingdom
15
United States
Japan
10
Developing economies
Africa
5 Asia and Oceania
China
Latin America and the
0 Caribbean
2008 economies
2009
2010
Transition
Share in
world total
1.3
Table D.
1.5
World
Developed economies
European Union
United Kingdom
United States
Gulf Australia
Cooperation Council (GCC)
Japan
50
Developing economies
Africa
Asia and Oceania
40
China
Latin America and the
30 Caribbean
Transition economies
20
20
10
867
451
51 299
11 058
2011
550
2012
789
2013
1 643
2014
9 681
1.2
0.8 M&As0.8
0.2
0.8
Cross-border
by region/country,
20132014 (Millions of dollars)
Partner region/economy
40
East and
East and
South-East Asia South-East Asia
as destination
as investors
2013
2014
2013
2014
Sales
2013
2014
33 344
6 065
-5 814
721
5 038
-270
9 005
24 836
334
23 723
2 330
80 653
8 720
9 682
1 767
-3 269
-1 065
4 894
70 869
119
70 750
10 148
Purchases
2013
2014
91 009 125 250
50 834 44 887
8 927 18 063
3 033
5 673
11 279 12 597
6 861
7 737
1 676
2 801
38 015 79 225
9 456
1 358
25 713 72 855
19 018 49 601
779
2 846
5 012
597
447
2 160
1 138
41
42
Figure II.3.
Minimum wages
129
Average annual
FDI inflows per capita
120
95
96
79
71
55
12
Viet Nama
Cambodia
Lao Peoples
Democratic
Republic
Myanmar
Source: UNCTAD, based on information from the government of Viet Nam and
Asia Briefing Ltd.
a
Viet Nam refers to only suburban areas.
Note:
CLMV = Cambodia, the Lao Peoples Democratic Replublic, Myanmar
and Viet Nam.
43
Figure II.4.
29
17
15
7
19
2012
2013
2014
Source: UNCTAD cross-border M&A database for M&As and information from the
Financial Times Ltd, fDi Markets (www.fDimarkets.com) for greenfield
investment projects.
44
Figure II.5.
Intraregional projects
Cross-border M&As
Other projects
59%
4
35%
26%
22%
12
15
2013
2014
13
58%
16
3
6
2012
4
2013
4
2014
2012
Source: UNCTAD cross-border M&A database for M&As and information from the Financial Times Ltd, fDi Markets (www.fDimarkets.com) for greenfield investment projects.
Note:
Figures in percentages refer to the share of intraregional projects in the total.
45
2014 Inflows
SOUTH ASIA
41.2 bn
2014 Increase
+16%
Share in world
3.4%
Islamic
Rep. of Iran
$2.1 bn
-31%
Pakistan
$1.7 bn
+31%
India
$34.4 bn
+22%
Bangladesh
$1.5 bn
-4.5%
Sri Lanka
$0.9 bn
+1.3%
Flows, by range
Economy
$ Value of inflows
2014 % Change
Above $10 bn
$1.0 to $9.9 bn
$0.1 to $0.9 bn
Below $0.1 bn
$9.8
Islamic
Rep. of Iran
$0.6
Pakistan
$0.1
Sri Lanka
Bangladesh
$0.07
$0.05
+486%
+315%
-45%
+2.7%
+43%
Capital
expenditures
1 048
107
Communications
107
Paper, printing
and packaging
107
Chemicals, paints,
coatings, additives
and adhesives
81
Investor
Chevron
Bangladesh
SEA-ME-WE 5
Verizon
Communications
Britannia
Garment
Packaging
Asian Paints
Home country
United States
Singapore
United States
United
Kingdom
India
Source: UNCTAD.
Note:
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
Dotted line represents approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir
has not yet been agreed upon by the parties.
100
100
HIGHLIGHTS
2008
2009
15.9
17.7
2010
2011
2012
23.1
20.9
22.9
world total
31.0
Figure A.
9.8
16.4
18.3
60
20.7
2014
22.4
28.3
Figure B.
(Billions of dollars)
16.9
2013
(Billions of dollars)
25
50
20
40
15
30
10
20
10
0
0
2008
2009
3.8
3.6
2010
2.6
Sector/industry
100
Total
Primary
80Mining, quarrying and petroleum
Manufacturing
60Textiles, clothing and leather
Coke, petroleum products and
nuclear fuel
40Metals and metal products
Motor vehicles and other
transport equipment
20
Services
Electricity, gas and water
Transport, storage and
0
communications
2008
2009
2010
Finance
Business services
6.3
2012
2.8
2.3
2013
2014
2.4
Share in
world total
3.4
Table A.
Table C.
2011
6.0
4.5
South Asia
South Asia
Other West Asia
Turkey
as destination
as investors
2013
2014
2013
2014
26 368
22
22
10 919
397
38 957
311
311
14 223
431
15 955
43
43
7 085
104
14 220
11
11
6 879
1 037
44
1 057
81
2 645
589
1 364
885
369
1 971
4 270
2 791
933
15 427
2 044
24 423
6 701
8 827
2 756
7 331
250
3 644
2011
3 378
2 710
5 936
2012
5 216
3 389
2 185
2013
861
2 079
3.4
3.4
3.0
Sector/industry
Total
Primary
Mining, quarrying and petroleum
Manufacturing
Food, beverages and tobacco
Chemicals and chemical products
Pharmaceuticals, medicinal
chemicals and botanical products
Basic metal and metal products
Services
Trade
250
Information and communication
Financial and insurance activities
200 Business activities
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
1.3
1.5
1.2
0.8
0.8
0.2
0.8
50
World
Developed economies
40 European Union
Germany
30 United Kingdom
United States
Japan
Developing economies
20
Africa
Asia and Oceania
10 China
Latin America and the
Caribbean
0
Transition economies
2008
2009
2010
2.2
Table D.
Sales
2013 2014
Purchases
2013 2014
4 784
28
2
4 608
1 173
3 620
5 955
-40
-40
4 170
2 026
28
1 621
1 482
1 482
920
-34
246
1 105
2 934
2 924
-3 670
-727
19
3 148
1 757
551
55
-4 068
-1
65
-586
Caribbean,
financial1centers
148 1 excluding
824
-781
841
42
240
-80
-209
546
85
49
-298
89
-691 2 469
621
314
350
-533
Partner region/economy
1.6
1.3
World
Developed economies
European Union
United Kingdom
United States
Japan
Developing economies
Africa
Asia and Oceania
CentralIndia
America
South America
100 Singapore
Latin America and the
Caribbean
Transition economies
50
South Asia
as destination
2013
2014
26 368
19 282
7 384
2 061
2 470
5 405
2 997
7 011
637
6 355
884
2011
38 957
23 129
7 358
2 074
1 146
8 489
3 129
15 724
107
15 586
6 079
South Asia
as investors
2013
2014
15 955
4 134
2 587
491
1 718
1 314
45
10 952
5 482
4 755
506
14 220
2 856
1 503
31
530
744
13
11 079
1 366
9 202
137
20
30
715
510
74
104
2012
870
2013
285
2014
2.0
1.8
3.1
2.8
Region/country
150
100
2009
Table B.
784
2014
793
1 179 Share in
world total
3.5
2008
Sales
2013
2014
4 784
3 367
1 518
1 110
1 368
382
1 212
233
979
540
Purchases
2013
2014
5 955
5 361
3 324
3 346
1 591
250
556
147
409
24
265
1 621
1 883
1 734
510
387
-262
419
-1 240
-771
1 105
-880
-551
-657
-422
1 900
2 730
-771
32
-808
559
-59
85
48
Table II.2.
Industry
Estimated capital
expenditures
(Millions of dollars)
1 048
107
107
Investor
Home country
Chevron Bangladesh
SEA-ME-WE 5
Verizon Communications
United States
Singapore
United States
United Kingdom
81
Asian Paints
India
70
70
64
63
61
Singapore
United Arab Emirates
Switzerland
Japan
Netherlands
107
Source: UNCTAD, based on information from the Financial Times Ltd, fDi Markets (www.fDimarkets.com)
12
49
Table II.3.
Industry
Automobiles
Automobiles
Automobiles
Heavy-duty trucks
Heavy-duty trucks
Automobiles
Heavy-duty trucks
Automotive component
Automobiles
Automobiles
Automobiles
Automobiles
Investor
Home country
Fiat
Renault-Nissan Motor
Volkswagen
Scania
VE Commercial Vehicles
Renault-Nissan Motor
Wrightbus
Bosch
Ford India
Fiat-Tata
Honda Cars India
Mercedes-Benz
Italy
Japan
Germany
Germany
Sweden
Japan
United Kingdom
Germany
United States
Italy
Japan
Germany
Source: UNCTAD, based on information from the Financial Times Ltd, fDi Markets (www.fDimarkets.com).
50
Bangladesh
Nepal
Pakistan
Sri Lanka
(MumbaiNasikAurangabad),
and
Table II.4.
Host country
Industry
Estimated capital
expenditures
(Millions of dollars)
Investor
Home country
Year
227
India
2013
200
200
3
Global Autotech
Honda Atlas Cars Pakistan
Toyota Lanka
Korea, Republic of
Japan
Japan
2014
2013
2013
Source: UNCTAD, based on information from the Financial Times Ltd, fDi Markets (www.fDimarkets.com).
Figure II.6.
51
North
Eicher
Escorts
Hero Motor Corp
Honda Motorcycle
Honda SIEL Cars
HimachalSuzuki Motorcycles
ICML*
PradeshSwaraj Mazda**
JCB
Maruti Suzuki**
Tata Motors*
New Holland
Yamaha
Mahindra*
East
Haryana
Hindustan Motors*
Tata Motors*
New Delhi
Gujarat
Madhya Pradesh
West Bengal
Kolkata
Maharashtra
West
Bajaj Auto*
Fiat
Force Motors*
GM
John Deere
Mahindra*
Man Force
Mercedes Benz
PSA
Skoda
Tata Hitachi**
Tata Motors*
Volkswagen
Volvo Eicher
Mumbai
Karnataka
Andhra
Pradesh
Bengaluru
Chennai
Tamil Nadu
South
Ashok Leyland*
BMW
Caterpillar
Daimler
Ford
Hindustan Motors*
Hyundai
Nissan
Renault
Royal Enfield
Same Deutz
TAFE
Tata Motors*
Toyota Kirloskar**
TVS*
Volvo Buses
2014 Inflows
WEST ASIA
43 bn
2014 Decrease
-3.7%
Share in world
3.5%
Turkey
$12.1 bn
-1.7%
Iraq
$4.8 bn
-6.8%
Lebanon
$3.1 bn
+6.6%
United Arab
Emirates
$10.1 bn
-4.0%
Saudi Arabia
$8.0 bn
-9.6%
Flows, by range
Above $10 bn
$1.0 to $9.9 bn
$0.1 to $0.9 bn
Below $0.1 bn
21
17
100
20
23
80
33
16
9
17
24
18
10
16
57
55
61
31
20
57
18
16
74
60
40
22
66
45
53
25
33
2011
2012
52
0
2007
Others
2008
Qatar
2009
2010
Saudi Arabia
2013
Kuwait
$13.1
Qatar
$6.7
-15.9%
Turkey
$6.7
+88.8%
Saudi Arabia
$5.4
$3.1
-21.3%
+9.2%
+4.1%
Source: UNCTAD.
Note:
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
30
10
20
10
HIGHLIGHTS
2008
3.8
2009
3.6
2010
2011
2.6
2012
2.8
2.3
2.4
Share in
world total
3.4
Figure A.
Turkey
1.2
0.8
0.8
2014
0.2
0.8
100
50
80
40
60
30
40
20
20
10
0
0
2008
2009
6.3
6.0
2010
4.5
Sector/industry
Total
Primary
Manufacturing
Coke, petroleum products and
nuclear fuel
Chemicals and chemical
products
250
Machinery and equipment
Motor vehicles and other
transport equipment
200Services
Electricity, gas and water
Construction
150 Hotels and restaurants
Finance
Business services
100
50
2012
3.4
2013
3.4
2014
3.0
Share in
world total
3.5
West Asia
as destination
2013
2014
56 047
5 989
18 976
37 316
2 620
14 739
West Asia
as investors
2013
2014
38 638
1 677
18 067
26 929
322
8 062
3 754
5 277
9 655
2 088
Caribbean, excluding financial centers
4 503
1 623
209
1 660
756
634
254
18
5 770
3 790
97
145
31 082
13 759
2 239
3 605
1 791
6 131
19 957
3 210
5 215
2 871
1 871
4 770
18 895
1 725
3 281
3 246
2 499
3 961
18 545
1 020
7 150
1 631
4 751
1 230
0
2009
Sector/industry
2010
2011
Sales
2012
2013 Purchases
2014
2013 2014
2013 2014
Total
2 055
Primary
357
9.2
7
9.9
10.5
12.7
Mining, quarrying and petroleum
344
Extraction of crude petroleum
344
and natural gas
Manufacturing
451
Computer, electronic, optical
46
products and electrical equipment
Non-metallic mineral products
14
Services
1 248
Electricity, gas, water and waste
140
management
Accommodation and food service
activities
Information and communication
21
Financial and insurance activities
456
Business activities
371
Georgia
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2.2
1.6
1.3
2.0
1.8
3.1
2.8
Table B.
Partner region/economy
World
Developed economies
Europe
United States
Central
Americaeconomies
South America
Developing
Africa
100
Egypt
Asia and Oceania
India
West Asia
United Arab Emirates
Transition
economies
50
Russian Federation
Table C.
2008
2011
Table A.
125
1.5
Figure B.
(Billions of dollars)
1.3
2013
0
2008
2009
Share in
2 729
8 077 10 705
worldWorld
total
-283
476 3 455
12.7
13
2.3 economies
1.2
Developed
-286
466 3 455
European Union
-311
- 3 305
North America
988
61
130
Developing economies
Africa
283
North Africa
624
Egypt
2 024
7 540 7 120
Morocco
226
1 908
Latin America and the
Caribbean
75
-99 -1 429
Asia and Oceania
27
1 137 4 794
West Asia
201
3 972 3 020
Transition economies
533
184
-7
37 316
14 907
8 366
2 683
21 329
1 551
1 307
19 778
7 899
5 323
4 035
1 081
974
38 638
4 539
2 392
1 954
30 397
5 842
1 588
24 318
2 088
11 701
833
3 703
1 345
26 929
5 567
4 782
381
20 490
5 932
4 048
14 336
4 407
5 323
655
872
289
Table D.
Region/country
56 047
27 560
15 903
9 894
15 671
301
86
15 326
1 209
11 701
9 178
12 816
12 748
West Asia
as investors
2013
2014
2010
3.4
South-East Europe
2011Sales 2012
2013
2014
Purchases
2013
2014
2013
2014
2 055
2.3
181
714
-573
1 375
29
-
2 729
13.4
738
783
530
377
-
8 077
22.2
739
1 312
69
4 913
3 194
3 150
3 150
-
10 705
31.7
944
1 609
2 335
6 614
6 420
5 708
29
5 659
54
160
266
1 000
1 293
1 039
3
217
-321
-191
1 454
1 039
425
-806
-321
146
54
Figure II.7.
25
20
15
10
0
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Source: UNCTAD, based on IMF 2015.
Note: The State of Palestine and Syrian Arab Republic are not included.
GFCF = gross fixed capital formation.
55
Table II.5.
contracting
companies
predominate
Region/economy
56
Figure II.8.
Figure II.9.
Others
Saudi Arabia
Qatar
Transport
Buildings
160
160
8
17
140
16
9
120
21
20
24
17
23
22
18
16
57
120
18
33
16
61
31
74
60
53
80
60
31
28
27
17
13
21
21
28
49
55
57
25
24
18
15
43
42
2011
2012
19
40
66
52
45
20
48
20
23
15
10
19
23
10
40
17
26
30
100
66
80
140
10
100
Others
25
33
65
20
47
42
53
65
0
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2007
2008
2009
2010
2013
57
Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates: The 10 largest contractors by
value of work in progress (Billions of dollars)
Table II.6.
Home country
Local
Korea, Republic of
Local
Local
Korea, Republic of
Korea, Republic of
Spain
Korea, Republic of
Korea, Republic of
Italy
Contract
value
23.1
10.2
7.7
7.2
6.7
6.7
5.2
5.1
4.6
3.7
Company name
Home country
Samsung Engineering
Hyundai E&C
Habtoor Leighton Group
Petrofac
GS E&C
Daewoo E&C
Samsung C&T
Doosan Heavy I&C
Eni Saipem
China State Construction
Korea, Republic of
Korea, Republic of
Local
United Kingdom
Korea, Republic of
Korea, Republic of
Korea, Republic of
Korea, Republic of
Italy
China
Contract
value
7.7
6.9
6.2
5.5
5.3
4.1
4
4
3.5
3.1
Source: MEED Insight, The UAE Projects Market 2013, July 2013; MEED Insight, MENA Projects Market Forecast & Review 2014, July 2014.
Box II.3.
The presence of the Republic of Koreas construction companies in the GCC dates back to the 1970s, when pioneering
companies such as Daelim, LG E&C and Hyundai E&C took advantage of the unprecedented scale of development projects
sparked by the oil boom. The cumulative amount of overseas construction contracts signed by Korean firms since 1965
exceeded $500 billion in June 2014. Orders from the Middle East represented 60 per cent, with Saudi Arabia having awarded
the largest number: 8,638 projects valued at $50 billion. Overall, because of their long-established presence in the GCC, as well
as their scale, Korean contractors have built up a formidable capacity in the region to rapidly bid for contracts and execute them.
While GCC countries share in all construction contracts of Korean firms is significant, in contrast their share in the Republic of
Koreas outward FDI is small. Among the GCC countries, the United Arab Emirates has received the largest portion (a stock of
$721 million in 2012) of this FDI, and Saudi Arabia the second largest ($468 million).
In 2009 Korean contractors made a major breakthrough, as GCC oil-producing countries found themselves flush
with petrodollars from the oil price spike of 2008, amid tumbling prices for building materials brought on by the
global financial crisis. Some GCC countries therefore took a strategic decision to weather the economic storm by
promoting State-led construction activity in key sectors, thereby making the GCC one of the most active projects
markets in the world. At the same time, the shift transformed the sector from one led by contractors to one led
by project owners (States). Korean engineering, procurement and construction firms were in a position to take
advantage of this shift and sought to displace competitors by bidding aggressively, with competitive cost structures.22
Source: UNCTAD.
2014 Inflows
LATIN AMERICA
& THE CARIBBEAN
159.4 bn
2014 Decrease
-14.4%
Share in world
13%
Mexico
$22.8 bn
-48.9%
Colombia
$16.1 bn
-0.9%
Peru
$7.6 bn
-18.2%
Brazil
$62.5 bn
-2.3%
Economy
$ Value of inflows
2014 % Change
Chile
$22.9 bn
+38.4%
Flows, by range
Above $10 bn
$5.0 to $9.9 bn
$1 to $4.9 bn
$0.1 to $0.9 bn
Below $0.1 bn
(Billions of dollars)
Total
200
180
160
140
Chile
$13
Mexico
$5.2
-60%
Colombia
$3.9
-49%
Argentina
Bolivarian Republic
of Venezuela
$2.1
+93%
40
+36%
20
+71%
$1.0
South America
120
100
80
60
2012 2014
Source: UNCTAD.
Note:
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
0
2008
2009
HIGHLIGHTS
6.3
6.0
2010
2011
2012
4.5
3.4
3.4
2013
2014
2008
2013
2014
Share in
Inflows fall with
commodity prices and cross-border M&As
world total
3.0
3.5
2.2
1.6
1.3 gain
2.0ground
1.8
3.1
European, Asian and regional
investors
FDI being re-evaluated for post-2015 development agenda
2.8
Figure A.
2009
2010
Central America
2012
Figure B.
(Billions of dollars)
2011
(Billions of dollars)
South America
100
250
200
150
50
100
50
0
0
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
9.2
9.9
10.5
12.7
12.7
13
Table A.
Sector/industry
Total
Primary
Manufacturing
Food, beverages and tobacco
Metals and metal products
Electrical and electronic
equipment
Motor vehicles and other
125
transport equipment
Services
100Electricity, gas and water
Trade
Transport, storage and
75communications
Finance
Business services
50
25
LAC
as destination
2013
2014
153 023
12 568
38 427
3 956
4 197
LAC
as investors
2013
2014
89 446
11 097
32 127
2 726
2 638
20 499
4 000
6 937
1 741
89
8 689
22
3 652
1 579
207
13 517
16 229
128
263
102 028
17 067
3 652
46 222
13 363
2 446
9 562
809
1 255
5 015
453
1 012
19 380
18 018
4 403
2 215
5 090
49 701
4 135
6 152
805
1 493
994
186
2 687
Georgia
0
Sector/industry
2009
2010
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2.3
1.2
3.4
2.3
3.4
2.2
1.7
Table B.
Partner region/economy
World
Developed economies
Europe
Canada
United States
3 029
406 of Independent
86
Commonwealth
States
Europe
Developing South-East
economies
Asia and Oceania
100
China
Hong Kong, China
80Latin America and
the Caribbean
South America
60
Central America
Transition economies
LAC
as destination
2013
2014
LAC
as investors
2013
2014
153 023
81 987
39 167
4 553
26 304
70 071
52 250
3 258
44 424
20 499
1 539
684
10
805
18 864
931
377
143
89 446
71 167
30 526
10 358
26 190
18 170
11 790
8 154
175
8 689
1 760
551
1 151
6 651
481
282
29
17 737
6 084
17 737
6 084
12 341
5 152
965
3 229
2 576
109
14 447
2 477
96
4 201
1 120
278
40
Table C.
2008
Share in
world total
2008
2011
Sales
Purchases
2013
2014
2012 20142013 20132014
Total
34 797
Primary
1 287
Extraction of crude petroleum
345
5.9
5.6
6.2
6.1
and7.8
natural gas
Mining of metal ores
928
Manufacturing
25 138
Food, beverages and tobacco
23 848
Coke and refined petroleum
products
Chemicals and chemical products
-116
Pharmaceuticals, medicinal
317
chemicals and botanical products
Services
8 372
Electricity, gas, water and waste
3 720
management
Transportation and storage
1 488
North America
Financial and insurance activities
2 371
20 Table
0
Region/country
2008
25 457
391
D.
Sales
2009
2010
2013
2011
34 797
19 678
11 870
4.6
6 792
1 016
14 401
-
16 239 8 440
World
288 -2 759 Share inDeveloped economies
world total Europe
184 6.8 207 3.9
-2 600
3.5
4.3
4.5
North America
-1
74
26
Other developed countries
2 929
7 117 3 830
Developing economies
-42
4 644 1 953
Africa
-5 317
Latin America and
10 731
3 796
156
923
the Caribbean
South America
7 928
3 603
25
11
Central America
2 803
22 137
8 834 7 369
Asia and Oceania
3 670
4 805
85
840
South, East and South-East
3 404
Asia
5 510
628
400
Other
Other
developed economies
countries
European UnionTransition
5 994 developed
7 953 Europe
5 071
1 600
1 600
1 200
1 200
Purchases
2014
2014
2014
2012
25 457
17 949
-1 269
4.2
10 899
8 319
6 797
1 094
2013
2013
16 239
5 118
2 913
7.0
2 092
113
11 134
-430
-251
10 731
-251
248
-499
5 954
6 177
3 927
833
-1 091
840
160
4 954
779
596
-13
8 440
8 131
4 214
4.7
3 916
309
400
60
61
Figure II.10.
and
distribution,
transportation
and
FDI flows to Latin America and the Caribbean in total and by main subregions,
19912014 (Billions of dollars)
Total
South America
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
62
Figure II.11.
(Billions of dollars)
50
Primary
45
40
35
Secondary
30
25
20
Tertiary
15
10
5
0
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
63
Table II.7.
Home economy/region
United States
Netherlands
Spain
Belgium/Luxembourg
Canada
United Kingdom
Switzerland
France
Japan
Mexico
Chile
Developed economies
Europe
North America
Developing economies
Latin America and the Caribbean
Financial centres
South America
Central America and the Caribbean
Asia and Oceania
South-East Europe and CIS
Unspecified
81.2
42.8
35.7
12.5
11.8
7.4
2.4
2.1
0.7
0.0
6.3
80.6
46.4
28.9
17.8
15.9
6.4
5.8
3.7
1.9
0.1
1.5
81.8
49.8
27.4
12.6
10.7
3.3
4.8
2.4
1.8
0.1
5.5
South America
Flows
Flows
Stocks
19962003 20042013 2013
19.2
14.8
15.2
8.5
14.6
19.8
20.7
7.3
10.7
1.9
7.8
6.3
1.4
2.9
2.8
2.8
5.0
3.3
0.8
4.9
2.4
6.3
4.4
4.0
1.4
3.7
3.2
0.1
3.9
2.4
0.9
3.9
1.8
74.3
50.2
21.2
16.7
16.3
10.4
3.3
2.6
0.4
0.0
9.0
75.2
50.6
17.7
22.8
20.5
8.6
7.8
4.1
2.3
0.2
1.8
77.4
53.9
18.0
14.9
13.0
4.2
6.0
2.5
1.7
0.1
7.6
90.5
38.7
49.7
8.5
7.3
2.5
2.0
2.8
1.2
0.0
1.0
92.4
39.9
50.2
7.1
5.3
1.2
1.9
2.2
1.8
0.0
0.5
Figure II.12.
FDI flows and income on FDI in Latin America and the Caribbean, 19912013
(Billions of dollars)
200
Inward FDI
150
100
50
0
1991
1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007
2009
2011
2013
64
Figure II.13.
Latin America and the Caribbean: FDI inflows, total and by components, 19942013
(Billions of dollars)
Total inflows
Equity inflows
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007
2009
2011
2013
2014 Inflows
TRANSITION ECONOMIES
48.1 bn
2014 Decrease
-51.7%
Share in world
3.9%
Russian Federation
$21 bn
-69.7%
Serbia
$2.0 bn
-2.7%
Kazakhstan
$9.6 bn
-6.4%
Azerbaijan
$4.4 bn
+68.3%
Turkmenistan
$3.2 bn
+2.8%
Flows, by range
Economy
$ Value of inflows
2014 % Change
Above $5.0 bn
$1.0 to $4.9 bn
$0.5 to $0.9 bn
Below $0.5 bn
$56.4
Kazakhstan
$3.6
Azerbaijan
$2.2
-35%
+59%
+48%
Name of investing
company
Source
country
Destination
Value
China
Russian Federation
3 000
China
Russian Federation
1 100
Italy
Montenegro
1 000
636
520
TERNA
Serbia
$0.4
+8.2%
China
Georgia
$0.2
+68%
Bosnia and
Herzegovina
China
Russian Federation
Source: UNCTAD.
Note:
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
0
2008
2009
9.2
2010
9.9
2011
2012
10.5
2013
2008
2014
125
100
100
80
75
60
50
40
25
20
2012
2013
2014
(Billions of dollars)
South-East Europe
0
2008
7.8
2009
5.9
2010
5.6
2011
2012
6.2
2013
6.1
2014
6.8
Share in
world total
3.9
Table A.
Transition
economies
as destination
2013
2014
Sector/industry
North America
Total
29 345
551
1 Primary
600
Mining, quarrying and petroleum
551
Manufacturing
10 920
Food, beverages and tobacco
890
1 200
Non-metallic mineral products
834
Machinery and equipment
655
Motor vehicles and other
2 065
transport equipment
800
Services
17 874
Electricity, gas and water
5 468
Construction
3 045
400
Transport, storage and
2 727
communications
Finance
2 490
Transition
economies
as investors
2013
2014
Other developed
25 650
18 818 Europe
5 801
391
3 135
931
391
3 135
931
15 682
2 559
1 701
1 938
248
376
1 194
402
3 373
174
87
4 278
696
319
9 578
3 172
1 458
13 123
10 335
-
3 169
355
97
1 335
734
989
1 798
1 434
1 042
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
3.5
4.3
4.5
4.6
4.2
7.0
4.7
Table B.
Partner region/economy
25 650
12 537
9 842
1 942
1 900
1 747
11 116
9 681
8 332
872
Transition
economies
as investors
2013
2014
18 818
2 266
2 126
158
40
14 506
101
550
89
12 816
5 801
1 630
1 465
116
34
2 173
90
789
665
1 081
278
965
109
1 998
2 046
1 998
2012
2013
2014
0
2008
2009
Table C.
52.9
Sector/industry
55.0
2010
2011
2012
2013
52.9
Total
Primary
Mining, quarrying and petroleum
Manufacturing
Chemicals and chemical products
Pharmaceuticals, medicinal
chemicals and botanical products
Basic metal and metal products
Motor vehicles and other transport
equipment
Services
Electricity, gas, water and waste
30 management
Telecommunications
25 Financial and insurance activities
Business activities
20
2011
Figure B.
(Billions of dollars)
Georgia
2010
12.7
13
2.3 conflict
1.2
3.4
2.3
3.4
Geopolitical
risk, regional
weighed
down
flows
to2.2the CIS1.7
Developing-economy MNEs becoming large investors
FDI to decline in 2015 with continued recession and low oil prices
12.7
HIGHLIGHTS
Figure A.
2009
Share in
world total
2014
2008
Share in Table D.
world total
47.5 Purchases
40.6
80.3
48.4
Sales
2013 2014
-3 820
-3 726
-3 726
2 813
2 000
4 220
3 011
3 011
1 309
-
-34
379
425
24
60
750
-2 907
Africa -100
857 -1 267
-2 326
-164
-73
5
-305
1 361
2013
2014
Region/country
3 054 1 831
1 771 2 526
1 771 2 526
-24 -2 491
30
-
2009
2010
2011
74.4
70.5
72.8
Sales 68.0
2013
2014
World
Developed economies
European Union
Cyprus
Italy
United Kingdom
-59 -2 406
United States
Developing economies
Asia
1 307
1 797
Latin
America
and the CaribbeanSouth, Asia
East andOceania
South-East
Asia
597
8
China
Transition
economies
7
-17 1 757
Russian Federation
72
6
5
15
10
-3 820
-7 191
-3 987
-234
-1 905
-487
-3 580
2 572
2 585
63.8
60.8
Purchases
2013
2014
4 220
1 536
200
5 085
-2 803
-1 013
487
1 363
1 369
3 054
1 682
243
357
5
30
600
600
1 831
-251
2 184
20
1 588
-2 414
852
256
2 160
1 223
597
447
2 000
771
607
1 642
1 231
1 374
771
817
1 231
-173
67
Table II.8.
Rank
Name of investing
company
Source
country
Destination
Russian Federation
China
Russian Federation
3 TERNA
Italy
Montenegro
China
China
China
China
7 Weibo
China
8 IKEA
Sweden
Serbia
9 EVN
Austria
Russian Federation
France
Ukraine
10 Valorem
Bosnia and
Herzegovina
Russian Federation
Russian Federation
Russian Federation
The former
Yugoslav Republic of
Macedonia
Sector
Industrial Machinery, Equipment
& Tools, All other industrial
machinery
Automotive OEM, Automobiles
Coal, Oil and Natural Gas, Other
electric power generation
Alternative/Renewable energy,
Solar electric power
Automotive OEM, Automobiles
Food & Tobacco, Animal food
Automotive OEM, Automobiles
Textiles, Textiles & Textile Mills
Consumer Products, Furniture,
homeware & related products
Chemicals, Basic chemicals
Alternative/Renewable energy,
Wind electric power
Source: UNCTAD, based on information from the Financial Times Ltd, fDi Markets (www.fdimarkets.com).
Key
Business
Function
Estimated capital
Jobs
expenditures
created
(Millions of dollars)
Manufacturing
3 000
3 000
Manufacturing
1 100
3 000
Electricity
1 000
292
Electricity
636
306
Manufacturing
Manufacturing
Manufacturing
520
500
500
2 500
1 267
2 931
Manufacturing
400
4 500
Retail
373
2 789
Manufacturing
343
785
Electricity
335
161
68
their investments in energy and natural-resourcesrelated projects. Foreign investors have entered the
Russian energy market mainly through two channels:
asset swaps and technology provision deals. Oil and
gas firms of the Russian Federation were allowed to
enter downstream markets in developed countries in
exchange for allowing MNEs from those countries to
take minority participations in those firms domestic
exploration and extraction projects. For example,
Wintershall (Germany) acquired a stake in the YuzhnoRusskoye gas field in Siberia, and Eni (Italy) gained
access to exploration and production facilities in the
Russian Federation. In return, Gazprom (Russian
Federation) acquired parts of those companies
European assets in hydrocarbons transportation,
storage and distribution. In some oil and gas projects
that require high technology, such as the development
of the Shtokman field, the involvement of developedcountry MNEs such as StatoilHydro (Norway) and Total
(France) was necessary because of their expertise.
After a period of growth, FDI in natural-resourcesrelated industries has come to a standstill. Sanctions
have had an impact on both channels. For example,
in November 2014, BASF (Germany) and Gazprom
(Russian Federation) agreed to scrap a $14.7 billion
asset swap that would have given Gazprom full control
of a jointly operated European gas trading and storage
business, including the biggest underground gas
storage facility in Europe. In return, BASFs Wintershall
affiliate was set to gain stakes in two west Siberian gas
fields.29 The oil industry was also affected by a ban on
the exports of a wide range of goods, services and
technology to Russian oil projects, in particular those
in Arctic, deep-water and shale areas. The enormous
Siberian oilfields developed in Soviet times are ageing,
and without the development of new resources from
the Arctic to Siberia Russian oil production could
fall. Some foreign affiliates have already begun to hold
back in some projects in the Arctic. For example,
ExxonMobil (United States) had to freeze all 10 of its
joint ventures with Rosneft in this region, including the
Kara Sea project. Similarly, a Shell (United States) joint
project with Gazprom Neft for the development of the
Bazhenov field had to be suspended, as did the Total
(France) project with Lukoil.
Indirect impact on FDI inflows. The Russian
economy has suffered from the sanctions in three
ways: (i) massive capital outflows, which have made
69
70
Figure II.14.
(Billions of dollars)
4.5
3.7
3.4
2.4
2.4
2.2
1.4
1.0
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2014 Inflows
DEVELOPED COUNTRIES
498.8 bn
2014 Decrease
-28.4%
Share in world
40.6%
United
Kingdom
$72.2 bn
+51.5%
Canada
$53.9 bn
-23.7%
Netherlands
$30.3 bn
-5.6%
United States
$92.4 bn
-60%
Australia
$51.9 bn
-4.4%
Flows, by range
Economy
$ Value of inflows
2014 % Change
Above $100 bn
$50 to $99 bn
$10 to $ 49 bn
$1 to $9 bn
Below $1 bn
United States
$336.9
Japan
$113.6
-16.3%
Germany
$112.2
+272.7%
+2.6%
Canada
$52.6
+4.1%
France
$42.9
+71.5%
Balance on services
United States
2006
2013
Japan
2006
2013
-837
-702
95
-90
76
231
-32
-36
43
200
122
176
693
780
172
233
333
467
41
79
650
580
50
57
159
176
11
17
-807
-400
175
40
Source: UNCTAD.
Note:
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
20
25
0
HIGHLIGHTS
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
7.8
5.9
5.6
6.2
6.1
3.9
3.5
Figure A.
1 600
1 200
1 200
800
800
400
400
4.2
7.0
4.7
(Billions of dollars)
European Union
0
2008
2009
52.9
55.0
2010
50.7
2011
2012
52.9
Sector/industry
48.4
Developed
countries as
destination
2013
2014
Total
225 555
Primary
1 700
30
Mining, quarrying and petroleum
1 696
Manufacturing
98 034
25 Textiles, clothing and leather
13 785
Coke, petroleum products and
2 115
20 nuclear fuel
Chemicals and chemical
16 346
products
15 Motor vehicles and other
18 319
transport equipment
Services
125 820
10
Electricity, gas and water
25 817
Construction
13 120
5 Transport, storage and
19 039
communications
35 489
0 Business services
2008
2009
2010
2011
Table C.
1.2
2013
47.5
2014
40.6
Share in
world total
Table A.
1.4
Sector/industry
Africa
222 378
1 920
1 920
100 445
17 402
5 311
14 818
21 871
120 013
16 660
20 225
17 706
35 801
2012
Developed
countries as
investors
2013
2014
Transition economies
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
80.3
74.4
70.5
72.8
68.0
63.8
60.8
Table B.
Partner region/economy
Latin
and the Caribbean
Asia
Oceania
479
064America
481 443
World
18 848 35 543
Developed
economies
8
16 258 35 543
Europe
207 972 218 396
7North America
18 835 22 057
6Other developed countries
6 538 25 767
Japan
5
33 632 32 207
Developing
economies
4Africa
54 474 60 145
Asia and Oceania
3 China
252 245 227 505
69 638 48 563
2 India
20 167 25 233
Latin America and the
42 703 44 710
1Caribbean
Transition economies
58 921 55 159
0
2013
2014
2008
2009
2010
1.9
Purchases
2013 2014
Total
237 516 274 549 178 870 228 389
Primary
39 337 27 842 -14 302
-920
Mining, quarrying and petroleum
37 897 25 975 -14 553 -1 178
Manufacturing
84 807 152 185 80 051 128 229
Food, beverages and tobacco
19 708 30 534 25 278 34 340
Chemicals and chemical products
19 232 23 611
4 822 25 172
Pharmaceuticals, medicinal
742 44 058 20 443 45 165
chemicals and botanical products
Computer, electronic, optical
10 753 24 247 11 808 14 877
products and electrical equipment
Services
113 373 94 522 113 121 101 081
Trade
7 406 28 483
-2 067 23 551
Information and communication
29 273 -73 170 22 476 -87 172
Financial and insurance activities
9 077 29 728 64 197 100 908
Business services
35 799 65 929 22 220 28 260
35
4.6
1 600
40
4.5
Figure B.
(Billions of dollars)
North America
4.3
Share in
world total Table D.
0.2
0.1
Developed
countries as
investors
2013
2014
479 064
192 338
110 253
60 107
21 978
8 296
265 812
28 010
155 815
53 469
14 511
481 443
181 085
100 049
61 161
19 875
5 995
287 822
63 024
153 631
47 051
17 919
1 539
1 760
81 987
71 167
2 266
1 630
20 914
12 537
2011
2012
2013
2014
Region/country
World
Developed economies
Europe
North America
Other developed countries
Japan
Developing economies
Africa
Asia and Oceania
China
India
Latin America and the
Caribbean
Transition economies
Latin America and the Caribbean
10
Developed
countries as
destination
2013
2014
Sales
2013
2014
Purchases
2013
2014
5 118
8 131
19 678
17 949
1 682
-251
-7 191
1 536
Africa
73
Table II.9.
Intracompany loans,
selected European
countries, 2013 and 2014
(Billions of dollars)
2013
2014
Inward
Germany
Ireland
United Kingdom
8.2
4.3
-3.9
-28.1
-24.9
32.6
Outward
Germany
Luxembourg
United Kingdom
-15.3
47.0
1.9
19.0
0.2
44.4
74
Table II.10.
(Billions of dollars)
United States
2006 2013
Balance on goods
-837 -702
Balance on services
76
231
Balance on primary income
43
200
Primary income receipts
693
780
Investment income on FDI
333
467
Primary income payments
650
580
Investment income on FDI
159
176
Current account items
Balance on current
account
-807
-400
Japan
2006 2013
95
-90
-32
-36
122
176
172
233
41
79
50
57
11
17
175
40
Source: UNCTAD, based on data from the United States Department of Commerce,
Bureau of Economic Analysis, and Japans Ministry of Finance.
75
Table II.11.
Goods
Services
(Billions of dollars)
Exports
(parent to affiliates)
278
144
Imports
(affiliates to parent)
331
73
Balance
-53
71
Source: UNCTAD, based on data from the United States Department of Commerce,
Bureau of Economic Analysis.
Figure II.15.
(Trillions of dollars)
3.9
Exported from
United States parents
Supplied by
foreign affiliates
1.3
0.3
0.1
Goods
Services
Source: UNCTAD, based on data from the United States Department of Commerce,
Bureau of Economic Analysis.
Note:
Goods and services exported by parent companies refer only to
intra-firm trade, which accounted for 38 per cent of total exports of
goods by parent companies in the United States in 2012. Goods and
services supplied by foreign affiliates exclude those exported back to
the United States.
76
Box II.4.
Despite maintaining a negative net international investment position since 1989, investment income that the United States
receives from abroad has been consistently higher than the income foreign investors receive from their investment in the United
States. The rates of return on United States assets abroad are higher (3.8 per cent on average over 19992014) than those
earned by foreign investors in the United States (2.7 per cent).
Recent studies find that this difference in returns is due to income on FDI. The returns on other types of assets were similar for
United States assets abroad and foreign-owned assets in the United States; if anything, returns on foreign-owned assets were
slightly higher. In contrast, returns for FDI were, on average, 7.0 per cent for United States outward FDI and 3.1 per cent for
inward FDI.
Common explanations for this phenomenon include the higher risks associated with investing outside the United States, and
the age of investments. Recent studies suggest that intangible assets and the treatment of taxes on the balance of payments
can explain large parts of the return differentials (Curcuru et al., 2013; Bridgman, 2014).
Investment in intangible assets (e.g. R&D activities) can be a source of the returns gap by, first, depressing the profitability of
inward FDI in the United States and, second, understating the value of United States outward FDI.
The United States is a prime location for R&D because of its infrastructure, its networks of scientists and its accounting rules,
which allow investments in R&D to be deducted as expenses. This causes R&D activities to reduce the apparent profitability of
foreign affiliates in the United States. In fact, R&D expenditures of foreign affiliates in the United States are high relative to sales
(box table II.4.1).
R&D expenditures
Sales
Net income
Affiliates of
United States MNEs abroad
42
6 396
1 098
Source: UNCTAD, based on data from the United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.
Furthermore, for parent companies of United States MNEs, the share of R&D expenditures in total fixed investment for 2009
2012 was 30 per cent.39 The operations of United States MNEs abroad are likely to benefit from intangible assets created at
home. Thus, the outward FDI stock of the United States could underestimate the true extent of its assets, resulting in artificially
higher rates of returns for United States businesses abroad.
Another factor explaining the rate differentials is the tax system. The United States applies a worldwide taxation system in which
the parent company in the United States is also liable for taxes on the income of its affiliates abroad. Taxes paid abroad by
affiliates are deducted from the total tax liabilities. Since the United States corporate income tax rate is higher than in many other
countries, the parent company in the United States needs to pay the difference when the profits abroad are repatriated. This
repatriation tax does not appear on the balance of payments. Investment income on United States direct investment abroad
reported in the balance of payments is net of foreign taxes, but the United States taxes that the parent company would have
to pay are not deducted. In contrast, the United States taxes are already deducted from the earnings of foreign affiliates in the
United States. Effectively, investment income on United States direct investment abroad is pre-tax (or partially taxed) income,
whereas investment income on FDI in the United States is after-tax income, giving rise to the seemingly higher earnings of
outward FDI of the United States.
Curcuru et al. (2013) argue that the effects of such tax issues add up to 1.8 per cent to annual returns on United States outward
FDI. Bridgeman (2014) concludes that taking into account intangible assets and repatriation taxes reduces the difference in
returns on FDI from 4.2 per cent to 1.7 per cent for the period 19942010.
Source: UNCTAD, based on various sources.
77
Figure II.16.
(Billions of dollars)
1 400
1 200
1 000
800
600
400
Merchandise exports
200
0
2001
2003
2005
2007
2009
2011
2013
Source: UNCTAD, based on data from the Bank of Japan and Ministry of Economy,
Trade and Industry.
Figure II.17.
Imports
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
2001
2003
2005
2007
2009
2011
2013
Source: UNCTAD, based on data from the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry.
2014 Inflows
23.2 bn
2014 Increase
+4%
Share in world
1.9%
Dem. Rep.
of Congo
$2.1 bn
-1.7%
Equatorial
Guinea
$1.9 bn
+1%
Zambia
$2.5 bn
+37%
United Rep.
of Tanzania
$2.1 bn
+0.5%
Mozambique
$4.9 bn
-20.6%
Flows, by range
Top 5 host economies
Economy
$ Value of inflows
2014 % Change
Above $2.0 bn
$1.0 to $1.9 bn
$0.5 to $0.9 bn
$0.1 to $0.4 bn
Below $0.1 bn
$2.1
Togo
$0.5
..
Dem. Rep.
of Congo
$0.3
-14%
Yemen
Burkina
Faso
-65%
$0.07
+1%
$0.06
+1.3%
Bilateral ODA
FDI inflows
Remittances
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Source: UNCTAD.
Note:
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
Final boundary between the Republic of Sudan and the Republic of South Sudan has not yet been determined. Final status of the Abyei area is not yet
determined. Dotted line in Jammu and Kashmir represents approximately the Line of Control agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu
and Kashmir has not yet been agreed upon by the parties.
400
400
HIGHLIGHTS
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
52.9
55.0
50.7
52.9
48.4
40.6
80.3
Figure A.
30
25
68.0
63.8
60.8
Oceania
15
10
3
2
0
2008
1.2
2009
1.4
Table A.
Sector/industry
2010
1.8
2011
1.4
2012
1.7
2013
20
Table C.
2014
1.5
1.9
Share in
world total
LDCs
as investors
2013
2014
Total
40 279 47 680
1 624
1 604
Primary
3 884 17 165
7
Mining, quarrying and petroleum
1 519 17 165
7
Manufacturing
8 407
9 578
395
294
Textiles, clothing and leather
519
2 019
38
Coke, petroleum products and
1 764
1 246
nuclear fuel
Non-metallic mineral products
3 234
1 952
262
Transition27economies
Services
988 20 937 Asia1and
222Oceania
1 311
Construction
590
6 802
40
Trade
833
2 138
4
35 Transport, storage and
5 092
3 500
92
15
communications
30 Finance
2 086
2 198
691
639
Business services
1 213
4 814
37
624
25
10
Asia
72.8
20
15
70.5
Figure B.
(Billions of dollars)
Africa
74.4
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.6
0.2
Table B.
Partner region/economy
World
40 279
Developed economies
25 448
European Union
7 000
Switzerland
411
United States
1 205
Japan
11 484
Developing economies
14 831
Africa
6 073
Latin America
and
the Caribbean
Africa 2 791
South
Africa
Latin America and the
170
10
Caribbean
South, East and South-East
8 020
8 Asia
West Asia
568
Transition economies
6
4
Table D.
LDCs
as investors
2013
2014
47 680
32 429
24 435
1 701
4 507
1 269
15 251
6 477
3 564
1 624
123
82
1 464
1 049
-
1 604
76
66
10
1 508
1 045
11
69
281
8 162
354
168
544
-
52
37
14
21
Sales
Purchases
2
Region/country
2013 2014
2013 2014
5
Total
26 3 734
2
23
World
0Developed economies
0Primary
16 2 661
2
2
2008 quarrying
2009 and petroleum
2010
2011
2008 Union
2009
2010
Mining,
1620122 661 2013 2 2014 2
European
Manufacturing
37
120
- Share in North America
Food, beverages and tobacco
20
12
- world total Other developed countries
1.7 clothing
2.2 and leather
2.0
2.3
0.1
0.4
0.7
Textiles,
2 2.5
2 2.0
- 2.4 Developing
economies
Pharmaceuticals, medicinal
Africa
1 15
51
chemicals and botanical products
Latin America and the
Non-metallic mineral products
56
Caribbean
Services
-27
952
20
South, East and South-East
Asia
Electricity, gas, water and waste
-86
management
India
Transportation and storage
400
Singapore
Information and communication
3
112
West Asia
Financial and insurance activities
-42
516
25
Transition economies
Sector/industry
LDCs
as destination
2013
2014
Sales
2013
2014
Purchases
2013
2014
26
-4 020
2011
-4 409
-338
-33
0.4
4 046
5
3 734
-1 201
2012
-1 361
10
114
0.2
4 869
-18
2
2
2013 2
0.3 -
23
25
201425
0.4 -2
2
-430
400
4 427
3 975
-4
15
9
44
-
2 702
1 333
512
-
80
Table II.12.
Industry segment
Angola
Mozambique
Mozambique
Real estate
Bangladesh
Host economy
(destination)
Zambia
81
Investing company
Home
economy
Estimated capital
expenditures
(Millions of dollars)
16 000a
5 189b
Total
Pylos
Atterbury Property
Developments
France
Belgium
South Africa
2 595c
Enviro Board
United States
2 078
Chevron Corporation
United States
1 048
Source: UNCTAD, based on information from the Financial Times Ltd, fDi Markets (www.fDimarkets.com).
a
Most likely product-sharing contract.
b
Sum of six projects for the same amount.
c
Sum of three projects for the same amount.
82
Figure II.18.
Total ODA
Bilateral ODA
FDI inflows
Remittances
50
45
Table II.13.
40
35
LDCs
Developing
economies
11
12
22
26
27
13
10
Indicator
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Source: UNCTAD, FDI/MNE database (www.unctad.org/fdistatistics) (for FDI inflows),
OECD (for ODA flows) and World Bank (for remittances).
World
Figure II.19.
83
Porfolio investment
FDI inflows
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
- 10
- 20
- 30
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Source: UNCTAD, FDI/MNE database (www.unctad.org/fdistatistics) (for FDI inflows) and IMF (for portfolio and other investments).
Figure II.20.
Value
FDI inflows
Share
30
25
6
5
20
4
15
3
10
0
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
84
between
IPAs
promoting
inward
investment
in
2014 Inflows
LANDLOCKED
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
29.2 bn
2014 Decrease
-2.8%
Share in world
2.4%
Kazakhstan
$9.6 bn
-6.4%
Turkmenistan
$3.2 bn
+2.8%
Azerbaijan
$4.4 bn
+68.3%
Ethiopia
$1.2 bn
+26%
Zambia
$2.5 bn
+37%
Flows, by range
Above $1 bn
$0.5 to $0.9 bn
$0.1 to $0.5 bn
$10 to $99 mn
Below $10 mn
Total ODA
Bilateral ODA
FDI inflows
Remittances
40
35
Kazakhstan
$3.6
Azerbaijan
$2.2
+59%
+48%
Mongolia
$0.1
+147%
Zimbawe
$0.07
+167%
Burkina Faso
$0.06
+1.3%
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
2003
2005
2007
2009
2011
2013
Source: UNCTAD.
Note:
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. Final boundary
between the Republic of Sudan and the Republic of South Sudan has not yet been determined. Final status of the Abyei area is not yet determined. Dotted line
in Jammu and Kashmir represents approximately the Line of Control agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet
been agreed upon by the parties.
1.2
1.4
1.8
1.4
1.7
1.5
Share in
world total
1.9
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.6
0.2
HIGHLIGHTS
Figure A.
Transition economies
Figure B.
(Billions of dollars)
40
(Billions of dollars)
Africa
10
35
8
30
25
20
4
15
10
5
0
0
2008
2009
1.7
Table A.
2.2
2010
2.0
2011
2012
2.3
2013
2.5
2014
2.0
2.4
Sector/industry
Total
Primary
Mining, quarrying and petroleum
Manufacturing
Textiles, clothing and leather
Non-metallic mineral products
Metals and metal products
Motor vehicles and other
10
transport equipment
9Services
8 Electricity, gas and water
Trade
7
Transport, storage and
6 communications
5 Finance
17 712 16 398
1 201
402
1 201
402
5 410
8 661
308
2 446
1 634
2 488
279Oceania738
LLDCs
as investors
2013
2014
1 047
404
39
75
Asia69
613
773
11 102
5 213
524
7 335
982
2 023
643
132
2 427
1 238
138
1 535
1 481
354
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
0.1
0.4
0.7
0.4
0.2
0.3
0.4
Table B.
Partner region/economy
1 220
World
Developed economies
France
654
Iceland
United States
Latin-America andAustralia
the Caribbean
Africa
Developing economies
2.5
South Africa
566
China
2
Korea,
Republic of
11
India
399
Transition
economies
1.5
Russian Federation
149
17 712
9 943
912
4 000
513
560
6 575
931
380
130
742
1 194
729
16 398
6 127
543
2 770
8 723
864
1 893
529
810
1 548
1 414
LLDCs
as investors
2013
2014
1 047
186
3
35
525
42
35
52
335
34
1 220
56
1 076
15
395
89
-
4
3
Share in
world total
Table C.
Sector/industry
0
2009
2010
2011
Total 2008
Primary
Mining, quarrying and petroleum
Manufacturing
0.6
0.4
0.3
0.4
Food, beverages and tobacco
Paper and paper products
Pharmaceuticals, medicinal
chemicals and botanical products
Non-metallic mineral products
Services
Electricity, gas, water and waste
management
Transportation and storage
Information and communication
Financial and insurance activities
Sales
2013 2014
2012 -1 062
2013
258
-22
44
-22
34
257
285
0.5
0.4
177
12
-101
15
51
23
314
-1 391
-1 279
20
3
30
1
-158
Purchases
2013 2014
Table D.
0.5
Region/country
0
2008
2009
2014
6
270
World
2
-250 Share inDeveloped economies
2
-250 world total Luxembourg
57
0.6
0.1
0.0
Netherlands
United Kingdom
Switzerland
Developing economies
-1
South Africa
3
463
Peru
China
Hong Kong, China
4
Transition economies
Russian Federation
3
459
2010
0.0
Sales
2013
2014
2011
258
99
20
0.1
359
-448
331
160
56
-77
-
-12012
062
-2 456
-277
0.2
-1 374
-1 152
319
216
-125
307
526
-507
1 177
1 147
Purchases
2013
2014
2013 6
2
0.1
2
3
-
2014
270
14
0.1
257
-1
-1
87
88
Table II.14.
Home country
China
Russian Federation
Turkey
United Arab Emirates
Korea, Republic of
Iran, Islamic Republic of
Azerbaijan
Kazakhstan
4
2 450
1
17
170
478
1 933
413
76
910
4 512
1 933
549
1 203
1 068
40
Kyrgyzstan
334
132
68
9
71
4
Mongolia
3 727
296
7
1
365
1
Tajikistan
476
2
-
Total
in region
9 224
5 289
2 559
1 627
1 580
972
Table II.15.
89
Indicator
Developing
economies
12
26
10
LLDCs
12
33
19
World
6
27
9
Table II.16.
Figure II.21.
Landlocked countries
(LLDCs)
LLDCs-Africa
LLDCs-Latin America and the
Caribbean
LLDCs-Asia and Oceania
LLDCs-Transition economies
2002
2014
Growth
(%)
7 872
29 151
12
2 501
7 631
10
682
884
129
4 559
1 317
19 319
21
13
Value
FDI inflows
Share
40
35
30
4
25
20
15
10
1
5
0
0
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
Figure II.22.
40
38
36
34
Landlocked
developing countries
World
32
30
28
26
Developing economies
24
22
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Source: UNCTAD, FDI/MNE database (www.unctad.org/fdistatistics).
90
Figure II.23.
Porfolio investment
FDI inflows
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
- 10
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Source: UNCTAD, FDI/MNE database (www.unctad.org/fdistatistics) (for FDI inflows) and IMF (for portfolio and other investments).
East Africa
Figure II.24.
Total ODA
Bilateral ODA
FDI inflows
Remittances
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
West Africa
Africa2005 2006
Central
Africa
2002 Southern
2003 2004
2007
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
2014 Inflows
SMALL ISLAND
DEVELOPING STATES
6.9 bn
2014 Increase
+21.8%
Share in world
0.6%
Maldives
$0.36 bn
+0.7%
Bahamas
$1.6 bn
+43.7%
Mauritius
$0.42 bn
+61.8%
Jamaica
$0.55 bn
-7.1%
Trinidad
and Tobago
$2.42 bn
+21.5%
Flows, by range
Economy
$ Value of inflows
2014 % Change
Above $1 bn
$500 to $999 mn
$100 to $499 mn
$50 to $99 mn
Below $50 mn
$726
Bahamas
$398
Barbados
$93
-12.8%
Mauritius
$91
-32.5%
Marshall
Islands
$24
-11.9%
+43.5%
+29.1%
Bilateral ODA
FDI inflows
Remittances
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
2003
2005
2007
2009
2011
2013
Source: UNCTAD.
Note:
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
Final boundary between the Republic of Sudan and the Republic of South Sudan has not yet been determined. Final status of the Abyei area is not yet determined.
Dotted line in Jammu and Kashmir represents approximately the Line of Control agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir
has not yet been agreed upon by the parties.
2008
2009
1.7
2.2
2010
2011
2.0
2012
2.3
2.5
2013
2014
2.0
Share in
world total
2.4
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
0.1
0.4
0.7
0.4
0.2
0.3
0.4
HIGHLIGHTS
Figure A.
2008
Oceania
Asia
Figure B.
(Billions of dollars)
10
(Billions of dollars)
Africa
2.5
9
2
8
7
1.5
6
5
4
3
0.5
2
1
0
2008
0.6
2009
0.4
Table A.
2010
0.3
2012
0.4
2013
0.5
0.4
2014
Share in
world total
0.6
Sector/industry
Total
Primary
Manufacturing
Coke, petroleum products and
nuclear fuel
Chemicals and chemical
products
Metals and metal products
Services
Electricity, gas and water
Construction
Hotels and restaurants
Transport, storage and
communications
Finance
Business services
Table C.
2011
SIDS
as destination
2013
2014
6 504
2 532
1 984
4 841
22
223
1 048
SIDS
as investors
2013
2014
3 605
-
2 021
262
850
1 989
1 350
65
160
4 596
1 298
2 000
234
3 605
-
1 760
125
-
477
588
1 648
1 369
22
47
186
190
210
1 748
67
161
Total
Primary
Extraction of crude petroleum and
natural gas
Mining of metal ores
Manufacturing
Chemicals and chemical products
Services
Electricity, gas, water and waste
management
Transportation and storage
Information and communication
Financial and insurance activities
Business activities
Public administration and defence;
compulsory social security
Sales
2013 2014
-596
-600
1 503
5
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.1
Table B.
Sector/industry
2008
Partner region/economy
World
Developed economies
Europe
United States
Australia
Japan
Developing economies
Africa
Kenya
Nigeria
Asia and Oceania
China
Latin America and
the Caribbean
Table D.
Purchases
2013 2014
-294
-14
2 065
-
-600
-7
-5
9
12
1 175
1 175
323
-14
-280
2 065
-2
1 175
4
5
258
68
-
7
-286
-
-81
-183
12
1 116
SIDS
as investors
2013
2014
6 504
2 812
253
1 380
316
863
3 692
56
3 624
3 250
4 841
1 964
1 707
211
45
2 877
59
2 773
2 429
3 605
3
3
3 602
3 192
461
2 296
177
162
2 021
81
2
7
35
1 941
1 720
86
1 148
-
13
45
233
221
Region/country
World
Developed economies
European Union
United States
Australia
Developing economies
Africa
Mauritius
Zimbabwe
Latin America and the
Caribbean
Trinidad and Tobago
Asia and Oceania
Singapore
Sales
2013
2014
Purchases
2013
2014
-596
-604
280
-600
3
5
5
-
1 503
74
3 307
-142
-2 857
1 428
1 175
1 175
-
-294
-333
-367
2
20
39
-
2 065
1 149
-328
194
1 098
916
12
12
895
-2
60
253
-1
39
9
1 175
9
-
Table II.17.
93
Figure II.25.
Value
FDI inflows
10
Share
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
2
0.4
0.2
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
Indicator
FDI inflows, annual growth
Inward FDI stock as % of GDP, 13-year average
FDI inflows as % of GFCF, 13-year average
Source: UNCTAD, FDI/MNE database (www.unctad.org/fdistatistics).
Note:
Annual growth computed as compound annual growth rate over the period considered.
SIDS
10
70
32
Developing
countries
12
26
10
World
6
27
9
94
Figure II.26.
Total ODA
Bilateral ODA
FDI inflows
Remittances
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Source: UNCTAD, FDI/MNE database (www.unctad.org/fdistatistics) (for FDI flows), IMF
(for portfolio investment), OECD (for ODA) and World Bank (for remittances).
Figure II.27.
95
Porfolio investment
FDI inflows
50
40
30
20
10
0
- 10
- 20
- 30
- 40
- 50
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Source: UNCTAD, FDI/MNE database (www.unctad.org/fdistatistics) (for FDI inflows) and IMF (for portfolio and other investment).
Figure II.28.
(Millions of dollars)
47
FDI
SIDS LAC
SIDS Africa
ODA
14
2
SIDS Asia
6
SIDS Oceania
96
Notes
1
See http://apparel.edgl.com/news/The-New-Kid-on-theBlock--Africa-Is-Vying-for-a-Larger-Share-of-the-GlobalTextile-and-Apparel-Pie96802.
See
http://mg.co.za/article/2014-03-25-mtn-said-tostart-selling-mobile-tower-networks.
10
InfraPPP
(www.infrapppworld.com)
and
Indonesia
Investments (www.indonesia-investments.com). See e.g.
Soekarno-Hatta Railway Project Indonesia: Tendered to
Private Sector (www.indonesia-investments.com/business/
business-columns/soekarno-hatta-railway-project-fullytendered-to-private-sector/item2718).
11
12
14
15
16
These Indian automakers started operating in the
passenger car market first with multi-utility vehicles and,
later, with small cars (see e.g. Kumaraswamy et al., 2012).
17
18
19
The segments of the construction industry include
residential and commercial buildings, water and energy,
transport, oil and gas, among others. In the absence of
official statistics, data on contract awards and on work
under execution are the main bases for gauging the trends
shaping the GCC construction market since 20082009,
and assessing the importance of foreign contractors in this
market.
20
21
22
23
Economist Intelligence Unit, GCC companies face
challenging 2015, 22 January 2015.
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
Primary income refers to investment income and
compensation of employees earned abroad (receipts) or
owed to foreign entities (payments). For the United States,
investment income accounted for 99 per cent of primary
income receipts and 97 per cent of primary income
payments in 2014.
38
39
97
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
98
54
55
w w w. j a m e s t o w n . o r g / s i n g l e / ? t x _ t t n e w s % 5 B t t _
news%5D=42623&no_cache=1#.VWMhPE-qpBc.
56
57
58
REFERENCES
ADB and ADBI (2009). Infrastructure for a Seamless Asia. Tokyo: Asian Development Bank Institute.
Callen, T., R. Cherif, F. Hasanov, A. Hegazy and P. Khandelwal (2014). Economic Diversification in the GCC: Past,
Present, and Future, IMF Staff Discussion Note, Institute for Capacity Development and Middle East and Central
Asia Department, December. www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/sdn/2014/sdn1412.pdf.
ECLAC (2015). First Forum of China and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC):
Exploring opportunities for cooperation on trade and investment, January. Santiago de Chile: United Nations.
Bapat, S., A. Chaturvedi, W. Drewery, F. Fei and E. Hepfer (2012). Tamil Nadu Automotive Cluster,
Microeconomics of Competitiveness course, Harvard Business School, Spring. www.isc.hbs.edu/resources/
courses/moc-course-at-harvard/Documents/pdf/student-projects/MOC%20Tamil%20Nadu%20Auto%20
Cluster%20Final.pdf.
Bhasker, V. V. (2013). Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in Indian Automobile Industry: Impact on Employment
Generation, Research Journal of Management Sciences, 2(2): 1422.
Bridgman, B. (2014). Do intangible assets explain high U.S. foreign direct investment returns?, Journal of
Macroeconomics, 40: 159171, June.
Curcuru, S. E., C. P. Thomas and F. E. Warnock (2013). On returns differentials, Journal of International Money
and Finance, 36: 125, September.
Elson, A. (2006). What Happened?, Finance and Development, 43(2):3740, June.
IMF (2014). Regional Economic Outlook: Middle East and Central Asia. Washington, D.C.: International Monetary
Fund.
Krger, R., and I. Strauss (2015). Africa rising out of itself: the growth of intra-African FDI, Columbia FDI Perspectives,
139(19), January. http://ccsi.columbia.edu/files/2013/10/No-139.Kr%C3%BCger-and-Strauss-FINAL.pdf
Kumaraswamy A., R. Mudambi, H. Saranga and A. Tripathy (2012). Catch-up strategies in the Indian auto
components industry: Domestic firms responses to market liberalization, Journal of International Business
Studies, 43(4): 368395.
99
Kuznetsov (2012). Inward FDI in Russia and its policy context, 2012, Columbia FDI Profiles, Vale Columbia
Center on Sustainable International Investment, July. http://ccsi.columbia.edu/files/2014/03/Profile-_Russia_
IFDI_5_August_2012_-_FINAL.pdf.
Okada, A., and N.S. Siddharthan (2007). Industrial Clusters in India: Evidence from Automobile Clusters in
Chennai and the National Capital Region, IDE-JETRO Discussion Papers, No. 103, April.
Singapore Human Resources Institute (2012). GCC Construction Sector Report, March.
UNCTAD (2011). Foreign Direct Investment in LDCs: Lessons Learned from the Decade 2001-2010 and the Way
Forward. New York and Geneva: United Nations.
UNCTAD (2014). The Least Developed Countries Report 2014 - Growth with Structural Transformation:
A Post-2015 Development Agenda. New York and Geneva: United Nations.
United Nations (2015). World Economic Situation and Prospects 2015. Update as of mid-2015. New York: United
Nations.
USITC (2014). AGOA: Trade and Investment Performance Overview, April. Washington D.C.: United States
International Trade Commission. www.usitc.gov/publications/332/pub4461.pdf.
WEF (2013). Global Competitiveness Report 20132014. Geneva: World Economic Forum.
WIR12. World Investment Report 2012: Towards a New Generation of Investment Policies. New York and Geneva:
United Nations
WIR13. World Investment Report 2013: Global Value Chains: Investment and Trade for Development. New York
and Geneva: United Nations.
WIR14. World Investment Report 2014: Investing in the SDGs: An Action Plan. New York and Geneva: United
Nations.
World Bank (2014). World Development Indicators, Washington, D.C.: World Bank.
World Bank (2015). The Dawn of a New Economic Era?, Russia Economic Report, No. 33, April. Washington,
D.C.: World Bank.
Recent Policy
Developments
and Key Issues
C H A P T E R
III
102
Item
Number of countries
that introduced
changes
Number of regulatory
changes
Liberalization/
Promotion
Restriction/
Regulation
Neutral/
Indeterminatea
Liberalization/Promotion
Restriction/Regulation
100
84
94
75
50
25
16
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
Table III.1.
Changes in national
investment policies,
20002014 (Per cent)
Figure III.1.
52
44
60
80
78
71
50
41
47
55
49
54
59
37
81
97
94
125
164
144
126
79
68
88
121
80
86
87
63
75
85
79
113
142
118
104
58
51
61
80
59
61
61
47
12
12
20
25
22
19
15
23
37
20
20
23
10
103
104
ownership.
companys assets.
land to non-Seychellois.
SDG-related investment
policy measures by region,
20102014 (Per cent)
Figure III.2.
105
SDG-related investment
policy measures by sector,
20102014 (Per cent)
Figure III.3.
Other
Other
Asia
29
Africa
Infrastructure
20
Climate
change
12
53
Latin America
and Caribbean
25
22
Europe
13
17
Health
Education
106
a. Overall trends
The conclusion in 2014 of 31 international investment
agreements (IIAs) 18 bilateral investment treaties
(BITs) and 13 other IIAs2 - brought the total number
of IIAs to 3,271 (2,926 BITs and 345 other IIAs)
by year-end (figure III.4). Between January and April
2015, five more treaties (of which three were BITs)
were added. Most active in concluding IIAs in 2014
were Canada with seven and Colombia, Cte dIvoire
and the European Union (EU) with three each. Overall,
the annual number of other IIAs has remained stable
over the past few years, while the annual number of
BITs continues to decline (see annex).
Figure III.4.
Annual
number of IIAs
Annual BITs
Cumulative
number of IIAs
350
3500
300
3000
250
2500
200
2000
150
1500
100
1000
50
500
0
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
107
108
109
110
Figure III.5.
111
Annual number of
pre-establishment IIAs
Cumulative number of
pre-establishment IIAs
25
250
20
200
15
150
10
100
50
0
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
Top signatories of
pre-establishment IIAs
Figure III.6.
(Number of agreements)
United States
Canada
EU
Japan
Finlanda
Peru
Singapore
Republic of Korea
Chile
Costa Rica
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
112
Table III.2.
113
Detailed exceptions from the free-transferof-funds obligation, including balance-ofpayments difficulties and/or enforcement of
national laws
AustraliaJapan EPA
CanadaCameroon BIT
CanadaMali BIT
CanadaNigeria BIT
CanadaSenegal BIT
CanadaSerbia BIT
ColombiaFrance BIT
ColombiaTurkey BIT
EgyptMauritius BIT
JapanKazakhstan BIT
IsraelMyanmar BIT
MexicoPanama FTA
Source: UNCTAD.
Note:
Based on IIAs concluded in 2014 for which the text was available; does not include framework agreements, which do not include substantive investment provisions.
114
Figure III.7.
Annual
number of cases
Non-ICSID
Cumulative
number of cases
70
700
60
600
50
500
40
400
30
300
20
200
10
100
0
1987 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
115
Figure III.8.
Argentina
56
Bolivarian Republic
of Venezuela
36
Czech Republic
29
Egypt
24
Canada
23
Mexico
21
Ecuador
21
India
16
Ukraine
16
Poland
15
United States
15
Figure III.9.
b. ISDS outcomes
United States
129
Netherlands
67
United Kingdom
51
Germany
42
France
36
Canada
33
Italy
28
Spain
27
Switzerland
17
Turkey
17
Belgium
13
Austria
12
116
The UNCITRAL Rules on Transparency in Treatybased Investor-State Arbitration came into effect
on 1 April 2014. The UNCITRAL Transparency
Rules provide for open oral hearings in ISDS cases
as well as the publication of key documents,
including notices of arbitration, pleadings,
transcripts, and all decisions and awards issued
by the tribunal (subject to certain safeguards,
including protection of confidential information).
By default (in the absence of further action),
the Rules apply only to UNCITRAL arbitrations
brought under IIAs concluded after 1 April 2014,
and thus exclude the pre-existing IIAs from their
coverage.
Figure III.10.
Figure III.11.
(Per cent)
Breach but
no damages 2
Discontinued
9
In favour
of State
36
26
Settled
In favour
of investor
40
In favour
of State
60
27
In favour of investor
Source: UNCTAD, ISDS database.
Notes
1
http://unctad-worldinvestmentforum.org/followup-events/
media-center/.
117
Seehttps://www.regjeringen.no/nb/dokumenter/horing--modell-for-investeringsavtaler/id2411615/.
10
11
118
REFERENCES
Bundesministerium fr Wirtschaft und Energie (BMWi) (2015). Modell-Investitionsschutzvertrag mit InvestorStaat Schiedsverfahren fr Industriestaaten unter Bercksichtigung der USA. www.bmwi.de/BMWi/Redaktion/
PDF/M-O/modell-investitionsschutzvertrag-mit-investor-staat-schiedsverfahren-gutachten,property=pdf,bereich
=bmwi2012,sprache=de,rwb=true.pdf
European Commission (2015). Investment in TTIP and beyond the path for reform, Concept Paper, May.
http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2015/may/tradoc_153408.PDF
UNCTAD (2015). Investor-State Dispute Settlement: Review of Developments in 2014, IIA Issues Note, No. 2.
New York and Geneva: United Nations. http://investmentpolicyhub.unctad.org/Publications
WIR12. World Investment Report 2012: Towards a New Generation of Investment Policies. New York and Geneva:
United Nations.
WIR14. World Investment Report 2014: Investing in the SDGs: An Action Plan. New York and Geneva: United
Nations.
Reforming
the International
Investment Regime:
An Action Menu
C H A P T E R
IV
120
INTRODUCTION
Growing unease with the current functioning of the
together
development
IIA reform.
with
todays
sustainable
and revision.
sustainable
reforming
development
objectives,
multilateral levels.
121
Figure IV.1.
1950s1964
Era of Infancy
New IIAs: 37
Total IIAs: 37
New ISDS cases: 0
Total ISDS cases: 0
19651989
Era of Dichotomy
New IIAs: 367
Total IIAs: 404
New ISDS cases: 1
Total ISDS cases: 1
19902007
Era of Proliferation
New IIAs: 2663
Total IIAs: 3067
New ISDS cases: 291
Total ISDS cases: 292
Emergence of IIAs
(weak protection, no ISDS)
Proliferation of IIAs
Liberalization components
Expansion of ISDS
GATT (1947)
Draft Havana Charter (1948)
Treaty establishing the European
Economic Community (1957)
New York Convention (1958)
First BIT between Germany and
Pakistan (1959)
OECD Liberalization Codes (1961)
UN Resolution on Permanent
Sovereignty over Natural
Resources (1962)
ICSID (1965)
UNCITRAL (1966)
First BIT with ISDS between
Netherlands and Indonesia (1968)
Draft UN Code of Conduct on TNCs
(19731993)
UN Declaration on the
Establishment of a NIEO (1974)
Draft UN Code of Conduct
on Transfer of Technology
(19741985)
OECD Guidelines for MNEs (1976)
MIGA Convention (1985)
Independence movements
New International
Economic Order (NIEO)
Underlying forces
Source: UNCTAD.
Note:
Years in parentheses relate to the adoption and/or signature of the instrument in question.
2008today
Era of Re-orientation
New IIAs: 410
Total IIAs: 3271
New ISDS cases: 316
Total ISDS cases: 608
Shift from BITs to
regional IIAs
Decline in annual IIAs
Exit and revision
EU Lisbon Treaty (2007)
UN Guiding Principles on
Business and Human Rights
(2011)
UNCTAD Investment Policy
Framework (2012)
UN Transparency Convention
(2014)
Development paradigm
shift
122
b. Era of dichotomy
(mid-1960s until late 1980s)
Investment protections in BITs are enhanced,
including by adding ISDS provisions. At the same time,
multilateral attempts to establish rules on investor
responsibilities fail.
On the one hand, from the mid-1960s to the late 1980s,
IIAs expanded in number and substance, although at
a relatively slow pace and with the participation of a
limited number of countries. The main signatories of
IIAs during this period were developed countries from
Europe and those developing countries including in
Africa, Asia and Latin America that considered FDI an
important contribution to their economic development
strategies. Many countries, however among them
the Soviet Union, countries in Central and Eastern
Europe, China, India and Brazil stayed out of the
IIA regime altogether or joined only at a relatively late
stage. At the end of the 1980s, the global IIA regime
consisted of fewer than 400 BITs.
In terms of substance, the main development in IIAs
was the increasing inclusion of ISDS provisions. The
earliest known example of ISDS is the BIT between
Indonesia and the Netherlands of 1968. Several other
countries followed in the 1970s and 1980s, until ISDS
became a standard provision in BITs from the 1990s
onward. Investment protection was also strengthened
in other substantive provisions.
On the other hand, during this period, there were
multilateral attempts towards strengthening States
sovereign powers and towards emphasizing investor
responsibilities. These policies were backed by two
UN Resolutions, one on Permanent Sovereignty over
Natural Resources in 1962 and one on Establishment
of a New Economic Order in 1974.
123
124
Box IV.1
125
UNCTADs Investment Policy Framework for Sustainable Development (IPFSD) (UNCTAD, 2012a), the special theme of WIR12,
responds to the recognition that at a time of persistent crises and pressing social and environmental challenges, mobilizing
investment and ensuring that it contributes to sustainable development objectives is a priority for all countries. In so doing, the
UNCTAD Framework built on the emerging new generation of investment policies.
The Framework first details the drivers of change in the investment policy environment and the challenges that need to be
addressed; it then proposes a set of Core Principles for investment policymaking which serve as design criteria for national
and international investment policies. On this basis it presents guidelines for national investment policies and policy options for
the formulation and negotiation of IIAs. UNCTADs IPFSD has since served as a reference point for policymakers in formulating
national investment policies and negotiating IIAs, as a basis for building capacity on investment policies, and as a point of
convergence for international cooperation on investment issues.
Source: UNCTAD.
2. Lessons learned
IIA reform can build on lessons learned from 60 years
of IIA rule making.
Sixty years of IIA rule making reveal a number of
lessons on how IIAs work in practice and what can be
learned for future IIA rule making.
The expected key function of IIAs is to contribute to
predictability, stability and transparency in investment
relations, and to help to move investment disputes
126
127
Bank/UNCTAD/IFID
Principles
Investment
(PRAI).
on
In
Responsible
addition
to
the
global
financial
crisis
in
2008,
128
Table IV.1.
129
Area
Core Principles
2. Policy coherence
4. Dynamic policymaking
Investment policies should be regularly reviewed for effectiveness and relevance and
adapted to changing development dynamics.
Investment policies should be balanced in setting out rights and obligations of States
and investors in the interest of development for all.
6. Right to regulate
Each country has the sovereign right to establish entry and operational conditions for
foreign investment, subject to international commitments, in the interest of the public
good and to minimize potential negative effects.
7. Openness to investment
In line with each countrys development strategy, investment policy should establish
open, stable and predictable entry conditions for investment.
Policies for investment promotion and facilitation should be aligned with sustainable
development goals and designed to minimize the risk of harmful competition for
investment.
Investment policies should promote and facilitate the adoption of and compliance
with best international practices of corporate social responsibility and good corporate
governance.
The international community should cooperate to address shared investment-fordevelopment policy challenges, particularly in least developed countries. Collective
efforts should also be made to avoid investment protectionism.
Source: UNCTAD.
130
Table IV.2.
Source: UNCTAD.
131
132
b. Reform areas
The starting point for IIA reform is the lessons learned
from the past, which translate into the five reform
objectives identified above. These reform objectives
can be pursued by addressing a number of reform
areas, which largely correspond to key IIA clauses.
For each of these, there are a number of sustainabledevelopment-oriented policy options. Together, the
reform objectives, the corresponding reform areas and
the policy options for pursuing them offer an action
menu for IIA reform.
Approach to designing reform elements
By and large, the policy options address the standard
elements included in an IIA. The options discussed
below include both mainstream IIA provisions (e.g.
clarification of indirect expropriation) as well as more
idiosyncratic options that have so far been used
by fewer countries or that are found only in model
agreements or policy statements and concept notes
(e.g. an international investment court). Many of
the options had already been set out in UNCTADs
Investment Policy Framework in 2012.
Another possibility would be to develop new
approaches to international investment law and
policymaking from scratch. Such an exercise
could be based on a review of existing standards of
protection (and respective gaps) in domestic laws
and policies, and analysis of their pros and cons and
suitability for use at the international level. Similarly, new
IIA elements could be designed based on inputs from
outward investors regarding the type of protections
and support initiatives they would consider beneficial
for them. Such an approach was partly undertaken by
c. Reform tools
When pursuing IIA reform and designing newgeneration agreements, countries have a number of
reform tools at hand. Table IV.4 provides an overview
of these tools and the various entry points to which
they can be applied. These tools can be grouped
into eight partially overlapping categories of actions.
Several tools can be used jointly with respect to one
particular IIA entry point or clause.
Table IV.3.
133
Reform objectives
Reform areas
Clauses that
Fix the existing ISDS mechanism by improving transparency, limiting investors
access, enhancing the contracting parties control and introducing local litigation
requirements
Add new elements to the existing ISDS mechanism (e.g. building in effective
alternative methods of dispute resolution, introducing an appeals facility)
Replace the existing ISDS mechanism (e.g. by creating a standing international
investment court, reliance on State-State dispute settlement and/or reliance on
domestic dispute resolution)
Clauses that
Strengthen promotion measures (inward and outward)
Target promotion measures to sustainable development
Foster cooperation in this regard
4. Ensuring responsible
investment
Clauses that
Prevent the lowering of environmental or social standards
Ensure compliance with domestic laws
Strengthen corporate social responsibility (CSR) and foster cooperation in this regard
5. Enhancing systemic
consistency
Source: UNCTAD.
134
Table IV.4.
Reform tools
Reform tools
Examples
2. Eliminating (omitting)
existing provisions
3. R
eformulating existing
provisions
4. Carving-out aspects
5. Linking provisions
Conditioning protections on
Investor behaviour
Hortatory language
Transition phases/phase-ins
Differentiated obligations
7. Creating/strengthening
institutional mechanisms
Within the IIA, a joint committee, council or working group, coordinating and facilitating
dialogue and cooperation on
Investment promotion, the prevention of disputes, the interpretation of provisions, the
review of the agreement
Beyond the IIA,
An appeals facility, an international investment court
Managing the interaction between IIAs and other bodies of law with a view to avoiding
inconsistencies and seeking synergies, e.g.
Preamble
References to CSR instruments
Reaffirmations of contracting parties commitments under other international law
instruments
References to the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties
ISDS rules
Source: UNCTAD.
135
136
Standards of treatment
MFN
Figure IV.2.
MFN
Do not
apply to
earlier IIAs
Source: UNCTAD.
Do not apply to
other treaties ISDS
provisions
Apply only to
investors/
investments in like
circumstances
Omit
MFN clause
137
FET
138
Figure IV.3.
FET
Add reference
to MST/CIL
Clarify through an
open-ended list of FET
obligations
Clarify through an
exhaustive list of FET
obligations
Source: UNCTAD.
Indirect expropriation
139
Figure IV.4.
Indirect
expropriation
Limit by establishing
criteria for indirect
expropriation
Source: UNCTAD.
Omit or explicitly
exclude indirect
expropriation
140
Safeguards
For the IIA elements below, the policy options are
structured around a number of aspects, each requiring
a choice between different options.
Figure IV.5.
141
Public policy
exceptions
Decide on public
policy objectives to
which exception
applies
Determine nexus
(strict or loose)
Prevent abuse of
exception
Provide guidance
for interpretation of
exceptions
Source: UNCTAD.
142
Figure IV.6.
National security
exception
Decide on situations to
which exception
applies
Decide on whether
exception is
self-judging or not
Source: UNCTAD.
Preamble
143
144
National treatment
Umbrella clause
145
146
Box IV.2.
(Per cent)
3 3
28
Waste collection,
treatment and disposal (3 per cent)
Transportation and storage (3 per cent)
19
16
Financial and
The FDI background to ISDS (economic context)
19
insurance services
of electricty
in global
FDI stock
$27 trillionSupply
16
and gas
100,000 multinational companies
890,000 foreign affiliates worldwide Mining, including oil and gas
Source: UNCTAD.
147
designed
to
(1)
improve
the
arbitral
process;
Table IV.5.
Source: UNCTAD.
Table IV.6.
Replacing existing
investor-State
arbitration
1. Creating a
standing
international
investment court
2. Replacing ISDS
by State-State
dispute settlement
3. Replacing ISDS by
domestic dispute
resolution
148
149
150
Appeals facility
Building in
resolution
effective
alternative
dispute
151
152
Table IV.7.
153
C
ould avoid broader legitimacy concerns that have been
raised in respect of ISDS.
C
ould help to filter out frivolous claims.
O
nly States can bring claims under international law as they
are the principal subjects of the system.
M
ay help to avoid controversial legal issues related to
challenges to public policies.
S
tates would not make certain types of legal arguments
that could be used against them in the future.
D
oes away with the privileges that ISDS bestows on foreign
investors.
C
ould politicize investment disputes-commercial dispute
would become a matter of State-State diplomatic
confrontation.
Investor interests could become a bargaining chip in
international relationships.
May be more cumbersome and lengthy for investors due to
bureaucracy in either or both disputing States.
May disadvantage SMEs vis--vis larger companies.
Raises challenges for States in terms of costs of
proceedings and legal remedies.
Has implications for States in terms of administrative and
institutional resources.
Source: UNCTAD.
154
Figure IV.7.
155
Promoting and
facilitating
investment
Outward-related investment
promotion and facilitation
provisions (home country measures)
Inward-related investment
promotion provisions
(host country measures)
Joint investment
promotion provisions
Regional investment
promotion provisions
Source: UNCTAD.
Outward-related
investment
promotion
and facilitation provisions (home-country
measures)
156
157
158
Figure IV.8.
Ensuring responsible
investment
Ensuring
responsible
investment
Not lowering of
standards clause
Investor
responsibilities
Compliance with
domestic laws
CSR clauses
Source: UNCTAD.
Investor responsibilities
CSR clauses
159
160
the
development
of
new
voluntary
Figure IV.9.
161
Existing IIAs and new bilateral relationships created, for eight regional agreements
concluded or under negotiation (Numbers)
Existing BITs
PACER Plus
103
RCEP
68
TPP
TTIP (EU-United States)
CETA (EU-Canada)
14
ASEAN-India Investment
Agreement (2014)
22
26
19
21
EU-Japan
ASEAN-China Investment
Agreement (2009)
28
28
10
2
1
the
Figure IV.10.
1,598
40
IIA
47
54
57
1,325
Before
2014
75
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
By end
2018
Source: WIR13.
162
163
164
Table IV.8.
Description
1. Harness IIAs
for sustainable
development
2. Focus on critical reform
areas
3. Act at all levels
4. Sequence properly for
concrete solutions
5. Ensure an inclusive
and transparent reform
process
6. Strengthen the
multilateral supportive
structure
Source: UNCTAD.
The ultimate objective of IIA reform is to ensure that the IIA regime is better geared towards
sustainable development objectives while protecting and promoting investment.
The key areas for reform are (i) safeguarding the right to regulate for public interest, (ii) reforming
investment dispute settlement, (iii) strengthening the investment promotion and facilitation function
of IIAs, (iv) ensuring investor responsibility, and (v) enhancing systemic coherence.
The reform process should follow a multilevel approach and take place at the national, bilateral,
regional, and multilateral levels, with appropriate and mutually supportive action at each level.
At each level, the reform process should follow a gradual, step-by-step approach, with
appropriately sequenced and timed actions based on identifying the facts and problems,
formulating a strategic plan, and working towards concrete outcomes that embody the reform
effort.
The reform process should be transparent and inclusive, allowing all stakeholders to voice their
opinion and to propose contributions.
The reform process should be supported by universal and inclusive structures that help coordinate
reform actions at different levels by offering backstopping, including through policy analysis,
technical cooperation, and a platform for exchange of experiences and consensus-building.
Table IV.9.
165
Level
National
Bilateral
Joint interpretation
Renegotiation/amendment
Consensual termination
Regional
Collective review
Treaty network and
content profiles (regional
IIA and BIT network)
Impact and risk
assessment
Reform needs
Consolidation/rationalization of BIT
networks
Common model
Joint interpretation
Renegotiation/amendment
Implementation/aid facility
Source: UNCTAD.
IIA review
166
167
168
Multilateral consensus-building
169
170
example of the Convention on Transparency in Treatybased InvestorState Arbitration developed under the
auspices of UNCITRAL; i.e. a multilateral consensus
on a clearly defined key IIA reform issue. In this
approach, States could sign on to a general statement
clarifying the concept of a particular IIA provision
and applying it to existing and/or future treaties. This
could take the form of a multilateral instrument that
would co-exist with the existing IIA network. It would
address those provisions (common to most BITs)
where need for sustainable-development-oriented
reform is deemed most important by the parties,
and in the manner agreed upon by the parties. This
could allow countries to reform their entire portfolios
of investment treaties at once; i.e. parties to the
amended multilateral instrument could agree that
the revised provision transparency in case of the
UNCITRAL Arbitration Rules shall apply not only in
respect of future IIAs, but also with regard to existing
investment treaties. Although it could prove difficult to
find consensus among all States on the formulation of
controversial substantive provisions (such as FET or
indirect expropriation), agreement that takes the form
of softer instruments could be envisioned as a first
step, thereby progressively moving towards finding
common ground.
Backstopping
171
CONCLUSION
The IIA universe is at a crossroads, and many countries
and regional groupings are in the process of reviewing,
reforming and revising their IIAs and their stances
on the issues involved. This chapter takes stock of
this ongoing debate, the arguments, the history and
lessons learned, and offers an action menu or toolbox
for IIA reform. It does not provide a single reform
package. Rather, countries are invited to pick and
choose which reform option to pursue, at which entry
level and with which treaty option, and at what level
and intensity of engagement. In other words, countries
are invited to formulate their own reform packages.
The chapter advances UNCTADs earlier work on this
matter, in particular its Investment Policy Framework
(WIR12), the reform paths for investment dispute
settlement (WIR13) and the reform paths for IIA reform
(WIR14). Taking into account contributions from other
stakeholders, it develops this work further to provide a
holistic, coherent and multilevel blueprint for addressing
Notes
1
One of the first cases was the Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. Case (United
Kingdom v. Iran) 1951 I.C.J. Rep. 89, 1952 I.C.J. Rep. 93.
172
REFERENCES
APEC and UNCTAD (2012). International Investment Agreements Negotiators Handbook: APEC/UNCTAD
MODULES (IIA Handbook). Singapore: APEC Secretariat.
Bernasconi, N. (2015). Rethinking Investment-Related Dispute Settlement, International Institute for Sustainable
Development Investment Treaty News, 6(2), May. www.iisd.org
Bundesministerium fr Wirtschaft und Energie (BMWi) (2015). Modell-Investitionsschutzvertrag
mit Investor-Staat Schiedsverfahren fr Industriestaaten unter Bercksichtigung der USA.
www.bmwi.de/BMWi/Redaktion/PDF/M-O/modell-investitionsschutzvertrag-mit-investor-staatschiedsverfahren-gutachten,property=pdf,bereich=bmwi2012,sprache=de,rwb=true.pdf.
European Commission (2015). Investment in TTIP and beyond - the path for reform,Concept Paper. http://
trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2015/may/tradoc_153408.PDF.
Hindelang, S. and M. Krajewski (2015). Shifting Paradigms in International Investment Law - More Balanced, Less
Isolated, Increasingly Diversified. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
International Monetary Fund (2012). The Liberalization and Management of Capital Flows - An Institutional View.
Washington, D.C., International Monetary Fund.
Poulsen, L.N.S., J. Bonnitcha and J.W. Yackee (2013). Analytical Framework for Assessing Costs and Benefits
of Investment Protection Treaties. Study prepared for the Department for Business Innovation and Skills. LSE
Enterprise.
Tietje, C. and F. Baetens (2014). The Impact of Investor-State-Dispute Settlement (ISDS) in the Transatlantic Trade
and Investment Partnership. Study prepared for the Minister for Foreign Trade and Development Cooperation,
Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The Netherlands: Leiden University.
UNCTAD (2004). International Investment Agreements: Key Issues. Vol. 1. New York and Geneva: United
Nations.
UNCTAD (2008). International Investment Rule-making: Stocktaking, Challenges and the Way Forward,
UNCTAD Series on International Investment Policies for Development. New York and Geneva: United Nations.
UNCTAD (2009). The Protection of National Security in IIAs, UNCTAD Series on International Investment Policies
for Development. New York and Geneva: United Nations.
UNCTAD (2010a). Denunciation of the ICSID Convention and BITs: Impact on Investor-State Claims, IIA Issues
Note, No. 2. New York and Geneva: United Nations.
UNCTAD (2010b). Most-Favoured-Nation Treatment: A Sequel, UNCTAD Series on Issues in International
Investment Agreements. New York and Geneva: United Nations.
UNCTAD (2010c). Scope and Definition: A Sequel, UNCTAD Series on Issues in International Investment
Agreements. New York and Geneva: United Nations.
UNCTAD (2010d). Investor-State Disputes: Prevention and Alternatives to Arbitration, Proceedings of the
Washington and Lee University and UNCTAD Joint Symposium, International Investment and Alternative Dispute
Resolution, Lexington, Virginia, 29 March. New York and Geneva: United Nations.
UNCTAD (2010e). Investor-State Disputes: Prevention and Alternatives to Arbitration, UNCTAD Series on
International Investment Policies for Development. New York and Geneva: United Nations.
UNCTAD (2011a). Expropriation: A Sequel, UNCTAD Series on Issues in International Investment Agreements.
New York and Geneva: United Nations.
UNCTAD (2011b). Sovereign Debt Restructuring and International Investment Agreements, IIA Issues Note, No.
2. New York and Geneva: United Nations.
UNCTAD (2011c). Interpretation of IIAs: What States Can Do, IIA Issues Note, No. 3. New York and Geneva:
United Nations.
173
UNCTAD (2012a). Investment Policy Framework for Sustainable Development, New York and Geneva: United
Nations. http://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/diaepcb2012d5_en.pdf.
UNCTAD (2012b). Fair and Equitable Treatment: A Sequel, UNCTAD Series on Issues in International Investment
Agreements. New York and Geneva: United Nations.
UNCTAD (2012c). Transparency in IIAS: A Sequel, UNCTAD Series on Issues in International Investment
Agreements. New York and Geneva: United Nations.
UNCTAD (2013a). Reform of Investor-State Dispute Settlement: In Search of a Roadmap Special issue for the
Multilateral Dialogue on Investment, IIA Issues Note, No. 2. New York and Geneva: United Nations.
UNCTAD (2013b). The Rise of Regionalism in International Investment Policymaking: Consolidation or
Complexity?, IIA Issues Note, No.3. New York and Geneva: United Nations.
UNCTAD (2013c). International Investment Policymaking in Transition: Challenges and Opportunities of Treaty
Renewal, IIA Issues Note, No. 4. New York and Geneva: United Nations.
UNCTAD (2014a). The Impact of International Investment Agreements on Foreign Direct Investment: An Overview
of Empirical Studies 1998-2014, IIA Issues Note - working draft. New York and Geneva: United Nations.
UNCTAD (2014b). Investor-State Dispute Settlement: A Sequel, UNCTAD Series on Issues in International
Investment Agreements. New York and Geneva: United Nations.
UNCTAD (2014c). Investor-State Dispute Settlement: An Information Note on the United States and the European
Union, IIA Issues Note, No. 2. New York and Geneva: United Nations.
UNCTAD (2015). Investor-State Dispute Settlement: Review of Developments in 2014, IIA Issues Note, No. 2.
New York and Geneva: United Nations.
Vandevelde, K.J. (2010). Bilateral Investment Treaties. History, Policy and Interpretation. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
WIR11. World Investment Report 2011: Non-equity Modes of International Production and Development. New
York and Geneva: United Nations.
WIR12. World Investment Report 2012: Towards a New Generation of Investment Policies. New York and Geneva:
United Nations.
WIR13. World Investment Report 2013: Global Value Chains: Investment and Trade for
Development. New York and Geneva: United Nations.
WIR14. World Investment Report 2014: Investing in the SDGs: An Action Plan. New York and Geneva: United
Nations.
International
Tax and Investment
Policy Coherence
C H A P T E R
176
Box V.1.
177
Tax as a determinant of FDI: what role does tax play in location decisions?
Conventional wisdom has it that tax does not play a fundamental role in investment location decisions. Multinationals make their
decisions to enter a particular market mostly on the basis of economic determinants e.g. the size and growth of a market,
access to resources or strategic assets, and the cost of factors of production. Moreover, a host of non-tax policy determinants
are generally considered more relevant for location decisions, such as the stability and predictability of the business climate, the
strength of commercial law and contract enforcement, trade restrictions, the intellectual property (IP) regime, and many others.
In this view, tax does not so much drive locational decisions as it drives the modality of the investment and the routing of
investment flows. Top managers of MNEs decide to enter a given market largely independent of tax considerations, and their
tax advisers then structure the investment in the most tax-efficient manner. The fact that a significant share of global investment
is routed to its final destination through special purpose entities (SPEs) and tax havens, discussed later in this chapter, lends
credence to this view.
The relevance of tax in investment decisions is generally considered low for resource- and strategic asset-seeking investments
and for market-seeking investments, and only one of many determinants driving location decisions for efficiency-seeking
investments. However, a number of nuances require consideration.
Resource-seeking investments can be highly capital intensive and have very long gestation periods. Calculations of
expected returns can be extremely sensitive to cost factors, of which tax is an important one. Investments tend to be
subject to long and arduous negotiations over precisely how rents are distributed between investors and states, and
through what fiscal mechanisms. The fact that negotiators on both sides make trade-offs between different levying
mechanisms (e.g. taxes versus royalties) should not be mistaken for a lack of attention to any one of them. Moreover,
stability and predictability in the fiscal treatment of these investments are crucial, given their long-term nature and long
payback periods.
Market-seeking investments per se may appear to be less sensitive to tax. But the modus operandi of investors can
be strongly influenced by tax. The extent to which MNEs source and produce locally or rely on imported value added,
key to the development impact of foreign investments on host economies, is clearly influenced by tax. The common
view that market-seeking investments are less sensitive to tax tends to confuse the market-entry decision with actual
investment in productive capacity.
Efficiency-seeking investments, through which MNEs look for low-cost locations for parts of their production process,
are highly sensitive to tax. Counter-intuitively, for many of these investments low tax rates do not actually feature high on
the list of locational determinants that MNEs consider, because the expected rate is exceedingly low. Due to the nature
of these investments, they tend to be located in special economic zones or fall under special regimes. The differentials
across locations in labour costs and productivity, availability and cost of land and other factors of production, and
trading costs, tend to be far more important than tax rate differentials at such low levels. However, it is the tax base
that is really of interest to investors in efficiency-seeking operations, as these are often steps in the global value chains
of MNEs, and transfer pricing plays a prominent role. In addition, low taxes on international transactions are obviously
a key determinant. Without special regimes, economies are often at a disadvantage for efficiency-seeking investments,
confirming the fact that tax can be a key locational determinant.
Thus the importance of tax as a locational determinant risks being generally underestimated. The growth of global value chains,
which has increased the relative weight of efficiency-seeking investments in the mix, has served only to make tax an even more
important factor in countries attractiveness and this trend is likely to continue.
It is not only the level of taxation that matters in investment decisions. It is also the ease with which tax obligations can be fulfilled
that is important. Indicators of the ease of doing business covering a range of administrative procedures relevant to business
operations, including paying taxes generally feature prominently in location comparisons presented to investors. UNCTADs
Business Facilitation programme, which helps developing countries simplify administrative procedures for investors, prioritizes
procedures for paying taxes immediately after procedures for business registration and licensing.
Most important is the stability and predictability of the fiscal environment in host countries. A perceived risk of significant
changes in the fiscal regime or in the fiscal treatment of individual investments will tend to be a showstopper. Fiscal authorities
that demonstrate the capacity to establish collaborative relationships with investors and provide confidence as to the continuing
fiscal treatment of investment operations can help remove a major obstacle to investment.
In summary, tax plays an important role in location decisions, principally in three ways: the fiscal burden, the administrative
burden, and long-term stability and predictability.
Source: UNCTAD.
178
179
180
Figure V.1.
By income level
By region
Global
36%
OECD
37%
Developed economies
38%
Developing economies
27%
Africa
High-income,
non-OECD countries
41%
Upper-middleincome countries
Lower-middleincome countries
Low-income
countries
29%
Asia
30%
25%
31%
46%
Transition economies
21%
18%
Memorandum item:
LDCs
Source: UNCTAD analysis, based on the ICTD Government Revenue Dataset (release September 2014, reference year 2009).
Note:
Full details on data sources and methods provided in annex I.
21%
Figure V.2.
Average
FDI penetration
+
Upper-middleincome
Lower-middleincome
Low-income
181
39%
24%
21%
35%
28%
21%
42%
42%
24%
35%
28%
21%
21%
21%
21%
developing
than
for
developed
developed economies.
The main patterns, (i), (ii), and (iii), resulting from the
countries
strengthened)
when
adopting
an
income-driven
182
Figure V.3.
Global
56
21
23
37
34
12
14
0
Developed economies
Developing economies
56
19
25
60
30
10
35
39
11
6 12
49
12
21
15
Africa
45
53
Asia
62
61
Transition economies
54
Memorandum item:
LDCs
51
31
23
16
21
32
14
49
16*
10*
41
14
27
31
16
4 7
63
20
46
14
20
10
33
20
30
Social contributions
21
12
International
trade
Others
183
Figure V.4.
High-income-countries
ii
20%
Upper-middle-income
countries
Lower-middle-income
countries
65%
65%
32%
61%
69%
25%
Low-income
countries
50%
23%
iii
62%
70%
21%
26%
53%
Global average
Figure V.5.
13
11
11
Developing economies
Transition economies
10
37%
13%
13%
34%
5
27
Taxes
13
13
20
22
7
Social contributions
47%
23
13%
57%
26%
Other revenues
Source: UNCTAD analysis, based on the ICTD Government Revenue Dataset; IMF Government Financial Statistics database as complementary source.
Note:
Full details on data sources and methods provided in annex I.
184
185
Figure V.6.
CONTRIBUTION METHOD
100%
Other taxes
Labor and social
contributions
10%
10%
53%
Corporate
income tax
47%
50%
(100%)
30%
36%
(77%)
10%
(23%)
4%
Total
government
revenues
6,900
Non-corporate
contribution
Corporate
contribution
3,200
Contribution
by domestic
firms
International
trade taxes
Contribution
by foreign
affiliates
725
Foreign
affiliates,
other
revenues
295
6%
Foreign
affiliates, taxes and
social contributions
430
Sources: UNCTAD estimates, based on the ICTD Government Revenue Dataset; IMF Government Financial Statistics database; United Nations System of National Accounts;
Eurostat; U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis; International Labour Organization; literature review.
Note:
Estimates represent range midpoints. Details on data and methods contained in annex I.
186
Box V.2.
The analysis of the contribution of MNE foreign affiliates to government revenues presented in this section aims to arrive at
meaningful order of magnitude estimates. Both the economic contribution and the FDI-income methods developed for this
analysis rely on assumptions and approximations to overcome the paucity of relevant data available. The following are some of
the most important limitations and assumptions. Full details can be found in annex I.
A meaningful estimate of the actual contribution of foreign affiliates must be calculated net of any profit shifting. The contribution
method, however, cannot exclude one form of profit shifting, thin capitalization, because it relies on the national accounts
concept of operating surplus to derive profit ratios. A simulation of the impact of this limitation, using extreme assumptions,
would bring down the overall contribution from $730 billion to about $650 billion the lower bound of the estimation range. The
separate FDI-income method does not present this problem.
The contribution method has another limitation. It does not separate corporate and non-corporate business income in the
baseline for the calculation of foreign affiliates contribution to corporate income. Removing non-corporate business income,
which would be unlikely to contain any foreign affiliate contribution, would have the effect of increasing the foreign affiliate share
in the remaining corporate income part, thereby increasing the share paid by foreign affiliates in total corporate income taxes.
Simulation of this effect yields the upper-bound estimate for the total foreign affiliate contribution of about $800 billion. Again,
the FDI-income method does not present this problem.
Assumptions regarding the average effective tax rate (ETR) paid by foreign affiliates play an important role, in particular in the
FDI-income method. In that method, the ETRs for the developing regions, ranging between 20 and 25 per cent, are based
on external studies and confirmed by UNCTADs own firm-level analysis, which also finds that ETRs for foreign affiliates and
domestic firms are substantially aligned. Other studies have also found no evidence of a substantial difference in ETR between
domestic companies and MNEs. The contribution method does not use a specific ETR but, consistent with the empirical
findings, it uses the assumption that rates are the same for foreign affiliates and domestic firms.
As uniform ETRs for foreign affiliates and domestic firms may appear counter-intuitive, two important points should be made:
The fact that domestic firms and foreign affiliates are found to have similar ETRs does not preclude that MNEs, at the
consolidated level, may have significantly lower ETRs due to base erosion and profit shifting. (ETRs are calculated on the
tax base that remains in foreign affiliates after profit shifting.)
Many developing countries provide fiscal incentives to MNEs, which (in sofar as they lower the tax rate rather than the base)
would normally imply lower ETRs for foreign affiliates than for domestic firms. While incentives may have a significant impact
at the individual country level, at the aggregate level the empirical evidence does not clearly show this. Better and more
disaggregated data and further research will be needed to quantify the effect of fiscal incentives.
Finally, a number of assumptions have been made regarding the corporate shares of government revenues across individual
revenue categories. These ultimately feed into both the contribution and the FDI-income methods. For each revenue category,
the estimation approach determines whether the contribution is made by corporates, made partly by corporates, or not made
by corporates. Varying allocations are of course possible and may lead to a wider range of estimates. However, the allocation
criteria used here reflect the formal definition and the default application of each revenue category. Different criteria would require
the introduction of additional assumptions.
To date, the methods and estimates presented here represent the most comprehensive and systematic picture of the total fiscal
contribution of MNE foreign affiliates. Future research efforts may build on the approach developed in this section, experiment
with different assumptions, explore methods to reduce approximation errors and, most useful of all, seek ways to disaggregate
data at the country level.
Source: UNCTAD. Full details are provided in annex I.
187
Figure V.7.
FDI-INCOME METHOD
Foreign affiliate (FA) contribution
as a share of government revenues
Developing
economies
Africa
Asia
11%
FA contribution as a share
of corporate contribution
14%
11%
9%
Estimated FA
contribution (billions of dollars)
23%
730
26%
85
24%
490
21%
155
Other revenues
Sources: UNCTAD estimates, based on the ICTD Government Revenue Dataset; IMF Government Financial Statistics database; IMF Balance of Payments Statistics.
Details on data and methods contained in annex I.
Note:
Figure V.8.
Developing
economies
35%
Africa
33%
Asia
33%
41%
53%
Sources: UNCTAD estimates, based on the ICTD Government Revenue Dataset; IMF Government Financial Statistics database; IMF Balance of Payments Statistics.
Note:
Details on data and methods contained in annex I.
188
189
Figure V.9.
SPEs
Tax
havens
Non-OFCs*
Non-OFCs*
51%
15%
8%
SPEs
Recipients (reporting)
Investors (counterparts)
13%
3%
1%
Tax
havens
The Offshore
Investment Matrix, 2012
8%
1%
0%
Source: IMF Coordinated Direct Investment Survey 2012 and 2011; national
statistics; UNCTAD estimates.
Note:
Full details on the methodology provided in annex II.
190
Figure V.10.
Recipients (reporting)
Non-OFCs
SPEs
Tax
havens
70%
30%
Tax
havens
SPEs
Investors (counterparts)
Non-OFCs
Source: IMF Coordinated Direct Investment Survey 2012 and 2011; national
statistics; UNCTAD estimates.
Note:
Full details on the methodology provided in annex II.
Figure V.11.
191
a. Equity
b. Debt instruments
Recipients (reporting)
12%
3%
1%
8%
1%
0%
Tax
havens
Non-OFCs
8%
SPEs
38%
24%
5%
SPEs
13%
Investors (counterparts)
Non-OFCs
54%
Non-OFCs
21%
4%
2%
Tax
havens
SPEs
SPEs
Investors (counterparts)
Non-OFCs
Tax
havens
Tax
havens
Recipients (reporting)
5%
2%
0%
Source: IMF Coordinated Direct Investment Survey 2012 and 2011; national statistics; UNCTAD estimates.
Note:
The methodology follows directly from the general case illustrated in figure V.9 and explained in annex II.
Figure V.12.
Tax havens
SPEs
27%
19%
17
14
10
Average 20012005
Average 20082012
192
Table V.1.
Enabling factor
Specific levers
Hybrid mismatches
Derivative transactions
Disguised domestic investments
Deferred repatriation
Treaty shopping
Triangular structures
Circumvention of treaty thresholds
Source: UNCTAD.
Figure V.13.
193
Selected firm-level evidence on the special role played by tax havens and
SPEs in MNE investment structures, 2012
Inward
Investors
Activities of affiliates
in the United States
of foreign parents
SPE countries
154
Tax havens
456
66
0
2.074
2.452
Other countries
As immediate parent
As ultimate owner
Outward
FA location
SPE countries
45%
Tax havens
Activities of foreign
affiliates (FAs) of
United States MNEs
Other countries
average
42%
6%
mostly performing
(and deriving income from)
financial and holding
activities on behalf of a group
(with often limited substantial
business operations)
2%
3%
Other countries
average
17%
194
Figure V.14.
Capital flows
Parent
Income flows
Intellectual property
transferred
Dividends
(deferred)
5
BERMUDA
Irish holdco
Bermudan tax
resident
IRELAND
Royalties
3
Check-the-box:
disregarded entitiy
Irish opco
Royalties
Dutch conduit
Fees
Cost-plus
agreement
2
Others
clients
Group service
providers
NETHERLANDS
195
196
Example: Debt-financing
structure using intermediate
holding company and hybrid
instrument
Figure V.15.
Capital flows
Income flows
Parent
ULTIMATE
INVESTOR
(Country M)
Equity
injection
Dividends
similar rules.
(3) Subsidiary
Intermediary/
low-tax
jurisdiction
Debt injection
(hybrid)
CONDUIT
(Country L)
Company
pays
interest
to
Interest payment
(hybrid)
Subsidiary/
high-tax
jurisdiction
RECIPIENT
(Country H)
Table V.2.
197
Objective
Notable examples
Service sector
Business implications
Source: UNCTAD.
Box V.3.
Detailed balance sheet data and profit and loss account data on the affiliates of MNEs may enable further investigation of profit
shifting and tax planning strategies. Financial information relevant for the analysis of MNE tax avoidance includes long-term
loans, equity balances, revenues, gross profit, operating profit, financing costs, net profit and taxation. Asset values (especially
fixed assets) and employee numbers are also important indicators.
Financial data inform a number of metrics that can be used as tax avoidance signals:
Loan and equity balances can be used to compare debt-equity ratios within peer groups in order to provide an indication
of potentially excessive debt funding. The ratio of debt to (non-current) assets can also be used for this purpose. For debtasset ratios, industry-specific analyses are needed to allow for differences between asset-intensive businesses and others.
Financing costs as a percentage of interest-bearing debt can be used as a test on artificial inflation of the interest rate
(related to transfer pricing abuses).
Gross margins and operating margins (i.e. gross profit and operating profit as a percentage of revenues) could be used to
identify potential base erosion, with carefully selected peer group samples to reduce industry variations or factors.
Tax-specific ratios include tax as a percentage of revenues, gross profit or operating profit, which may provide insight
into excessive deductions that are taking place in a company. Effective tax rates between domestic- and foreign-owned
companies can also be compared, e.g. tax (current and deferred tax) over net profit (before tax).
Different approaches are feasible. For a target country, the expectation that foreign-owned companies are more prone than
national ones to tax planning techniques can be tested. For a target group of MNEs (e.g. the top 100 global MNEs), the
comparison could take place across subsidiaries of the same multinational corporate group with the purpose of identifying
differences in profit levels, taxation and debt across countries in accordance with tax arbitrage strategies. In all cases, in addition
to firm-level financials, complete visibility of the MNE ownership structure is necessary, which can be provided (with limitations
on coverage and depth) by databases such as Orbis, maintained by Bureau van Dijk. UNCTAD aims to explore these options
further in future work in this area.
Source: UNCTAD; Fuest and Riedel (2010).
198
Figure V.16.
Investment recipient
by region
30%
19
11
Global
3
29%
26
Developed economies
3
32
Europe
35%
North America
16
18%
Developing economies
21
24%
6 31%
25
Developing Asia
Latin America and
the Caribbean
12
12
Africa
19
30%
27%
19
41
Transition economies
Corporate investment
from tax havens
60%
Corporate investment
from SPEs
Figure V.17.
199
Developed economies
Developing economies
26%
20%
21%
20%
5%
24%
26%
7%
10%
17%
16%
23%
19%
19%
1%
Average
20002004
3%
Average
20052009
16%
1%
Average
20102012
Average
20002004
Average
20052009
Average
20102012
200
Figure V.18.
201
Rate of return
ILLUSTRATIVE
0.15
Higher exposure to
offshore investment hubs
0.1
1%
10%
0.05
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
Offshore indicator
Source: UNCTAD analysis based on data from the IMF Balance of Payments database and IMF Coordinated Direct Investment Survey.
Note:
Scatterplot representing the relationship between offshore hub exposure (Offshore Indicator) and rate of return on investment stock (Rate of Return) for developing
countries. Conservative case with beta coefficient at -10 per cent. The fitted line is merely illustrative and does not reflect the econometric modelling behind
the estimation of the beta coefficient (the econometrics rely on a larger sample of data points, including four years, and accounts for regional fixed effects and
time fixed effects; see annex II for details).
through
equity
or
debt.
Financing
202
offshore hubs, they do not necessarily appear in hostcountry FDI inflows; it is enough that the corporate
network includes an affiliate based in an offshore
location, even if the investment to the particular host
country is not channelled through it. (Figure V.19
illustrates two approaches to estimating profit shifting
and revenue losses).
Figure V.19.
Income flow
Investment flow
FA in country B
(offshore)
Parent A
Maximization of
deductibles for FA in
country C to shift profits
from C to B
Source: UNCTAD.
FA in country C
(e.g. developing
economy)
ILLUSTRATIVE, SIMPLIFIED
Focus
Parent A
FA in country C
(e.g. developing
economy)
FA in country B
(offshore)
203
204
205
Responsibility for the widespread use (and abuse) of hubbased corporate structures and tax avoidance schemes
by MNEs should be widely shared. Home countries of
investors often do not have effective legislation in place
to prevent the use of hub-based structures or even
unintentionally encourage the use of such structures by
their MNEs. The tick-the-box practice applied in United
States CFC (controlled foreign company) legislation
is often pointed out as facilitating the use of umbrella
entities based in favourable locations. Host countries
are often complicit as well, as their focus is on attracting
investment, if necessary at the cost of engaging in harmful
tax competition.33 A degree of tolerance for tax avoidance
schemes by MNEs may have been considered by some
countries as a way to reduce the visible component of
such tax competition.
206
Figure V.20.
207
Promote
sustainable
development by
Policy principles
tackling tax
avoidance
Guidelines
Ban tolerance or
facilitation of tax
avoidance as a means to
attract investment
1
Mechanisms
while
facilitating
productive
investment
Mitigate the impact
on investment of
anti-avoidance
measures
Multilateral coordination
7 Clarify shared
responsibility for global
tax avoidance impact
10 Create enablers/tools to
Source: UNCTAD.
208
Box V.4.
The importance of tax in location decisions (see box V.1) implies that fiscal incentives are an important tool to attract investment.
In fact, those developing countries that have been most successful in industrial development over the past decades have made
use of various forms of incentives schemes to attract the foreign investment they needed to kick-start economic activities and
to bring in the necessary technology and know-how. The success of export-processing and special economic zones in those
countries forms of incentives scheme is proof of their effectiveness.
Despite the evidence, policy advisors in international organizations have long warned against the dangers and downsides
associated with incentives. Ongoing work by the IMF, OECD and WTO on incentives for the G20 adds to the negative policy
advice on incentives. The World Banks research and advisory work has long focused on the cost of incentives and on the
redundancy of many schemes for attracting investment with good reasons: many schemes have indeed been found to be
inefficient and ineffective.
However, almost all the arguments against the use of incentives are based on the way incentives are granted or administered,
not on incentives per se. Thus, investment authorities worldwide have continued to include incentives in their investment
promotion toolbox, fully aware of the important role tax plays in investment decisions, and unwilling to renounce one of the few
available tools that can help overcome specific locational disadvantages, or that can help steer investment to priority areas for
growth and development.
UNCTADs advice on incentives, in its Investment Policy Framework and in its technical assistance work (Investment Policy
Reviews) is (i) to ensure that incentives schemes are based on an overall sustainable development strategy and investment
priorities, and (ii) to administer incentives in such a way as to minimize and mitigate the risks of inefficiency and ineffectiveness,
as well as the risk of administrative improprieties.
Key to maximizing the strategic value of incentives is focusing schemes on priority activities for development and on
underdeveloped regions, and associating them with sustainable development impacts. These may include economic impacts,
such as employment generation, training and capacity building, and technology and know-how transfer; social impacts, such
as better availability and accessibility of services, the advancement of disadvantaged groups in society, or food security; and
environmental impacts, such as the reduction of emissions or the generation of renewable energy.
It is important to tailor schemes to the needs of specific economic activities and associated risk-return profiles. For example,
R&D-intensive activities display different profiles of capital investment and payback over time than labour-intensive activities;
fiscal incentives schemes must be tailored accordingly. The same holds when schemes are reoriented towards sectors that are
central to sustainable development, such as agriculture, education, health and infrastructure.
Key to ensuring the efficiency and effectiveness of incentives schemes is establishing clearly defined and transparent criteria
and conditions, granting incentives as much as possible automatically on the basis of those criteria and conditions, and
administering the process through competent authorities, preferably independent from investment promotion authorities, with
the ultimate say for the ministry of finance.
Such a move away from location-based incentives schemes aimed purely at increasing the competitiveness of a location to
schemes aimed at advancing sustainable development, and adherence to common-sense good practices for the administration
of incentives schemes go a long way towards ensuring consistency with WTO rules on subsidies. The WTO rules on subsidies
and countervailing measures, and the gradual expiry of exceptions, have somewhat blunted the incentive tool for developing
countries, making it less suitable as an instrument of industrial development (at least for export-oriented industrial development).
But as an instrument for the promotion of sustainable development, and for the attraction of investment in the Sustainable
Development Goals, their relevance will increase (see WIR14).
Source: UNCTAD.
209
210
Box V.5.
211
International investment agreements (IIAs) for the protection and promotion of investment, and treaties governing the fiscal
treatment of investment operations between home and host countries (DTTs) are both part of the international policy environment
for investors. Together they address the risk-return profile of cross-border investments, with IIAs providing an insurance policy
to mitigate investor risk, and DTTs protecting investor returns from fiscal erosion. They are two sides of the same coin.
The systems of IIAs and DTTs naturally developed together. As FDI became an increasingly important phenomenon in the
globalizing economy, investment partner countries concluded mostly bilateral investment protection treaties (BITs) and DTTs in
parallel. Both types of treaties were often negotiated between the same partner countries, simultaneously or in short succession.
Where countries have both a BIT and a DTT, in around a quarter of cases the treaties entered into force in the same year; about
one third within a two-year period. As a result, in countries with significant outward investment stocks and large treaty networks,
and especially in investment hubs, BIT and DTT network coverage often matches.
Conversely, the piecemeal growth of both systems BIT by BIT, DTT by DTT has also resulted in gaps in coverage and
inconsistencies in treaty substance. This is compounded by the fact that the competency for negotiating BITs and DTTs generally
lies with different ministries; for BITs it tends to be national investment agencies (such as Boards of Investment) or Ministries of
Trade and Industry or Foreign Affairs who lead the process, whereas with DTTs Ministries of Finance take the lead, with some
expertise supplied by tax administrations.
As to coverage, DTTs at first glance appear to be more efficient. Although the number of DTTs and BITs is roughly similar (around
3,000 DTTs are currently in force and around 2,300 BITs), DTTs cover 90 per cent of global FDI stock while BITs cover less than
15 per cent. In part this is due to the fact that the fiscal treatment of cross-border investment is equally relevant in developed
countries, while the original purpose of BITs was to provide investment protection mostly in developing countries. Looking
only at developing-country FDI stock, BIT coverage increases to 30 per cent, with higher shares among the LDCs. The higher
apparent coverage of DTTs also reflects the fact that investment protection and promotion issues are dealt with in a host of
other agreements.
As to substance, inconsistencies include differences in covered investments, with the concept of permanent establishment
in DTTs substantially differing from the definition of investment in BITs; differences in dispute settlement mechanisms, with
the mutual agreement procedure in DTTs considered weaker from an investor perspective than the investor-State dispute
settlement system in IIAs; and varying approaches to managing the interaction between IIAs and DTTs, with only 10 per cent
of BITs excluding tax issues from their scope (although 80 per cent exclude tax issues from most-favoured-nation treatment).
/
212
Box V.5.
Both the IIA and the DTT regimes are an important part of the investment promotion and facilitation toolkit of the global economy
as a whole and of individual countries. Global investment hubs tend to have relatively large treaty networks of both types, with
the treaty coverage of their outward investment increasing to near 100 per cent in individual cases. Host economies in some
developing regions and in transition economies rarelyreceive investment that is not covered by DTTs or BITs, and often both.
The treaty networks evolved in parallel and for the same overarching purpose of promoting cross-border investment in productive
assets (box table V.5.1). Along the way, they have come to face similar challenges. Unintended consequences and side effects
have increasingly surfaced. IIAs have led to some policymakers feeling more constrained in regulating for the public good, and
they have resulted in often costly claims against host states on grounds that were not anticipated in the early development
phase of IIAs. DTTs designed to avoid or to mitigate the effect of double taxation have resulted in many instances of double nontaxation, and many developing countries with weak tax collection capabilities have seen limits imposed on the use of a relatively
effective tax collection mechanism (withholding taxes). In both situations, to obtain treaty benefits, investors have resorted to
treaty shopping and the indirect routing of investments through conduits. About one third of global FDI stock has been routed
through investment hubs before arriving at its destination.
IIA-specific themes
Ensure fair and equitable treatment of
foreign investors
Provide for adequate compensation
for expropriations
Cover the operation, expansion,
management and - potentially establishment an investment
Ensure funds can be transferred out of
the host country without delay
Shared themes
Promote economic growth and
development in contracting states by
facilitating cross-border investment
Prevent discriminatory treatment
of foreign investors/taxpayers and
provide a level playing field
Provide more certainty to taxpayers/
investors
Provide a dispute resolution
mechanism
DTT-specific themes
Allocate taxing rights between the
contracting states
Establish methods for relief
from double taxation and double
non-taxation
Exchange tax information and in some
cases provide assistance in
tax collection
Establish treatment of certain
categories of taxpayer or income
Over time, efforts to address some of these challenges in model treaties and in negotiations have led to some common
(or directionally similar) trends in IIAs and DTTs. In IIAs, more attention is slowly being paid to sustainable development
issues. Analogously, in DTTs, clauses favouring developing countries are becoming more common; for example, countries are
increasingly retaining taxing rights on services. IIA negotiators are looking for a better balance between rights and obligations.
DTT negotiators are starting to balance lower withholding tax rates with more expansive definitions of permanent establishments,
widening the tax base.
In both the IIA and DTT regimes, progress in dealing with challenges is held back by the large inventory of existing treaties.
A significant share of global FDI stock, and especially FDI stock in developing countries, is covered by treaties that were signed
more than a decade (often decades) ago. These treaties do not yet reflect the gradual changes in treaty norms that have taken
place, often in favour of developing countries. Only systemic reform efforts can overcome this problem.
A useful starting point will be to bridge an existing knowledge gap: to date, the interaction between DTTs and IIAs remains largely
unexamined. Experts in international taxation and international investment agreements rarely have an occasion to exchange
views and learn from each other. UNCTAD will aim to provide such an occasion in its regular expert meetings.
Source: UNCTAD.
213
EPILOGUE
REFORMING INTERNATIONAL INVESTMENT GOVERNANCE
Investment in productive assets, infrastructure and
knowledge is a necessary prerequisite and the
foundation for economic growth and sustainable
development in all countries. Foreign direct investment
plays an important role in financing for development
and in supporting progress towards the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs). The World Investment
Report 2014 presented an action plan to bridge the
SDG investment gap. It argued for a concerted push
by policymakers to mobilize investment, channel it
to where it is most needed and ensure its positive
impacts. Part of this concerted push must be the
strengthening of the regulatory policy environment
for investment, by reforming international investment
governance the topic of this years Report.
The international policy environment for investment is
not exclusively made up of international investment
agreements (IIAs). A host of related policy areas are
also important, including trade, taxation, competition,
and social and environment issues, as identified
in UNCTADs comprehensive Investment Policy
Framework for Sustainable Development. International
governance varies across these policy areas. Some
have a global governance framework, some are
fragmented; some are overseen by global institutions
and have hard enforcement mechanisms, some are
governed by soft-law standards or private initiatives.
This WIR focuses on two core areas of international
investment governance that are at the center of
todays debate: IIAs and international taxation. Both
are the object of significant reform efforts.
In IIAs, a shared view is emerging that reform is needed
and that it should be guided by the goal of harnessing
IIAs for sustainable development, focusing on key
reform areas and following a multilevel, systematic and
inclusive approach. Chapter IV of this report offers an
action menu for such reform.
In taxation, attention is focusing on coordinated action
against base erosion and profit shifting (BEPS), notably
in the OECD/G20 BEPS project. Chapter V of this
report places the tax avoidance debate in the context
of the contribution of MNEs to government revenues,
estimates revenue losses associated with BEPS, and
214
Notes
1
Note that for the Netherlands and Luxembourg such amplified FDI
patterns do not affect official FDI statistics. For these countries,
UNCTAD removes flows to/from SPEs from reported inflows/
outflows. This treatment of the data allows segregating the transit
component.
8
9
10
estimated $700 billion, only the inflows to tax havens are included
in the reported FDI statistics (but excluded from analyses in the
WIR). Other studies that look at the phenomenon of offshore FDI
include Christian Aid (2013) and ActionAid (2013).
The baseline for the calculation of the absolute values (given
the shares provided by the Offshore Investment Matrix) is
$29 trillion, resulting from the sum of the total inward stock
reported by UNCTADs WIR13 ($23 trillion) and the (unreported)
SPE component ($6 trillion).
11
12
There may be reasons other than base erosion for injecting debt
funding as opposed to equity funding. In some cases, ease of
repatriation can be an additional motivation. There are generally
no or minimal restrictions on the repatriation of the principal
amount of debt injected, whereas in some jurisdictions difficulties
may arise with respect to repatriation of equity capital.
13
14
15
16
17
18
Action 1 of the OECD Action Plan for the G20 (OECD, 2013b)
is dedicated to Addressing the tax challenge of the digital
economy.
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
215
28
29
30
31
32
33
See also UNCTAD TDR14 (pp. 194195) for further recommendations specifically regarding EITI.
34
35
216
REFERENCES
ActionAid (2013). How tax havens plunder the poor. www.gfintegrity.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/ActionAidTax-Havens-May-2013.pdf.
Ali Abbas, S.M., A. Klemm, S. Bedi and J. Park (2012). A partial race to the bottom: Corporate tax developments
in emerging and developing economies, IMF Working Papers, 12(28), Washington, D.C.: International Monetary
Fund.
Altomonte C., T. Aquilante, G. Bks and G.I.P. Ottaviano (2013). Internationalization and innovation of firms:
evidence and policy, Economic Policy, 28 (76): 663700.
Atisophon V, J. Bueren, G. De Paepe, C. Garroway and J.P. Stijns (2011). Revisiting MDG cost estimates from
a domestic resource mobilisation perspective, OECD Development Center Working Papers 306. Paris: OECD
Publishing.
Baker, P. (2013). Improper use of tax treaties, tax avoidance and tax evasion, Papers on Selected Topics in
Administration of Tax Treaties for Developing CountriesI, No. 9-A, May. New York: UN/ITC. www.un.org/esa/ffd/
wp-content/uploads/2013/05/20130530_Paper9A_Baker.pdf.
Baker, R.W. (2005). Capitalisms Achilles Heel: Dirty Money and How to Renew the Free-Market System. Hoboken,
NJ: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Bank of Zambia (2014). Foreign Private Investment and Investor Perceptions in Zambia. Lusaka: Bank of Zambia.
Barefoot, K.B. (2012). U.S. multinational companies: Operations of U.S. parents and their foreign affiliates in 2010,
Survey of Current Business (2012): 5174.
Beer, S. and J. Loeprick (2014). Profit shifting: drivers of transfer (mis)pricing and the potential of countermeasures,
International Tax and Public Finance, 22: 126.
Chen, D. and J. Mintz (2013). 2013 Annual global tax competitiveness ranking: corporate tax policy at a crossroads,
SPP Research Papers, 6 (35). Calgary: University of Calgary School of Public Policy.
Christian Aid (2008). Death and taxes: The true toll of tax dodging, May. www.christianaid.org.uk/images/
deathandtaxes.pdf.
Christian Aid (2009). False profits: Robbing the poor to keep the rich tax-free, March. https://www.christianaid.
org.uk/Images/false-profits.pdf.
Christian Aid (2013). Invested interests: The UKs overseas territories hidden role in developing countries. www.
christianaid.org.uk/Images/Invested-Interests-Christian-Aid-tax-report.pdf.
Choudhury, H. and J. Owens (2014). Bilateral investment treaties and bilateral tax treaties, International Tax and
Investment Center Issues Paper, June.
Clausing, K.A. (2009). Multinational firm tax avoidance and tax policy, National Tax Journal, 65: 703725.
Cobham, A. (2005). Tax evasion, tax avoidance and development finance, Srie documents de travail 129. Oxford:
Queen Elizabeth House..
Cobham, A. and S. Loretz (2014). International distribution of the corporate tax base: Impact of different
apportionment factors under unitary taxation, ICTD Working Paper, 27, April. Brighton, U.K.: International Centre
for Tax and Development.
Concord Aidwatch (2013). Global financial flows, aid and development, AidWatch Briefing Paper, March. Brussels:
Concord. http://eurodad.org/files/integration/2013/03/2013_AW-Briefing-paper_Global-financial-flows-aid-anddevelopment1.pdf.
Deloitte (2013). Global survey of R&D tax incentives, March. http://investinamericasfuture.org/PDFs/Global_RD_
Survey_March_2013.pdf.
Dharmapala, D. and J.R. Hines (2006). Which countries become tax havens?, NBER Working Paper No. 12802,
December. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. www.nber.org/papers/w12802.pdf.
Dharmapala, D. and N. Riedel (2013). Earnings shocks and tax-motivated income-shifting: Evidence from European
multinationals, Journal of Public Economics, 97: 95107.
Dischinger, M. and N. Riedel (2011). Corporate taxes and the location of intangible assets within multinational
firms, Journal of Public Economics, 95(7-8): 691707.
217
Eden, L. (2014). The arms length standard: making it work in a 21st century world of multinationals and nation
states, in Pogge, T. and K. Mehta (eds.), Global Tax Fairness. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Evers, L. and C. Spengel (2014). Effective tax rates under IP tax planning, ZEW Discussion Paper, No. 14-111.
Mannheim, Germany: Centre for European Economic Research.
Fuest, C. and N. Riedel (2009). Tax evasion, tax avoidance and tax expenditures in developing countries: A review
of the existing literature. Report prepared for the U.K. Department for International Development (DFID). Oxford:
Oxford University Centre for Business Taxation.
Fuest, C. and N. Riedel (2010). Tax evasion and tax avoidance in developing countries: The role of international
profit shifting. Centre for Business Taxation Working Papers, 10(12). Oxford: Oxford University Centre for Business
Taxation. http://eureka.sbs.ox.ac.uk/3257/1/WP1012.pdf.
Fuest, C., G. Maffini and N. Riedel (2012). What determines corporate tax payments in developing countries?
Evidence from firm panel data. Paper presented at the XXIV conference, Societ italiana di economia pubblica,
Pavia, 2425 September. www.siepweb.it/siep/oldDoc/2012/201227.pdf.
Fuest, C, S. Hebous and N. Riedel (2013a). International debt shifting and multinational firms in developing
economies, Economics Letters, 113(2): 135138.
Fuest, C., C. Spengel, K. Finke, J. Heckemeyer and H. Nusser (2013b). Profit shifting and aggressive tax planning
by multinational firms: Issues and options for reform. Center for European Economic Research Discussion Paper,
No. 13-04. Mannheim, Germany: Centre for European Economic Research.
Gravelle, J.G. (2013). Tax havens: International tax avoidance and evasion. Washington, D.C.: Congressional
Research Service. www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R40623.pdf.
Guerriero, M. (2012). The labour share of income around the world. Evidence from a panel dataset. Paper prepared
for the 4th Economic Development International Conference of GREThA/GRES, Inequalities and Development:
New Challenges, New Measurements?, University of Bordeaux, France, 1315 June. http://piketty.pse.ens.fr/files/
Guerriero2012.pdf.
Haberly, D. and D. Wojcik (2014). Tax havens and the production of offshore FDI: An empirical analysis, Journal of
Economic Geography, 15(1): 75101. http://joeg.oxfordjournals.org/content/15/1/.
Henry, James S. (2012). The price of offshore revisited. Chesham, Buckinghamshire, United Kingdom: Tax Justice
Network. www.taxjustice.net/cms/upload/pdf/Price_of_Offshore_Revisited_120722.pdf.
Hines, J.R. and E.M. Rice (1994). Fiscal paradise: Foreign tax havens and American business. The Quarterly
Journal of Economics, 109(1): 149182.
Hollingshead, A. (2010). The implied tax revenues loss from trade mispricing, February. Washington, DC: Global
Financial Integrity. www.gfintegrity.org/storage/gfip/documents/reports/implied%20tax%20revenue%20loss%20
report_final.pdf.
IMF, OECD, UN and World Bank (2011). Supporting the development of more effective tax systems. Report to the
G20 development working group.
IMF (2014). Spillovers in international corporate taxation. IMF Policy Paper. Washington, D.C.: International
Monetary Fund.
ITIC (2014). Bilateral Investment Treaties and Bilateral Tax Treaties, International Tax and Investment Center Issues
Paper, by H. Choudhury and J. Ownens, June. www.iticnet.org
Itriago, D. (2011). Owning development: Taxation to fight poverty, Oxfam Research Report, September. Oxford,
United Kingdom: Oxfam. https://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/files/rr-owning-development-domesticresources-tax-260911-en.pdf.
Lequiller, F. and D. Blades (2006). Understanding National Accounts. Paris: OECD Publishing.
Markle, K.S. and D.A. Shackelford (2012). Cross-country comparisons of corporate income taxes, National Tax
Journal, 65(3): 493528.
Markle, K.S. and D.A. Shackelford (2013). The impact of headquarter and subsidiary locations on multinationals
effective tax rates, NBER Working Paper, No. 19621. Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research.
OECD (1998). Harmful tax competition: An emerging global issue. Paris: OECD. www.oecd.org/tax/
transparency/44430243.pdf.
OECD (2000). Towards global tax co-operation: Report to the 2000 ministerial council meeting and recommendations
by the committee on fiscal affairs. Paris: OECD.
218
OECD (2013a). Addressing Base Erosion and Profit Shifting. Paris: OECD Publishing. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/9789264192744-en.
OECD (2013b). Action Plan on Base Erosion and Profit Shifting. Paris: OECD Publishing. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/9789264202719-en.
Owens, J. (2012a). Tax competition: to welcome or not. David Tillinghast Lecture. Tax Law Review, 65(2): 173.
Owens, J. (2012b). The effect of tax on foreign direct investment. Tax Notes International, December 3. Falls
Church, Va.: Tax Analysts.
Owens, J. (2013). The role of tax administrations in the current political climate. Bulletin for International Taxation,
March: 156160.
Oxfam (2000). Tax havens: Releasing the hidden billions for poverty eradication, Oxfam Briefing Papers, June.
Oxford: Oxfam International.
Oxfam (2013). Fixing the cracks in tax: A plan of action. Oxford: Oxfam International. https://www.oxfam.org/sites/
www.oxfam.org/files/file_attachments/fix-the-cracks-in-tax_0.pdf.
Prichard, W., A. Cobham and A. Goodall (2014). The ICTD Government Revenue Dataset, ICTD Working Paper,
19. Brighton, United Kingdom: International Centre for Tax and Development. www.ictd.ac/sites/default/files/
ICTD%20WP19.pdf.
PwC (2008).Total tax contribution: How much in taxes do Indian companies really pay? Survey. www.pwc.in/
en_IN/in/assets/pdfs/total-tax-contribution.pdf.
PwC (2013a). Total tax contribution (South Africa): A closer look at the value created by large companies for the
fiscus in the form of taxes, June. www.pwc.co.za/en_ZA/za/assets/pdf/Total-Tax-Contribution-2010.pdf.
PwC (2013b). Tax transparency and country-by-country reporting. An ever changing landscape, October. https://
www.pwc.com/en_GX/gx/tax/publications/assets/pwc_tax_transparency_and-country_by_country_reporting.pdf.
Tax Justice Network (2007). Identifying tax havens and offshore finance centers. Briefing paper. Chesham,
Buckinghamshire, United Kingdom. www.taxjustice.net/cms/upload/pdf/Identifying_Tax_Havens_Jul_07.pdf.
Tattawasart, O. (2011). Toward FATS and beyond: the case of Thailand. Proceedings of the IFC Conference,
Initiatives to Address Data Gaps Revealed by the Financial Crisis, IFC Bulletin, 34: 488502.
Trapp, K. (2015). Measuring the labour income of developing countries. Learning from social accounting matrices,
WIDER Working Paper, 2015/041. Helsinki: UNU-WIDER.
United Nations (2011). Model Double Taxation Convention between Developed and Developing Countries. New
York: United Nations.
TDR14. Trade and Development Report 2014: Global Governance and Policy Space for Development. New York
and Geneva: United Nations.
WIR92. World Investment Report 1992: Transnational Corporations as Engines of Growth. New York and Geneva:
United Nations.
WIR12. World Investment Report 2012: Towards a New Generation of Investment Policies. New York and Geneva:
United Nations.
WIR13. World Investment Report 2013: Global Value Chains: Investment and Trade for Development. New York and
Geneva: United Nations.
WIR14. World Investment Report 2014: Investing in the SDGs: An Action Plan. New York and Geneva: United
Nations.
U.S. Government Accountability Office (2008). Large U.S. corporations and federal contractors with subsidiaries
in jurisdictions listed as tax havens or financial privacy jurisdictions. Report to Congressional Requesters GAO-09157. Washington, DC: GAO. www.gao.gov/new.items/d09157.pdf.
World Bank (2013). Financing for Development Post-2015. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.
World Bank and PwC (2015). Paying Taxes 2015. www.doingbusiness.org/~/media/GIAWB/Doing%20Business/
Documents/Special-Reports/Paying-Taxes-2015.pdf.
Yorgason, D.R. (2009). Collection of data on income and other taxes in surveys of U.S. multinational enterprises.
Paper prepared for the 4th Joint Session of the Working Group on International Investment Statistics and the
Working Party on Globalisation of Industry, Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris, 8
October. www.bea.gov/papers/pdf/Yorgason_multinational_taxes.pdf.
ANNEX TABLES
A1
ANNEX TABLES
Table 1.
Table 2.
Table 3.
Table 4.
Table 5.
Table 6.
A2
ANNEX TABLES
A3
Annex table 1. FDI flows, by region and economy, 20092014 (Millions of dollars)
FDI inflows
Region/economy
Worlda
Developed economies
Europe
European Union
Austria
Belgium
Bulgaria
Croatia
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
United Kingdom
Other developed Europe
Gibraltar
Iceland
Norway
Switzerland
North America
Canada
United States
Other developed economies
Australia
Bermuda
Israel
Japan
New Zealand
Developing economiesa
Africa
North Africa
Algeria
Egypt
Libya
Morocco
South Sudan
Sudan
Tunisia
Other Africa
West Africa
Benin
Burkina Faso
Cabo Verde
Cte dIvoire
Gambia
Ghana
2009
2010
2011
2012
FDI outflows
2013
2014
1 186 432 1 328 102 1 563 749 1 402 887 1 467 233 1 228 263
652 306
673 199
827 351
678 730
696 854
498 762
437 075 404 843 489 657 400 723 325 533 288 766
391 285 358 644 444 824 364 767 333 084 257 567
9 268
2 575
10 616
3 989
10 376
4 675
75 169
60 635
78 258
9 308
23 396
- 4 957
3 385
1 525
1 849
1 467
1 920
1 710
1 133b
1 682b
1 451b
955b
3 451b
3 077b
3 472
766
2 384
1 257
3 497
679b
2 927
6 141
2 318
7 984
3 639
5 909
392
- 9 163
11 463
418
- 742
3 652
1 839
1 024
974
1 569
553
983
18 625c
718
7 359
2 550
4 158
- 5 165c
30 733
13 889
31 642
16 979
42 892
15 191
65 642b
67 515b
20 316b
18 193b
1 831b
23 805b
2 436
330
1 144
1 740
2 818
2 172
1 995
2 193
6 300
14 375
3 097
4 039
25 715
42 804
23 545
45 207
37 033
7 698
20 077
9 178
34 324
93
25 004
11 451b
94
379
1 453
1 109
903
474
- 14
800
1 448
700
469
217
38 588c
9 748c
79 645c
23 248c
7 087c
27 313c
- 8 645
929
15 510
12 061
9 575
9 279
38 752
- 7 184
24 369
17 655
32 039
30 253
13 883c
11 889
12 796
18 258
7 120
120c
1 611
2 424
7 428
8 242
2 234
8 807
4 665
3 041
2 363
3 199
3 602
3 234
- 6
1 770
3 491
2 982
591
479
- 476
105
1 087
339
- 144
1 564
22 904c
10 407
39 873
28 379
25 696
41 733c
10 093
140
12 923
16 334
3 571
10 036
90 591
58 954
41 803
59 375
47 675
72 241
45 791
46 199
44 833
35 956
- 7 551
31 199
165d
166d
168d
166d
167d
172d
86
246
1 108
1 025
397
436
16 641
17 044
15 250
18 774
14 441
8 682
21 914c
28 891
28 744
28 309
15 989 - 22 555c
166 304 226 449 269 531 208 946 301 333 146 261
22 700
28 400
39 669
39 266
70 565
53 864
143 604 198 049 229 862 169 680 230 768
92 397
48 927
41 906
68 162
69 061
69 987
63 735
31 667
36 443
57 050
55 802
54 239
51 854
231c
- 258c
48c
55c
- 32c
- 70c
4 607
5 458
9 095
8 055
11 804
6 432
11 938
- 1 252
- 1 758
1 732
2 304
2 090
785
1 026
4 034
3 424
1 585
3 391
463 637 579 891 639 135 639 022 670 790 681 387
54 379
44 072
47 705
56 435
53 969
53 912
18 134
15 745
7 548
17 151
13 580
11 541
2 746
2 300
2 580
3 052
2 661
1 488d
6 712
6 386
- 483
6 031
4 192
4 783
3 310
1 909
1 425
702
50d
1 952c
1 574c
2 568c
2 728c
3 298c
3 582c
- 78d
- 700d
1 726
2 064
1 734
2 311
1 688
1 277
1 688
1 513
1 148
1 603
1 117
1 060
36 246
28 327
40 157
39 284
40 388
42 371
14 725
12 008
18 956
16 322
14 208
12 763
134
177
161
230
360
377
101
35
144
329
490
342
174
159
155
70
70
78
377
339
302
330
407
462
1
20
66
93
38
28
3 226d
3 357d
2 897
2 527
3 237
3 293d
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
1 101 335 1 366 070 1 587 448 1 283 675 1 305 910 1 354 046
819 605
963 210 1 156 137
872 861
833 630
822 826
400 223 565 949 586 793 376 402 316 819
315 921
352 388 459 366 519 862 316 726 285 133
280 124
10 998
9 585
21 913
13 109
16 216
7 690
15 251
9 092
46 371
33 985
17 940
8 534
- 95
230
163
347
240
215
1 260b
- 91b
42b
- 56b
- 180b
1 886b
383
679
2 201
- 281
3 473
2 176b
949
1 167
- 327
1 790
4 019
- 529
3 688
1 381
11 254
7 355
9 537
10 952
1 375
156
- 1 488
1 030
375
236
5 681
10 167
5 011
7 543
- 7 519c
574c
100 865
48 156
51 415
31 639
24 997
42 869
68 541b 125 451b
77 930b
66 089b
30 109b 112 227b
2 055
1 557
1 772
678
- 785
856
1 849
1 172
4 702
11 678
1 868
3 381
26 616
22 348
- 1 165
15 286
23 975
31 795
21 275
32 655
53 629
7 980
30 759
23 451b
- 62
19
61
192
411
137
198
- 6
55
392
192
- 36
8 201c
23 243c
10 737c
68 428c
34 555c
- 4 307c
- 7 059
1 921
922
2 574
2 603
2 335
26 273
68 358
34 789
5 235
56 926
40 809
3 656
6 147
3 671
- 2 656
- 3 299c
5 204c
- 367
- 9 782
16 495
- 9 157
- 90
6 664
- 96
6
- 28
- 114
- 281
- 77
904
946
713
8
- 423
- 123
214
- 18
198
- 259
- 223
- 9
13 070
37 844
41 164
- 3 982
25 829c
30 688c
26 202
20 349
29 861
28 952
28 879
12 156
20 562
46 633 107 801
28 939 - 14 972 - 59 628
47 835 106 582
66 932
59 676
31 686
35 797
2 292
- 2 357
23
- 3 206
460
- 247
19 165
23 239
18 763
19 561
20 987
19 247
26 378
85 701
48 145
43 321
10 238c
16 798c
327 502 312 502 448 717 365 285 378 879
389 563
39 601
34 723
52 148
53 938
50 536
52 620
287 901 277 779 396 569 311 347 328 343
336 943
91 879
84 759 120 627 131 174 137 931
117 343
16 409
19 804
1 669
5 583
- 3 063
- 351
21c
- 33c
- 337c
241c
50c
93c
1 751
8 010
9 166
3 258
4 671
3 975
74 699
56 263 107 599 122 549 135 749
113 629
- 1 001
716
2 530
- 456
525
- 4
234 522 340 876 357 570 357 249 380 784
468 148
6 225
9 264
6 500
12 386
15 951
13 073
2 498
4 781
1 491
3 332
951
1 672
214
220
534
193
117
..
571
1 176
626
211
301
253
1 165
2 722
131
2 509
180
940d
470c
589c
179c
406c
332c
444c
77
74
21
13
22
39
3 727
4 483
5 009
9 053
14 999
11 401
2 120
1 292
2 526
3 501
2 166
2 255
31
- 18
60
19
59
31
8
- 4
102
73
58
59
1
0
1
- 3
- 5
- 5
- 9
25
15
14
- 6
9
7
25
1
9d
12d
/...
A4
2009
Guinea
141d
Guinea-Bissau
17
Liberia
218
Mali
748
Mauritania
- 3d
Niger
791
Nigeria
8 650
Senegal
320
Sierra Leone
110d
Togo
49
Central Africa
5 639
Burundi
0
Cameroon
740d
Central African Republic
42
Chad
375d
Congo
1 274
Congo, Democratic
864
Republic of the
Equatorial Guinea
1 636d
Gabon
573d
Rwanda
119
Sao Tome and Principe
16
East Africa
3 903
Comoros
14
Djibouti
75
Eritrea
91d
Ethiopia
221d
Kenya
115
Madagascar
1 066
Mauritius
248
Seychelles
171
Somalia
108d
Uganda
842
United Republic of
953
Tanzania
Southern Africa
11 978
Angola
2 205c
Botswana
129
Lesotho
92
Malawi
49
Mozambique
898
Namibia
506
South Africa
7 502c
Swaziland
66
Zambia
426
Zimbabwe
105
Asia
323 793
East and South-East Asia
209 974
East Asia
163 840
China
95 000
Hong Kong, China
55 535
Korea, Democratic
2d
Peoples Republic of
Korea, Republic of
9 022c
Macao, China
852
Mongolia
624
Taiwan Province of China
2 805c
South-East Asia
46 134
Brunei Darussalam
370
Cambodia
928
Indonesia
4 877
Lao Peoples
190
Democratic Republic
Malaysia
1 453
Myanmar
27
Philippines
1 963
2010
2011
101d
33
450
406
131d
940
6 099
266
238d
86
8 315
1
538d
62
313d
928
1
8
FDI outflows
2012
956d
25
785
556
589d
066
915
338
951d
711
664
3
652d
37
282d
180
1
7
2013
606d
7
985
398
389d
841
127
276
225d
122
528
1
526d
70
343d
152
1
1
5
2014
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
135d
20
061
308
126d
719
608
311
144d
184
035
7
326d
2
538d
914
566d
21
302d
199
492d
769
4 694
343
440d
292
12 056
32
501d
3
761d
5 502
- 0
364
- 1
4d
59
1 542
77
- 0d
37
48
- 69d
- 5d
6
369
7
4d
- 60
923
2
- 0d
37
595
503d
4d
1d
1
372
4
4d
9
824
47
1 060
419
187d
53d
2d
- 0
1 354d
16
4d
2
1 543
56
- 0d
420
191
- 284d
- 31d
- 0d
0
698d
3
4d
101
1 238
33
- 4d
- 21
120
0
- 379d
- 0d
1d
0
..
8
4d
21
1 614
37
- 2d
464
278
0
- 159d
7d
2 939
1 687
3 312
2 098
2 063
35
91
421
401
344
2 734
499d
251
51
4 520
8
37
91d
288d
178
808
430
211
112d
544
1 975
696d
119
32
4 779
23
79
39d
627d
335
810
433
207
102d
894
2 015
832d
255
23
5 473
10
110
41d
279d
259
812
589
260
107d
1 205
1 914
968d
258
11
6 127
9
286
44d
953d
505d
567
259
170
107d
1 096
1 933
973d
268
20
6 794
14d
153
47d
1 200d
989d
351
418
229
106d
1 147
87d
0
118
46
37
5
29
81d
0
174
2
129
6
37
88d
0
163
9
158
8
- 12
85d
0
251
16
180
9
46
85d
14
0
101
6d
135
8
- 47
86d
0
99
91
8
0
1 813
1 229
1 800
2 131
2 142d
3 485
- 3 227c
218
30
97
1 018
793
3 636c
120
634
166
401 851
306 975
201 825
114 734
70 541
8 758
- 3 024c
1 371
61
129
3 559
816
4 243c
107
1 110
387
425 308
327 413
233 878
123 985
96 581
7 961
- 6 898c
487
57
129
5 629
1 133
4 559c
32
2 433
400
400 840
320 563
212 428
121 080
70 180
11 018
- 7 120c
398
50
120
6 175
801
8 300c
84
1 810
400
427 879
347 537
221 450
123 911
74 294
10 758
- 3 881d
393
46
130
4 902
414
5 712c
13
2 484
545
465 285
381 047
248 180
128 500
103 254b
1 441
7c
6
2
- 1
3
- 3
1 151c
7
270
214 942
180 620
139 088
56 530
59 202
2 423
1 340c
- 1
- 21
42
2
4
- 76c
- 8
1 095
43
284 078
250 008
194 532
68 811
86 247
1 901
2 093c
10
- 41
50
3
5
- 257c
- 2
- 2
43
313 648
268 534
213 680
74 654
96 341
5 110
2 741c
- 8
- 38
50
3
- 11
2 988c
39
- 702
49
299 424
266 214
215 497
87 804
83 411
12 613
6 044c
- 85
- 34
- 46
- 13
6 649c
4
66
27
335 318
292 427
225 254
101 000
80 773
8 769
2 131d
- 43
- 31
- 50
- 34
6 938c
- 1
- 213d
72
431 591
382 581
302 520
116 000
142 700b
38d
56d
120d
227d
134d
497
831
691
492c
151
481
1 342
13 771
9 773
726
4 715
- 1 957c
93 535
691
1 372
19 241
767
513
140
598c
087
776
1 872
18 817
9 899
3 046d
508
2 839c
132 867
568
1 730
22 580
17 436
- 11
54
5 877c
41 533
9
19
2 249
28 280
- 441
62
11 574c
55 476
6
21
2 664
29 705
120
94
12 766c
54 854
10
29
7 713
30 632
469
44
13 137c
50 717
- 422d
36
5 422
28 360
795
41
14 285c
67 172
- 135d
46
6 647
30 558c
462d
103
12 697c
80 061
32
7 077
279
301
294
427
721d
1d
- 1d
1d
- 0d
- 44d
2d
9 060
6 669
1 298
12 198
1 118
1 852
9 239
497
2 033
12 115
584
3 737c
10 799
946
6 201c
7 784
359
13 399
616
15 249
339
17 143
1 692
14 107
3 647c
9
2
1
2
105
9
3
4
3
108
496
894
452
207c
135
865
1 835
19 138
12
4
2
3
126
16 445
6 990c
/...
ANNEX TABLES
A5
2009
Singapore
Thailand
Timor-Leste
Viet Nam
South Asia
Afghanistan
Bangladesh
Bhutan
India
Iran, Islamic Republic of
Maldives
Nepal
Pakistan
Sri Lanka
West Asia
Bahrain
Iraq
Jordan
Kuwait
Lebanon
Oman
Qatar
Saudi Arabia
State of Palestine
Syrian Arab Republic
Turkey
United Arab Emirates
Yemen
Latin America and the
Caribbeana
South America
Argentina
Bolivia, Plurinational
State of
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Ecuador
Guyana
Paraguay
Peru
Suriname
Uruguay
Venezuela, Bolivarian
Republic of
Central America
Belize
Costa Rica
El Salvador
Guatemala
Honduras
Mexico
Nicaragua
Panama
Caribbeana
Anguilla
Antigua and Barbuda
Aruba
Bahamas
Barbados
Curaao
Dominica
Dominican Republic
Grenada
Haiti
23 821
4 854
50
7 600
42 403
76
700
72c
35 634
2 983
158d
39
2 338
404
71 415
257
1 598
2 413
1 114
4 379
1 485c
8 125
36 458
300
2 570
8 585
4 003
129
55 076
9 147
29
8 000
35 024
211
913
31c
27 417
3 649
216d
87
2 022
478
59 852
156
1 396
1 651
1 305
3 748
1 243c
4 670
29 233
206
1 469
9 086
5 500
189
48 002
1 195
47
7 519
44 539
83
1 136
26c
36 190
4 277
424d
95
1 326
981
53 356
781
1 882
1 474
3 259
3 390
874c
939
16 308
349
804
16 136
7 679
- 518
56 659
9 168
39
8 368
32 415
94
1 293
51c
24 196
4 662
228d
92d
859
941
47 862
891
3 400
1 497
2 873
3 170
1 040c
396
12 182
58
13 283
9 602
- 531
64 793
14 016
50
8 900
35 624
69
1 599
9c
28 199
3 050
361d
71d
1 333
933
44 718
989
5 131
1 747
1 434
2 880
1 626c
- 840
8 865
176
12 357
10 488
- 134
67 523
12 566
34
9 200
41 192
54d
1 527
6c
34 417
2 105
363d
30d
1 747
944
43 046
957
4 782
1 760
486
3 070d
1 180d
1 040
8 012d
124
12 146
10 066
- 578d
26 239
4 172
700
16 349
81d
29
16 058
90d
71
20
17 973
- 1 791
72
72
8 582
1 126
109c
3 215
2 177
69
1 553
2 723
66d
33 377
4 467
26
900
16 298
72d
15
15 947
174d
47
43
17 771
334
125
28
5 890
487
1 498c
1 863
3 907
84
1 469
2 015
70d
24 490
6 106
- 33
950
12 888
70d
13
12 456
227d
62
60
32 225
894
366
31
10 773
934
1 233c
10 109
3 430
- 128
2 330
2 178
77d
15 147
10 487
13
1 200
10 181
65d
43
8 486
1 441d
82
64
23 028
922
490
5
6 741
1 009
877c
1 840
4 402
29
4 106
2 536
71d
28 814
12 122
13
1 956
2 135
34
1 679
146d
212
65
40 756
1 052
227
16
16 648
1 962
1 384c
8 021
4 943
- 48
3 527
2 952d
73d
40 660c
7 692
13
1 150
10 684
48
9 848
605d
116
67
38 326
- 80
242
83
13 108
1 893d
1 164d
6 748
5 396d
- 32
6 658
3 072d
73d
83 514
131 727
163 868
178 049
186 151
159 405
13 284
46 879
36 490
43 847
28 466
23 326
57 740
4 017
96 345
11 333
127 426
10 840
143 881
15 324
125 987
11 301
120 708
6 612
3 501
712
31 370
965
22 420
1 488
19 164
1 055
13 861
1 097
16 652
2 117
2011
FDI outflows
Region/economy
2012
c
2013
c
2014
c
2009
c
2010
c
2011
c
2012
c
2013
c
2014
c
423
643
859
1 060
1 750
648
- 3
- 29
25 949
11 868
8 035
308
164
95
6 431
- 93
1 529
48 506
16 789
6 430
166
198
210
8 455
- 248
2 289
66 660
16 930
14 648
644
247
619
7 665
70
2 504
65 272
25 021
15 039
585
294
738
11 918
121
2 536
63 996
16 577
16 199
731
214
72
9 298
138
3 032
62 495
22 949
16 054
774
255
236
7 607
4
2 755
- 10 084
6 213
3 505
47d
54d
411
16
11 588
10 524
5 483
134d
7d
266
- 60
- 1 029
13 738
8 420
63d
- 34d
147
3
- 7
- 2 821
17 120
- 606
- 6d
56d
78
- 1
- 3
- 3 495
7 621
7 652
42d
49d
137
5
- 3 540
12 999
3 899
33d
24d
84
13
- 983
1 574
5 740
5 973
2 680
320
2 630
2 492
- 370
4 294
752
1 024
22 302
109c
1 347
366
600
509
17 679
434
1 259
3 471
44
85
- 11
873
247
55
58
2 165
104
55
32 404
97c
1 466
- 230
806
969
26 083
490
2 723
2 979
11
101
190
1 148
290
89
58
2 024
64
178
31 998
95c
2 178
219
1 026
1 014
23 376
936
3 153
4 445
39
68
488
1 533
384
69
51
2 277
45
119
28 004
189c
2 332
482
1 245
1 059
18 951
768
2 980
6 164
44
138
- 319
1 073
436
57
57
3 142
34
156
55 399
92c
2 677
179
1 295
1 060
44 627
816
4 654
4 764
42
101
225
1 111
5
17
39
1 991
114
186
33 416
141c
2 106
275
1 396
1 144
22 795
840
4 719
5 281
39
167
244
1 596
275
183d
41
2 208
40
99
9 612
0c
7
26
4
9 604
- 29
171
0
4
1
216
- 56
5
1
110d
1
-
15 426
1c
25
- 5
24
- 1
15 050
16
317
83
0
5
6
150
- 54
15
1
25d
3
-
12 897
1c
58
0
17
2
12 636
7
176
1 174
0
3
3
524
301
- 30
0
39d
3
-
22 922
1c
428
- 2
39
208
22 470
52
- 274
1 761
0
4
3
132
- 129
12
0
77d
3
-
13 922
1c
290
3
34
68
13 138
107
281
683
6
4
277
106
- 17
2
- 55d
1
-
5 929
3c
218
1
31
24
5 201
84
368
744
6
9
398
93
27d
2
20d
1
/...
A6
2009
2010
2011
541c
3
136
152
228c
4
119
127
111
40
709
1 952
- 6d
164
22
3
- 11d
FDI outflows
2012
2013
2014
2009
2010
61c
0
5
6
2011
58c
0
3
5
2012
75c
0
2
4
2013
3c
0
2
4
2014
218c
2
112
100
413c
3
110
78
593c
4
139
95
551c
6
120
75
- 87c
0
2
3
- 2c
0
2
3
97
86
115
160
139
33
549
2 240
350
64
- 0d
27d
- 48
1 831
2 254
403
131
0d
34d
14
2 453
3 697
376
155
1d
27d
34
1 994
2 791
272
101
9d
23d
67d
2 423d
2 784
279d
129d
1d
28d
1
71
13d
3
8
- 1
- 25d
3
655
540d
6
38
- 0
- 11d
1
1 060
932
814d
1
27
29d
- 4
1 681
1 593
1 307d
2
43
- 0d
24d
4
824
1 050
887d
4
66
- 0d
19d
4d
726d
158
..
1d
46d
- 0d
24d
1d
1d
1d
1d
1d
1d
1d
1 182
- 10
423
10
120
20d
32c
70 489
6 270
996
250
1 527
2 896
1 439
- 7
29
1
238
25d
59c
75 013
4 600
1 051
406
760
1 686
1 715
6
- 310
15
146
44d
70c
97 263
7 890
876
496
558
4 932
2 887
9
25
21
80
31d
78c
85 135
3 562
855
351
620
1 299
2 261
2
18
24
43
51d
- 19c
99 590
4 740
1 266
283
447
2 053
2 288d
6d
- 30
23
24
56d
- 22c
48 114
4 698
1 093
564
497
1 996
58
- 0d
4
1
3
5d
1c
47 208
140
39
6
46
24
76
0
2
3d
1c
61 984
317
6
46
29
185
40
- 1d
1
1
4
16d
1c
73 740
403
30
18
17
318
109
89
9
3
7d
1c
53 565
410
23
16
27
331
63
0
3
7d
0c
91 496
380
40
- 15
17
329
70d
4
1
11d
1c
63 072
430
30
2
27
356
201
213
479
143
335
348
11
- 0
- 8
- 15
- 21
63 560
760
473
1 877
13 243
189
208
36 583c
16
4 553d
4 816
842d
659
69 599
529
563
1 393
11 551
438
208
43 168c
- 15
3 632d
6 495
1 636d
814
88 324
515
1 465
4 002
13 973
694
288
55 084c
70
3 391d
7 207
1 635d
1 048
80 662
489
2 005
1 429
13 337
293
195
50 588c
233
3 130d
8 401
563d
911
93 901
370
2 632
2 230
10 221
626
236
69 219c
105
3 076d
4 499
686d
949
42 137
383c
4 430
1 798
9 562
211
207
20 958c
263
3 164d
410
751d
1 279
47 087
50
326
102
3 159
- 0
7
43 281c
162
- 19
61 532
8
232
51
7 885
0
4
52 616c
736
135
73 190
78
533
126
5 390
0
21
66 851c
192
147
52 858
16
1 192
121
1 481
- 0
20
48 822c
1 206
297
90 997
19
1 490
246
2 287
- 0
29
86 507c
420
120
62 440
18c
2 209
- 1
3 624
0
41
56 438c
111
202
16 865
23 774
21 852
23 524
22 327
23 239
1 123
3 055
4 003
4 698
7 454
2 975
26 108
26 011
36 101
34 426
29 980
29 151
4 119
9 378
6 314
2 393
3 917
5 822
4 599
4 606
6 160
6 776
5 703
6 948
275
332
2 158
2 032
1 319
1 377
ANNEX TABLES
A7
Annex table 2. FDI stock, by region and economy, 1990, 2000, 2014 (Millions of dollars)
FDI inward stock
Region/economy
World
Developed economies
Europe
European Union
Austria
Belgium
Belgium and Luxembourg
Bulgaria
Croatia
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
United Kingdom
Other developed Europe
Gibraltar
Iceland
Norway
Switzerland
North America
Canada
United States
Other developed economies
Australia
Bermuda
Israel
Japan
New Zealand
Developing economiesa
Africa
North Africa
Algeria
Egypt
Libya
Morocco
Sudan
Tunisia
Other Africa
West Africa
Benin
Burkina Faso
Cabo Verde
Cte dIvoire
Gambia
a
1990
2 197 768
1 687 652
932 579
885 533
11 606
58 388
112
..c,d
1 363d
9 192
4 277
104 268
226 552
5 681
570
37 989d
59 998
465d
71 828
109
9 604
0
282d
1 643d
65 916
12 636
203 905
47 045
263d
147
12 391
34 245
652 444
112 843
539 601
102 629
80 364
4 476
9 850
7 938
510 107
60 678
23 962
1 561d
11 043d
678d
3 011d
55d
7 615
36 716
14 013
- 173d
39d
4d
975d
157d
2000
7
5
2
2
202
476
263
144
31
195
2
2
2
21
73
2
24
184
271
14
22
127
122
1
2
2
243
33
32
6
6
2
156
93
463
118
30
86
2 995
212
2 783
217
121
20
50
24
1 669
153
45
3
19
8
1
11
108
33
348
613
007
798
165
219
704
664b
846
644
574
645
273
215
613
113
870
089
533
692
334
263
733
477
043
953
970
894
348
791
134
209
642d
497
265
804
951
716
235
655
686
265d
426
322
957
812
745
590
379d
955
471
842d
398d
545
156
010
213
28
192d
483
216
26
17
10
9
6
5
038
003
049
171
180
525
46
29
58
121
82
19
133
729
743
20
98
369
373
14
14
161
172
664
245
108
74
53
12
721
321
662
877
2
7
185
681
041
631
409
913
564
2
98
170
76
310
709
239
26
87
18
51
22
31
470
151
1
1
1
7
1990
824
802
259
795
824
612
539
761b
145b
530
922d
298
116e
147
512b
181
360
168
738b
567
691
311e
358
442
161e
515
732
216
743
879e
103
858
464
569d
425
620d
849d
200
316
884
343
608
632d
697
615
791
055
174
076
786d
882
511d
664e
693
540
098
897
581
679
474
711
340d
2 253 944
2 114 508
1 053 382
976 336
5 021
40 636
124
8d
7 342
9 355
119 860
308 736
2 882
159d
14 942d
60 184
109 870
95d
818
66
560d
15 652
50 720
229 307
77 047
75
10 884
66 087
816 569
84 807
731 762
244 556
37 505
1 188
201 441
4 422d
139 436
20 252
1 836
183d
163d
1 321d
155d
15
18 416
2 202
2d
4d
6d
-
2000
7
6
3
2
298
535
215
948
24
179
73
52
365
541
6
1
27
169
305
19
129
123
923
266
34
232
2 931
237
2 694
388
92
9
278
8
741
38
3
35
6
2014
188
722
429
579
821
773
67
760b
557
738
100
259
109
871
866
094
280
925
957
20
29
193
461
268
794
136
555
768
194
618
367
850
663
026
161
653
639
014
640
508
108d
091
442
491
924
888
199
205d
655
903
402d
33
689
381
11
0
9
-
25
20
11
10
874
554
787
434
223
450
2
5
41
19
183
6
164
1 279
1 583
33
39
628
548
1
2
149
44
985
65
58
2
6
673
379
1 584
1 352
1
7
6
1
7
213
130
033
714
318
734
443
78
1 193
18
4 833
213
33
1
6
20
4
180
17
757
819
347
829
246
178
195
444b
913b
041
025d
319
554e
089
279b
939
641
026
416b
170
683
892e
493
256
217e
355
696
975
193
989e
528
147
518
955
948d
615d
195
555
640
278
519
928d
016
137
678
046
486
446
733d
839
375d
194e
305
040
821
172
276
..c
114
/...
A8
Annex table 2. FDI stock, by region and economy, 1990, 2000, 2014 (continued)
FDI inward stock
Region/economy
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Liberia
Mali
Mauritania
Niger
Nigeria
Senegal
Sierra Leone
Togo
Central Africa
Burundi
Cameroon
Central African Republic
Chad
Congo
Congo, Democratic Republic of the
Equatorial Guinea
Gabon
Rwanda
Sao Tome and Principe
East Africa
Comoros
Djibouti
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Kenya
Madagascar
Mauritius
Seychelles
Somalia
Uganda
United Republic of Tanzania
Southern Africa
Angola
Botswana
Lesotho
Malawi
Mozambique
Namibia
South Africa
Swaziland
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Asia
East and South-East Asia
East Asia
China
Hong Kong, China
Korea, Democratic Peoples Republic of
Korea, Republic of
Macao, China
Mongolia
Taiwan Province of China
South-East Asia
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia
Indonesia
Lao Peoples Democratic Republic
Malaysia
Myanmar
Philippines
1990
2000
319
69d
8d
732d
229d
59d
286d
539d
258d
243d
268d
808
30d
044d
95d
250d
575d
546d
25d
208d
33d
0d
701
17d
13d
0d
124d
668d
107d
168d
213
..c,d
6d
388d
194
025d
309
83d
228d
25
047
210
336
655d
277d
242
285
645
691d
653d
572d
186
809d
0d
735d
640
33d
38d
732d
13d
318
285d
268d
d
3
1
17
1
1
2
9
2
340
302
240
20
201
5
2
9
61
8
10
3
1 554
263d
38
3 247d
132
146d
45
23 786
295
284d
87
5 736
47d
1 600d
104
576d
1 893d
617
1 060d
..c,d
55
11d
7 202
21d
40
337d
941d
932d
141
683d
515
4d
807
2 781
62 208
7 977d
1 827
330
358
1 249
1 276
43 451e
536
3 966d
1 238
1 052 754
953 635
696 032
193 348
435 417
1 044d
43 738e
2 801d
182
19 502e
257 603
3 868d
1 580
25 060d
588d
52 747d
3 752d
13 762d
d
1990
23 205
2 584d
123
6 569d
3 109
5 968d
5 133
86 671
2 699
1 365d
1 685
67 425
48d
6 493d
623
5 518d
22 010d
7 694d
17 250d
6 339d
1 105d
345d
55 447
121d
1 505d
837d
7 264d
4 370d
6 277
4 586d
2 567
988d
9 917
17 013d
195 328
..c,d
4 367
586
1 239d
25 577
3 722
145 384e
759d
15 009
3 546
679 670
618 719
931 267
085 293d
549 849b
2 012d
182 037e
26 747d
16 693
68 636d
687 452
6 219
13 035
253 082
3 630d
133 767
17 652d
57 093e
d
5
4
2
1
1
15
15
67
58
49
4
11
2
30
9
2000
846d
22d
3d
54d
219d
47d
390
0d
150d
18d
37d
18d
0d
167d
165
99d
1d
1d
64
658
1d
447
0d
2d
80
010
38
80d
066
504
032
455d
920d
301d
356d
471
0d
0d
86d
1d
753d
405d
28
27
597
579
495
27
379
21
66
84
6
15
1
2014
12d
188d
1
4d
1
144
22
..c
721
2d
254d
43
70d
40d
34
..c,d
280d
387
115d
10d
132d
130
200
..c,d
517
2
..c
1
45
328e
87
234
220
768
206
768d
285
497e
655e
563
512d
193
940d
20d
878d
032d
10
1
2
1
1
157
19
133
2
3 948
3 555
2 709
729
1 459
258
2
258
845
24
135
35
130d
68d
5
345d
45
48d
130
259
397
843
776
1d
43d
43
70d
94d
480d
3d
006
13d
22d
139
321d
6d
482d
280
50
304
218d
795
253
24
10
60
936e
103d
417d
487
830
214
546
585d
947b
553e
277d
355
829d
669
134d
484
052
..c,d
685
603e
/...
ANNEX TABLES
A9
Annex table 2. FDI stock, by region and economy, 1990, 2000, 2014 (Millions of dollars)
FDI inward stock
Region/economy
Singapore
Thailand
Timor-Leste
Viet Nam
South Asia
Afghanistan
Bangladesh
Bhutan
India
Iran, Islamic Republic of
Maldives
Nepal
Pakistan
Sri Lanka
West Asia
Bahrain
Iraq
Jordan
Kuwait
Lebanon
Oman
Qatar
Saudi Arabia
State of Palestine
Syrian Arab Republic
Turkey
United Arab Emirates
Yemen
Latin America and the Caribbeana
South America
Argentina
Bolivia, Plurinational State of
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Ecuador
Falkland Islands (Malvinas)
Guyana
Paraguay
Peru
Suriname
Uruguay
Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of
Central America
Belize
Costa Rica
El Salvador
Guatemala
Honduras
Mexico
Nicaragua
Panama
Caribbeana
Anguilla
Antigua and Barbuda
Aruba
Bahamas
Barbados
Curaao
Dominica
Dominican Republic
Grenada
Haiti
1990
30 468
8 242
243d
6 795
12d
477d
2d
1 657d
2 039d
25d
12d
1 892d
679d
31 161
552
..c,d
1 368d
37d
53d
1 723d
63d
15 193d
154d
11 150d
751d
180d
107 187
74 815
9 085d
1 026
37 143
16 107d
3 500
1 626
0d
45d
418d
1 330
671d
3 865
28 496
89d
1 324d
212d
1 734
293
22 424
145d
2 275d
3 876
11d
290d
145d
586d
171
66d
572
70d
149d
2000
110 570
30 944
14 730d
29 834
17d
2 162
4d
16 339
2 597d
128d
72d
6 919
1 596
69 286
5 906
..c,d
3 135
608
14 233
2 577e
1 912
17 577
1 418d
1 244d
18 812
1 069d
843d
460 991
308 952
67 601
5 188
122 250
45 753
11 157
6 337
58d
756
1 221
11 062
2 088
35 480
139 675
301e
2 709
1 973
3 420
1 392
121 691
1 414
6 775d
12 365
231d
619d
1 161
3 278d
308
275d
1 673
348d
95
1990
912 355
199 311
316
90 991d
350 971
1 692d
9 355
112e
252 331
43 047
2 490d
541d
30 892
10 511
709 981
18 771
23 161d
28 734
15 362
56 834d
19 707d
31 004d
215 909
2 453
10 743d
168 645
115 561d
3 097d
1 893 554
1 384 301
114 076
11 206
754 769
207 678
141 667
14 591
75d
1 960
5 381
79 429
1 012
22 318d
30 139
439 838
1 765e
24 309
8 504
12 102
11 228
337 974
8 040
35 917
69 415
1 131d
2 845d
3 941
18 751d
5 248
890d
846d
28 757d
1 506d
1 209d
e
2000
7 808
418
478
45d
124d
56d
245d
8d
8 084
719
158d
3 662d
43d
2 328d
4d
1 150d
14d
5d
52 050
49 201
6 057d
7d
41 044
154d
402
18d
..c,d
122
186d
1 221
2 793
20d
44d
56d
0
2 672d
56
23
-
56 755
3 232
2 791
69
1 733
414d
489
86
14 661
1 752
44
1 428
352
74
5 285d
107d
3 668
1 938d
12d
105 533
95 861
21 141
29
51 946
11 154
2 989
252d
1
29d
505
138
7 676
8 600
43e
86
104
93
8 273
1 072
5d
5d
675
452d
41
3d
68d
2d
2d
2014
576 396e
65 769
86
7 490d
136 106
130
129 578
4 096d
1 695
607
257 510
10 672
1 956d
608
36 531
12 629d
7 453d
35 182d
44 699
167
421d
40 088
66 298d
806d
663 970
518 205
35 938
52
316 339
89 733
43 082
697d
2
379d
4 205d
428d
27 349
138 868
54e
2 049
3
503
393
131 246
375
4 246
6 897
31d
112d
698
3 868d
3 840
86d
38d
171d
51d
2d
/...
A10
Annex table 2. FDI stock, by region and economy, 1990, 2000, 2014 (Millions of dollars)
FDI inward stock
Region/economy
Jamaica
Montserrat
Netherlands Antillesf
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Saint Lucia
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Sint Maarten
Trinidad and Tobago
Oceania
Cook Islands
Fiji
French Polynesia
Kiribati
Marshall Islands
Nauru
New Caledonia
Niue
Palau
Papua New Guinea
Samoa
Solomon Islands
Tonga
Vanuatu
Transition economies
South-East Europe
Albania
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Montenegro
Serbia
The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia
CIS
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Belarus
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Moldova, Republic of
Russian Federation
Tajikistan
Turkmenistan
Ukraine
Uzbekistan
Georgia
Memorandum
Least developed countries (LDCs)g
Landlocked developing countries (LLDCs)h
Small island developing states (SIDS)i
1990
2000
790
40d
408d
160d
316d
48d
2 365d
2 001
1d
284
69d
1d
..c,d
70d
2d
1 582d
9d
1d
..
..
..
9d
..
d
11 046
7 471
7 136
3 317
83d
277
487d
807d
499d
7 280d
2 321
218d
356
139d
218d
..c,d
67d
6d
126
935
51d
106d
19d
61d
55 924
787
247
540
54 375
513
3 735
1 306
10 078
432
449
32 204
136
949d
3 875
698d
762
13 324
140d
2 078d
2 510d
1 814d
321d
26 125d
27 657
836d
3 713d
908d
15d
1 057d
..c,d
15 051d
..c,d
177d
3 877d
235d
781
403d
503e
724 967
55 114
4 466d
7 383d
4 983d
29 564
5 140
657 612
5 831d
18 180d
17 730
129 244
3 520
3 647
378 543e
1 887d
26 203d
63 825
9 002d
12 241
37 095
35 793
20 611
221 524
301 812
97 692
1990
2000
42
21d
21d
68
25d
18d
26d
0d
..
..
..
..
d
1 089
699
220
709
0d
6
3d
4d
0d
293d
283
..c,d
39
..c,d
22d
2d
10d
210d
14d
20 541
16
16
20 408
0
1
24
16
33
23
20 141
170
118
2 673
1 120
2 048
2014
6
6
5
486
3
2
481
11
27
431
9
1
314
1d
-d
59d
67d
6d
13d
411d
759
037d
51d
327d
1d
205d
22d
582d
22d
315d
25d
48
100d
23e
892
995
239d
208d
422d
819
112
382
206d
214d
588
200
427
178
865e
705
514
32 490
44 799
17 416
Excluding the financial centers in the Caribbean (Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba, the Bahamas, Barbados, the British Virgin Islands, the Cayman Islands, Curaao,
Dominica, Grenada, Montserrat, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Sint Maarten and Turks and Caicos Islands).
Negative stock value. However, this value is included in the regional and global total.
Estimates.
Asset/liability basis.
Least developed countries include Afghanistan, Angola, Bangladesh, Benin, Bhutan, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cambodia, the Central African Republic, Chad, the Comoros, the
Democratic Republic of the Congo, Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, the Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Haiti, Kiribati, the Lao Peoples Democratic Republic,
Lesotho, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nepal, the Niger, Rwanda, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Solomon Islands,
Somalia, South Sudan, the Sudan, Timor-Leste, Togo, Tuvalu, Uganda, the United Republic of Tanzania, Vanuatu, Yemen and Zambia.
Landlocked developing countries include Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bhutan, the Plurinational State of Bolivia, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, the Central African
Republic, Chad, Ethiopia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, the Lao Peoples Democratic Republic, Lesotho, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Malawi, Mali, the Republic of
Moldova, Mongolia, Nepal, the Niger, Paraguay, Rwanda, South Sudan, Swaziland, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uganda, Uzbekistan, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
Small island developing States include Antigua and Barbuda, the Bahamas, Barbados, Cabo Verde, the Comoros, Dominica, Fiji, Grenada, Jamaica, Kiribati, Maldives, the
Marshall Islands, Mauritius, Federated States of Micronesia, Nauru, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Samoa,
Sao Tome and Principe, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, Timor-Leste, Tonga, Trinidad and Tobago, Tuvalu and Vanuatu.
ANNEX TABLES
A11
Annex table 3. Value of cross-border M&As, by region/economy of seller/purchaser, 20082014 (Millions of dollars)
Region/economy
2008
2009
Worldc
617 649 287 617
Developed economies
474 067 236 784
Europe
172 448 140 217
European Union
258 391 120 323
Austria
1 327
2 067
Belgium
3 995 12 375
Bulgaria
227
191
Croatia
274
Cyprus
812
47
Czech Republic
276
2 473
Denmark
5 962
1 270
Estonia
110
28
Finland
1 163
382
France
6 609
609
Germany
32 216 12 742
Greece
7 387
2 074
Hungary
1 728
1 853
Ireland
3 025
1 712
Italy
- 5 150
2 335
Latvia
195
109
Lithuania
172
23
Luxembourg
- 3 510
444
Malta
13
Netherlands
- 9 731 18 114
Poland
1 507
666
Portugal
- 1 312
504
Romania
996
331
Slovakia
136
21
Slovenia
418
Spain
37 041 31 849
Sweden
17 930
2 158
United Kingdom
154 587 25 933
Other developed Europe
- 85 943 19 894
Andorra
0
Faeroe Islands
Gibraltar
212
Guernsey
36
1 970
Iceland
Isle of Man
35
45
Jersey
251
414
Liechtenstein
Monaco
Norway
15 025
1 858
Switzerland
- 101 502 15 606
North America
257 007 78 194
Canada
35 143 12 364
United States
221 864 65 830
Other developed economies
44 612 18 373
Australia
33 694 22 530
Bermuda
1 006
883
Israel
1 443
1 351
Japan
7 994 - 6 336
New Zealand
476
- 55
Developing economiesc
117 713 43 899
Africa
24 540
5 903
North Africa
19 495
2 520
Algeria
82
Egypt
18 903
1 680
Libya
307
145
Morocco
80
691
Sudan
Tunisia
122
4
Other Africa
5 045
3 383
Angola
- 475 - 471
Botswana
50
Burkina Faso
20
Cameroon
1
1
Congo
435
Congo, Democratic Republic of
5
Cte dIvoire
10
Equatorial Guinea
- 2 200
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Gabon
Ghana
900
0
Kenya
Liberia
Madagascar
Malawi
0
Mali
-
2010
347
259
127
118
9
3
10
2
6
2
4
1
2
10
60
9
7
1
97
13
84
34
27
1
7
83
7
1
6
1
Net salesa
2011
2012
094
926
458
187
354
449
24
201
693
530
319
3
336
573
515
283
223
127
329
54
470
138
315
162
195
772
148
332
348
527
826
271
85
168
14
157
81
445
321
616
272
344
853
172
405
207
114
235
072
493
066
120
91
846
9
426
300
175
12
587
0
-
553 442
436 926
213 654
184 582
7 002
3 946
- 96
92
782
725
7 958
239
1 028
23 161
13 440
1 204
1 714
1 934
15 095
1
386
9 495
14 041
9 963
911
88
0
51
17 716
7 647
46 060
29 072
9
- 217
88
30
9 517
19 647
179 459
33 315
146 144
43 812
34 561
121
3 663
4 671
797
83 551
8 634
1 353
609
20
274
450
7 281
6
0
- 254
146
- 3
19
-
328
266
144
128
1
1
224
773
243
270
687
786
31
81
51
37
4 759
58
1 929
12 013
7 793
35
96
12 096
5 286
1
39
6 461
96
17 637
824
8 225
151
126
330
4 978
5 086
36 576
15 974
12
19
1 257
11
44
133
5 862
8 635
94 203
29 450
64 752
28 327
23 941
905
1 026
1 791
664
54 626
- 1 254
- 388
- 705
296
21
- 865
7
1
7
0
- 54
366
86
-
2013
312
237
132
120
509
516
898
748
148
6 553
- 52
100
1 417
1 617
1 341
- 39
- 35
8 953
16 736
2 488
- 1 108
11 147
5 748
4
30
177
7
22 896
434
7 465
- 45
541
30
5 185
- 76
29 088
12 150
50
17
1
7 874
4 208
80 895
23 338
57 556
23 724
11 914
3 273
3 339
4 271
928
78 812
3 829
2 969
10
1 836
1 092
31
860
- 51
15
103
12
20
-
2014
398
274
197
160
3
2
899
549
016
642
087
402
272
15
1 230
68
3 990
23
8 116
27 704
15 034
1 450
- 285
3 567
15 315
49
79
3 209
222
13 086
907
2 464
214
13
495
23 424
1 027
33 462
36 375
91
48
4 982
2 688
8 498
20 068
44 134
33 296
10 838
33 399
21 183
1 520
2 316
6 997
1 383
120 130
5 058
- 90
- 180
61
11
- 13
30
5 148
65
12
0
15
1
400
64
-
2008
617
479
381
321
3
30
649
590
684
872
243
775
39
12
8 875
72
2 841
7
12 951
66 800
63 785
3 484
41
3 505
20 976
31
5 906
- 25
48 466
1 090
1 330
4
320
- 12 160
6 883
52 619
59 812
- 13
890
744
247
- 686
7 556
51 074
13 118
43 986
- 30 868
84 788
18 070
2 064
11 054
49 539
4 061
114 408
8 266
4 729
4 678
51
3 537
3
18
-
2009
287
191
132
120
3
-9
617
214
250
347
309
804
2
8
647
1 573
3 337
- 0
641
42 175
26 928
387
0
- 664
17 195
- 30
24
- 3 506
229
723
7
251
- 507
9 819
27 605
11 904
253
4 171
- 806
137
401
12
1
133
7 601
41 881
17 773
24 108
17 082
- 3 471
2 981
183
17 632
- 243
80 445
2 554
1 004
76
601
324
3
1 550
-
Net purchasesb
2010
2011
2012
347
224
44
23
1
094
759
262
108
525
477
17
325
- 562
14
- 3 570
4
1 015
6 180
7 025
553
799
5 124
- 5 190
40
- 0
1 558
235
16 418
201
- 8 965
24
10
- 50
2 898
855
- 3 851
21 154
8
10 338
- 221
852
1 054
100
- 3 905
12 928
120 717
35 614
85 104
59 779
15 629
2 017
5 929
31 271
4 933
100 378
3 792
1 471
1 092
377
2
2 322
1
-
553
431
173
142
3
7
442
899
190
022
733
841
5 766
25
- 133
- 1
2 353
37 090
5 644
- 148
17
- 5 648
3 902
- 3
4
1 110
- 16
- 4 402
511
1 642
- 18
- 10
15 505
- 2 381
69 638
31 168
166
1 757
- 1 183
- 437
- 736
5 192
16
5 661
20 732
173 653
35 922
137 731
85 056
6 453
2 557
8 720
62 263
5 063
101 277
4 393
17
17
4 376
- 14
- 3
-
328
183
41
18
1
-1
224
858
842
998
835
354
8 060
474
553
1
4 116
- 3 051
15 674
- 1 561
- 7
2 629
- 1 633
- 3
- 716
25
- 1 092
3 399
- 4 735
- 30
- 1 621
151
- 2 118
22 845
13
- 527
1 968
- 2 559
- 162
3 564
4 191
16 357
110 097
37 569
72 528
31 920
- 7 017
3 238
- 2 210
37 795
113
124 198
629
85
- 16
101
543
69
10
19
-
2013
312
178
34
26
8
13
509
870
387
403
813
251
- 0
5
652
4 012
214
- 36
1 754
2 177
6 833
- 1 015
- 4 091
2 440
10
3 794
22
- 3 243
243
- 603
- 7 348
- 4 994
3 514
7 984
35
- 48
- 768
126
- 850
2 015
2
87
7 384
88 852
30 180
58 672
55 632
- 5 252
4 412
676
54 898
899
120 043
3 019
459
312
147
2 560
3
2
2014
398
228
33
15
899
389
137
675
375
4 460
11
234
3 771
1
2 768
50
- 1 779
16 586
29 490
268
- 31
10 496
- 9 770
1
23 172
15
- 1 279
1 140
- 602
- 14
5 555
9 885
- 79 128
17 463
237
0
- 164
917
3 140
158
0
5 012
8 161
133 551
46 739
86 812
61 700
5 436
10 389
1 464
44 985
- 574
152 106
5 446
228
38
190
5 219
25
1
/
A12
2008
84
54
29
17
8
1
2
24
2009
26
15
597
6
49
40
815
1
1
7
683
553
933
475
651
107
593
106
620
30
744
-
2010
Net salesa
2011
2012
37
176
35
59
104
- 197
476
9
- - 457
19
13
3 860
3 653
6
2
60
11
272
6
38 903 37 723 55
29 197 27 128 31
16 437 17 855 14
11 017
6 758 11
3 530 12 684
2
1 962 - 2 063
2
- 57
33
344
57
- 360
385 - 2
12 759
9 273 17
3
- 336
5
747
1 384
6
-
110
6
13
27
3
40
15
539 - 159
69
52
673 - 968
0
36
8
27 - 296
967 33 360
714 22 320
072 11 944
501
9 524
125
2 912
537 - 1 528
34
30
88
82
212
925
642 10 376
50 - 100
828
477
6
2 905
354
2 837
4 429
- 0
3 988
1 476
329
2 586
13 883
9 871
3 859
1 615
150
351
461
954
921
293
289
1 175
12 532
5 931
5 634 13 090
10
13
765
10 303
5 877
5 613 12 795
3
13
4
1 377
- 0
247
71
44
9
44
17 598
3 775
4 961 11 163
335
452
30
34
11
717
877
30
- 99
183
506
- 55
460
16
108
642
46
10
388
124
298
12
28
330
42
297
657
2
66
13 982
3 159
1 958
8 930
1 292
299
755
556
20
9 233 - 911 29 013 18 927
4 205 - 1 680 18 585 15 535
- 1 757
97
3 457 - 295
24
- 4
- 16
1 900
84 10 115 15 107
3 252
1 534
826
514
- 46 - 1 633 - 1 370 - 1 220
0
6
357
167
48
1
1
3
4
- 60
- 1
0
430
34
612
512
20
2
448
747
329 - 1 740
4 158
2 900
182
8 853
1 157
0
1
405
5
17
30
43
103
145
650
100
1
23
721
411
8 023
- 65
908
2 821
16
2 805
- 153
153
8 219
1 727
22
2 230
317
- 774
169
1 429
2 690
366
44
22 586
19 471
343
1
17 316
- 78
1 974
140
- 67
3
89
- 249
1 747
120
- 1
- 213
-
2008
Net purchasesb
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2
6
- 1
537
2
195
15
5
40 183
33 344
26 914
26 404
433
- 616
213
- 77
558
6 429
0
12
844
75
2 758
997
1
379
- 101
529
- 86
18
22
89 337
80 653
73 135
52 415
17 070
3 843
0
- 80
- 112
7 517
0
31
814
- 749
472
890
922
4 147
4 736
40
448
1 245
94
4 784
5 955
13
4 763
5 892
0
8
- 8
- 0
70
2 055
2 729
- 111
324
- 5
35
414
629
291
235
857
2 045
286 - 215
34 797 25 457
17 260 20 567
- 76 - 5 334
74
312
9 996 14 204
2 513
8 662
3 864
681
108
109
6
618
1 819
162
108
16 845
3 711
191
3
411
15
-
9 111
- 150
7 832
1 339
25
13 376
13 370
6
29 499
3 451
322
3 688
- 233
601
6 028
1 518
1 495
12 629
2 761
5 980
259
5 480
60
16
0
623
- 458
- 780
-
3 292
57
2 793
865
456
456
27 965
155
441
253
893
10 276
121
15 825
8 160
4 763
- 80
2 518
1 701
209
417
- 2
3 354
2
-
102
59
40
35
5
18
2009
136
16
418
25
66
13
873
1 497
20
1
- 1
475 69 556
601 41 135
687 36 520
878 23 402
493
6 217
052
6 601
0 - 580
106
- 24
843
904
914
4 615
10
757 - 2 402
2013
433
5
619
6
257
2
865
218
810
828
318
952
52
339
407
186
- 173
1
- 78
4 291
353
80 499
67 641
51 100
36 364
9 916
4 574
247
16 541
165
2 372
3 380
19
479
8 963
7 948
2 810
4 569
57
26 626
6 288
1
26 642
6 282
- 3
- 13
6
- 13 979
6 571
- 3 674 - 2 723
- 29
37
- 10 793
2 078
26
836
- 530
222
626 - 790
2 165
107
- 38
908
- 1 732
5 896
16 725 16 385
13 698 10 312
514
102
9 030
5 541
867
628
3 210
5 085
40
0
71
171
7
13
- - 1 268
2 949
4 736
-
9 105
682
795
5 659
21
2 989
2 988
1
11 390
527
- 14
- 2
376
80
354
7 971
294
2 012
- 207
30 735
23 728
2 754
2
7 401
10 257
3 007
3
319
0
- 16
6 887
354
12
-
79
67
52
29
13
9
14
92
78
61
37
16
5
2
16
2014
418
65
1 219
185
40
241
2 104
189
1
825
2 246
1 867
- 5
2
1
819 100 707 137 059
440 91 009 125 250
861 70 276 103 857
908 50 148 39 580
009 16 459 58 959
714
3 765
3 928
10
3
221
- 96
1 387
579 20 733 21 393
- 1
315
2 923
1 176
-
2 144
1 056
71
3 211
5 986 16 674
9 602 - 721
7
- 0
1 621
1 105
- 4
1 619
1 084
2
25
8 077 10 705
317 - 2 131
8
258
1 414
- 63
- 20
0
3 078
3 796
520 - 674
590
398
3 326
7 964
16 239
8 440
12 501
2 386
99
42
2 956 - 2 449
2 771
746
6 406
1 629
225
1 041
8
4
35
1 372
3 577
5 880
50
104
/
ANNEX TABLES
A13
2008
2 306
44
2 128
- 108
2 236
- 742
2
- 758
13
25 868
587
3
9
2009
2010
Net salesa
2011
2012
2013
129
- 1
23
588
0
1
587
4
0
4
6 934
529
146
8
7 989
164
1 575
7
59
1 037
473
8 844
1
8 843
4 095
65
-
1 143
6
- 235
2 235
39
9
1 214
973
23
5
19
32 966
1 367
-
67
46
27
7
501
25 177
204
2
16
398
4
18 596
5 931
25
104
-
3
10
362
6 391
1 621
4 620
145
4
14
-
19
4 001
0
649
101
44
2 882
322
1
30
-
340
599
26
10
293
6
- 9
859
14
400
-
- 2 565
- 765
2 204
501
374
778
1 983
615
634
- 574
1 571
41
9 038
1 011
- 48
31
29
1
1 116 15
0
725
1 368
1 264
88
1
16 - 67
11
- 78
6 825 - 3
3
1
2014
2008
896
130
216
693
213
079
600
4
0
3
820
16
6
3 652
41
1 179
4
1 175
278
26
- 2
258
- 2
4 220
20
10
2
9
10
6 822 - 3 838
4 189
23
30
13
- 51
- 831
217 - 1 321
- 5
7 201 - 3 901
5 525
434 - 169
7
3
1
2
11
-
- 3
- 7
014
519
634
869
993
645
26
Net purchasesb
2010
2011
2012
2009
- 190
3 187
- 590
165
- 2 440
44
- 2
514 - 254
- 2 632 - 2 882
35 - 2 615
14
28
14
- 30
- 2 454
22
- 10
4
906
174
1
136
0
172
1 051
- 324
1
43
11 005
7 789
- 9 - 174
-
11
12
2013
2014
2 896
53
78
- 10
- 6
- 298
167
1
- 156
77
- 0
- 4
- 4
5 378
-
4 274
462
1 337
- 558
511
1 079
35
202
- 15
1 150
13 108
51
-
6 504
18
120
444
- 174
- 158
120
15
- 29
44
0
9 296
2
1
3 845
- 421
162
- 123
- 142
- 625
15
- 9
- 244
400
78
86
3
4
- 14
3 054
-
5 372
509
174
- 374
- 11
- 429
- 160
26
- 20
168
1 160
123
- 79
1 116
1 831
-
174
963
957
6
170
378
462
875
40
- 0
580
51
869
2
088
673
106
188
158
1
9 294
0
748
- 32
8 302
276
10 872
3 054
215
2 242
597
10 541
831
256
- 1
14
685
122
573
16
12
1
-
16
3 734
63
259
353
- 102
23
258 - 1 062
2 262
- 25
1 727
8 076
544
270
1 637
- 35
424
- 824
- 230
- 294
2 065
- 596
1 503
Note:
2009
2010
2011
Net salesa
2012
2013
2014
617 649 287 617 347 094 553 442 328 224 312 509 398 899
89 495
52 808
67 509 148 857
51 290
40 792
39 948
2 920
730
2 524
1 426
7 585
7 422
581
86 574
52 078
64 985 147 431
43 705
33 370
39 367
193 617
74 408 133 155 202 289 112 211 116 404 145 911
10 608
5 079
34 762
48 340
18 509
46 041
30 994
3 831
425
546
4 199
2 233
4 535
2 891
1 022
612
720
5 060
4 516
2 802
1 368
- 347
-8
- 223
31
20
194
90
1 506
1 964
-1 479
-1 307
- 663
-9 368
76 384
27 752
33 693
77 075
38 524
32 049
72 914
925
0
5 471
2 223
1 718
760
824
27 103
2 247
6 549
927
1 619
5 733
1 681
19 507
- 972
6 635
5 687
8 891
9 490
3 072
8 505
2 180
6 349
14 251
1 285
5 296
12 474
21 477
19 763
21 278
27 525
22 231
7 516
20 343
13 569
12 539
8 644
4 299
6 913
1 234
508
10 943
3 277
6 551
14 406
7 048
1 592
8 017
334 536 160 401 146 430 202 296 164 723 155 312 213 040
48 087
59 048
-6 784
21 100
11 923
9 988
17 836
4 568
11 646
10 642
3 062
2 253
3 174
2 345
29 132
3 554
7 195
15 285
12 730
-4 165
24 579
6 402
794
1 907
1 494
- 501
4 537
16 825
14 789
5 456
10 690
16 009
10 401
5 708
10 381
28 441
45 074
19 213
24 934
34 875
31 079 -61 969
103 585
17 126
58 480
64 698
37 717
49 575 134 861
88 408
14 483
30 609
48 283
43 707
43 807
51 630
4 209
1 271
1 380
2 910
3 602
4 078
4 322
1 225
509
881
685
213
76
1 256
2 944
653
9 936
2 947
6 636
4 085
1 892
1 956
525
1 565
726
971
1 591
6 312
793
263
715
164
196
1 780
2 769
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
649 287 617 347 094 553 442 328 224 312 509 398 899
927
27 914
46 838
93 254
3 309
892
14 191
173
1 784
408
366
-1 423
318
- 214
754
26 130
46 430
92 888
4 732
574
14 405
981
38 142 127 792 222 833 137 818
96 238 174 312
041
- 467
33 620
31 541
31 671
35 837
33 863
- 51
546
2 963
2 449
2 508
1 747
929
408
1 425
8 388
3 748
3 589
3 018
2 955
- 284
30
906
- 112
65
16
47
-3 333
- 844
-6 802
-2 673
-3 748
-2 003 -16 065
60 802
26 416
46 874
89 702
41 485
28 339
72 428
461
- 285
127
1 367
570
368
2 335
23 126
- 567
5 198
1 663
755
3 609
2 251
21 660
2 746
5 075
18 375
9 705
649
46 114
7 837
1 814
5 910
14 564
12 836
6 804
7 179
47 336
4 713
11 758
39 440
26 821
13 567
16 502
9 221
73
6 737
10 899
4 902
1 058
- 897
9 839
2 540
7 040
11 870
6 661
3 229
6 671
435 741 221 562 172 464 237 355 187 097 215 378 210 396
26 510
44 246 -14 841
6 758
3 128
7 739
16 877
-2 890
-2 561
-2 001
-1 575
2 774
4 823
992
18 866
3 821
6 104
6 412
23 188
-1 591
28 496
3 507
354
867
684
-1 847
925
16 792
6 993
3 651
7 637
6 595
9 129
3 461
4 944
49 461
38 880
19 306
22 954
17 417
26 874 -78 695
312 975 125 835 138 016 168 033 113 475 145 893 184 132
32 050
7 773
16 864
26 423
18 839
26 593
33 388
-11 118
- 594
-4 303
- 288
-1 165
-1 049
-4 523
155
51
310
112
317
-1 040
125
- 730
187
3 815
729
954
2 315
2 652
1 116
- 77
635
526
275
406
4 923
-1 154
-3
55
-9
615
29
292
617
47
2
45
133
-43
2008
Net purchasesb
Cross-border M&A sales and purchases are calculated on a net basis as follows: Net cross-border M&As sales by sector/industry = Sales of companies in the industry of the acquired company to foreign MNEs (-) Sales of foreign affiliates in the industry of the acquired
company; net cross-border M&A purchases by sector/industry = Purchases of companies abroad by home-based MNEs, in the industry of the acquiring company (-) Sales of foreign affiliates of home-based MNEs, in the industry of the acquiring company. The data cover
only those deals that involved an acquisition of an equity stake of more than 10 per cent.
Source:
Total
Primary
Agriculture, hunting, forestry and fisheries
Mining, quarrying and petroleum
Manufacturing
Food, beverages and tobacco
Textiles, clothing and leather
Wood and wood products
Publishing and printing
Coke, petroleum products and nuclear fuel
Chemicals and chemical products
Rubber and plastic products
Non-metallic mineral products
Metals and metal products
Machinery and equipment
Electrical and electronic equipment
Motor vehicles and other transport equipment
Other manufacturing
Services
Electricity, gas and water
Construction
Trade
Accommodation and food service activities
Transportation and storage
Information and communication
Finance
Business services
Public administration and defence
Education
Health and social services
Arts, entertainment and recreation
Other service activities
Sector/industry
A14
World Investment Report 2015: Reforming International Investment Governance
United States
China
France
Switzerland
United States
United States
Canada
Germany
Spain
United States
Sweden
United States
Peru
United States
Netherlands
Korea, Republic of
Hong Kong, China
Morocco
United States
United States
United States
Argentina
Canada
United Kingdom
Finland
Isle of Man
Germany
Hong Kong, China
Germany
Russian Federation
United States
United Kingdom
Peru
United States
United States
United States
Italy
Hong Kong, China
Germany
United States
United States
Germany
Chile
Czech Republic
Brazil
Norway
Chile
Denmark
United States
Switzerland
United States
Hong Kong, China
Italy
United Kingdom
Host economya
Radiotelephone communications
Investment advice
Telephone communications, except radiotelephone
Drug stores and proprietary stores
Pharmaceutical preparations
Wines, brandy and brandy spirits
Eating places
Radiotelephone communications
Telephone communications, except radiotelephone
Prepackaged software
Motor vehicles and passenger car bodies
Biological products, except diagnostic substances
Copper ores
Crude petroleum and natural gas
Cable and other pay television services
Malt beverages
Retail stores, nec
Telephone communications, except radiotelephone
Pharmaceutical preparations
Equipment rental and leasing, nec
Rubber and plastics hose and belting
Petroleum refining
Operators of nonresidential buildings
Process control instruments
Radio and TV broadcasting and communications equipment
Amusement and recreation svcs
Cable and other pay television services
Banks
Drugs, drug proprietaries and druggists sundries
Crude petroleum and natural gas
Natural gas transmission and distribution
Travel agencies
Natural gas liquids
Electric services
Pharmaceutical preparations
Pharmaceutical preparations
Cable and other pay television services
Grain and field beans
Plastics plumbing fixtures
Motor vehicles and passenger car bodies
National commercial banks
Motor vehicle parts and accessories
Pharmaceutical preparations
Radiotelephone communications
Banks
Adjustment and collection services
Electric services
Functions related to depository banking, nec
Radio and TV broadcasting and communications equipment
Flavoring extracts and flavoring syrups, nec
Crude petroleum and natural gas
Electric services
Pharmaceutical preparations
Aluminum rolling and drawing, nec
Acquiring company
United States
Hong Kong, China
France
United States
Germany
Japan
United States
Germany
Spain
United States
Germany
Switzerland
Hong Kong, China
Canada
United Kingdom
Belgium
Singapore
United Arab Emirates
Ireland
Netherlands
United States
Argentina
Bermuda
France
United States
Canada
Germany
Singapore
Germany
Cyprus
United States
Germany
Netherlands
Canada
Sweden
Ireland
Italy
China
Japan
United States
Switzerland
United Kingdom
United States
Netherlands
Spain
Sweden
Chile
United States
Hong Kong, China
United States
United States
China
Sweden
United States
Home economya
Telephone communications, except radiotelephone
Steel works, blast furnaces and rolling mills
Cable and other pay television services
Drug stores and proprietary stores
Chemicals and chemical preparations, nec
Malt beverages
Eating places
Telephone communications, except radiotelephone
Radiotelephone communications
Prepackaged software
Motor vehicles and passenger car bodies
Pharmaceutical preparations
Investment offices, nec
Crude petroleum and natural gas
Cable and other pay television services
Malt beverages
Investors, nec
Telephone communications, except radiotelephone
Pharmaceutical preparations
Equipment rental and leasing, nec
Investors, nec
National government
Real estate investment trusts
Power, distribution and specialty transformers
Prepackaged software
Amusement and recreation svcs
Cable and other pay television services
Banks
Drugs, drug proprietaries and druggists sundries
Investors, nec
Natural gas transmission
Travel agencies
Crude petroleum and natural gas
Electric services
Pharmaceutical preparations
Pharmaceutical preparations
Investment offices, nec
Investors, nec
Investors, nec
Automobiles and other motor vehicles
Petroleum and petroleum products wholesalers, nec
Turbines and turbine generator sets
Pharmaceutical preparations
Investors, nec
Banks
Investment offices, nec
Natural gas transmission
Investors, nec
Electronic computers
Cottonseed oil mills
Crude petroleum and natural gas
Investors, nec
Pharmaceutical preparations
Rolling, drawing and extruding of nonferrous metals
As long as the ultimate host economy is different from the ultimate home economy, M&A deals that were undertaken within the same economy are still considered cross-border M&As. nec = not elsewhere classified.
Immediate country.
Note:
130.3
42.2
23.1
15.3
14.2
13.9
13.4
11.2
10.0
9.1
9.1
8.3
7.0
6.8
6.8
5.8
5.7
5.7
5.6
5.4
5.4
5.3
5.2
5.0
5.0
4.9
4.9
4.8
4.8
4.7
4.6
4.6
4.6
4.5
4.3
4.2
4.2
4.0
4.0
3.7
3.5
3.4
3.3
3.3
3.3
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.1
3.1
3.1
3.1
3.1
3.0
Value
Acquired company
($ billion)
Source:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
Rank
Annex table 5. Cross-border M&A deals worth over $3 billion completed in 2014
45
100
100
55
100
100
100
100
100
100
37
100
100
100
72
100
25
53
100
100
100
51
51
100
100
100
57
98
74
12
66
54
100
100
100
88
100
51
88
41
100
50
100
66
7
100
97
100
100
100
100
60
100
100
Shares
acquired
ANNEX TABLES
A15
A16
Annex table 6. Value of announced greenfield FDI projects, by source/destination, 20082014 (Millions of dollars)
Partner region/economy
2008
2009
Worlda
1 354 899 973 735
Developed countries
981 688 709 745
Europe
571 325 422 717
European Union
524 362 390 544
Austria
21 681
9 476
Belgium
12 591
8 466
Bulgaria
325
25
Croatia
1 830
148
Cyprus
903
898
Czech Republic
3 771
1 137
Denmark
13 849
9 514
Estonia
537
138
Finland
10 746
3 823
France
85 592 62 317
Germany
94 247 70 061
Greece
3 948
1 715
Hungary
2 817
940
Ireland
8 425 13 974
Italy
38 219 25 575
Latvia
529
674
Lithuania
701
321
Luxembourg
13 369
5 169
Malta
191
850
Netherlands
38 581 33 350
Poland
1 754
1 045
Portugal
11 768
9 223
Romania
339
115
Slovakia
98
388
Slovenia
1 632
587
Spain
46 093 40 208
Sweden
21 482 14 545
United Kingdom
88 345 75 865
Other developed Europe
46 963 32 173
Andorra
16
31
Iceland
496
129
Liechtenstein
94
134
Monaco
15
28
Norway
11 880 10 921
San Marino
Switzerland
34 463 20 930
North America
287 364 195 603
Canada
43 132 30 022
United States
244 199 165 581
Other developed economies
122 998 91 426
Australia
29 757 16 887
Bermuda
2 340
7 507
Greenland
34
Israel
11 820
2 643
Japan
78 388 63 503
New Zealand
693
885
a
Developing economies
350 717 243 441
Africa
12 244 12 234
North Africa
5 056
2 499
Algeria
271
58
Egypt
3 708
1 858
Libya
22
Morocco
623
431
South Sudan
Sudan
Tunisia
454
130
Other Africa
7 189
9 734
Angola
83
15
Benin
Botswana
12
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cabo Verde
Cameroon
22
Central African Republic
Chad
Comoros
Congo
Congo, Democratic Republic of the
171
Cte dIvoire
12
22
Djibouti
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
3
Ethiopia
18
11
Gabon
Gambia
Ghana
6
Worlda as destination
2010
2011
2012
By source
824 827 879 429
598 579 610 022
363 130 335 620
332 056 310 042
8 532
7 706
6 190
5 682
120
119
810
83
557
4 306
2 640
2 002
3 739
9 809
873
425
4 300
6 060
49 633 43 871
70 247 68 697
908
1 064
372
1 107
5 474
3 931
19 039 21 223
832
275
272
153
5 109
8 133
8
540
20 943 16 887
1 851
833
5 092
2 005
758
104
1 311
32
529
356
36 784 27 395
14 862 13 658
70 268 63 585
31 075 25 579
133
10
592
316
93
106
63
199
5 524
6 974
24 670 17 975
162 150 180 684
20 233 26 936
141 918 153 749
73 298 93 717
11 452 12 933
1 250
578
6 779
3 133
52 831 75 931
986
1 141
206 447 252 580
13 156 32 792
1 123
514
138
1 006
69
62
103
187
55
17
12 033 32 279
527
11
140
137
7
22
22
18
54
630 757
432 764
243 060
225 506
5 113
3 368
83
172
2 910
2 174
7 501
263
6 474
30 281
51 577
1 445
921
7 807
21 927
85
603
5 711
66
9 934
1 353
2 228
139
285
332
18 002
9 025
35 729
17 554
168
42
111
3 779
3
13 451
127 327
21 249
106 078
62 377
8 618
596
2 706
48 818
1 639
188 256
7 151
2 593
200
2 382
11
4 558
365
66
11
46
62
61
2013
707 378
479 064
266 757
238 500
5 310
4 194
216
241
1 057
2 131
7 476
886
7 357
30 752
53 680
837
666
3 720
21 243
147
271
4 336
104
14 229
854
2 709
287
262
162
24 615
10 304
40 453
28 257
4 231
54
34
3 469
20 469
140 037
15 364
124 672
72 271
9 812
1 975
3 165
54 806
2 512
209 496
17 402
2 271
15
1 125
903
229
15 131
112
36
22
11
328
12
70
29
2014
695 577
481 443
259 729
241 745
4 792
7 573
277
113
1 115
378
5 137
129
2 464
46 246
52 795
10 332
738
3 017
17 539
65
154
6 526
127
15 761
1 400
2 443
467
5
63
19 105
8 597
34 388
17 984
87
151
78
2 719
14 949
152 339
26 583
125 756
69 376
11 028
845
2 032
52 352
3 118
208 333
13 386
2 902
1 723
22
1 102
55
10 483
345
22
11
150
600
11
-
2008
1 354 899
412 337
303 756
295 378
3 074
11 118
10 518
3 121
595
4 905
1 684
1 288
2 270
24 130
29 271
4 586
9 206
7 554
11 542
2 545
1 442
408
320
9 014
28 567
6 341
29 190
2 884
558
24 647
2 694
61 906
8 378
74
4
193
3 110
4 997
75 177
17 162
58 015
33 404
23 690
882
7 039
1 793
844 713
149 130
53 614
17 908
10 159
2 979
16 858
1 153
1 243
3 315
95 516
11 451
11
1 984
281
22
137
350
758
11
11
2 856
569
1 108
5
777
2 880
33
4 788
2009
973 735
321 894
198 391
192 734
1 565
3 684
4 231
1 550
237
3 954
1 625
1 150
1 191
14 119
17 597
1 842
3 832
4 833
10 406
861
1 086
738
413
9 528
13 804
5 473
14 403
3 336
289
13 044
2 680
55 263
5 657
31
65
2 370
3 191
92 931
16 280
76 651
30 572
21 023
1
3 356
5 587
605
601 867
82 923
38 479
2 605
18 474
1 813
5 998
58
1 889
7 642
44 444
5 806
362
270
55
1 011
57
1 271
48
113
880
1 300
337
709
33
6 735
Worlda as investors
2010
2011
2012
By destination
824 827 879 429 630 757
289 771 289 315 237 341
159 171 159 966 139 125
152 929 156 445 135 930
2 070
3 076
1 656
6 084
2 850
2 603
3 201
5 313
2 642
2 250
2 133
1 067
718
393
130
6 210
4 546
3 528
935
596
934
886
783
892
1 364
1 920
1 884
8 946 10 257
8 590
15 534 15 886 11 720
1 093
1 979
1 474
7 760
3 469
2 834
4 000
7 021
4 514
11 409
4 857
3 964
702
606
1 002
1 226
7 355
1 125
687
303
276
312
185
256
8 368
5 638
3 985
11 076 10 820 10 839
2 756
1 572
1 228
7 347 11 633
8 836
3 867
5 696
1 419
638
459
455
13 763
9 741 10 287
2 001
3 010
1 681
27 727 34 348 46 110
6 242
3 520
3 196
16
722
194
124
8
49
113
43
2 280
819
565
3 167
2 394
2 464
83 413 105 596 73 415
19 947 30 181 11 887
63 054 75 415 61 528
47 188 23 754 24 801
41 329 16 048 17 819
162
6
13
412
874
787
1 452
4 458
4 781
4 329
364
2 132
1 189
488 887 534 486 356 324
75 719 73 241 48 162
20 008 11 422 14 620
1 367
1 432
2 377
9 500
5 417
9 125
973
44
88
4 086
2 858
1 468
149
350
341
2 292
72
77
1 640
1 249
1 145
55 711 61 820 33 542
1 330
383
2 959
12
46
18
461
367
146
460
157
1
25
42
20
44
136
5 287
3 611
565
11
58
142
102
7
130
32
113
1 060
2 187
466
281
817
809
891
22
10
1 800
3
309
1 115
498
2 493
225
259
206
15
200
2 525
5 652
1 250
2013
707 378
225 555
128 801
125 173
1 121
3 142
1 772
1 094
152
4 069
585
782
2 733
9 927
11 369
3 476
2 113
5 003
4 011
729
792
428
199
7 167
8 848
1 453
9 117
1 761
167
11 740
1 052
30 372
3 628
1
248
115
18
1 355
1 892
71 329
16 356
54 973
25 425
12 754
4
1 236
10 162
1 268
452 478
55 124
10 765
4 285
3 024
135
2 536
291
55
441
44 358
620
160
103
537
65
6
497
150
11
433
740
1 951
179
12
4 483
46
9
2 774
2014
695 577
222 378
119 389
116 250
1 877
3 177
1 295
902
39
2 325
901
210
1 506
7 472
7 885
672
3 263
5 007
5 808
262
629
219
192
5 578
7 503
1 207
5 586
1 033
198
10 776
2 385
38 341
3 139
356
76
25
760
1 922
77 031
18 983
58 048
25 958
15 651
66
389
8 654
1 198
447 548
88 295
25 849
536
18 129
179
4 598
161
68
2 178
62 446
16 132
11
236
72
330
141
253
22
629
11
1 708
540
495
284
11
2 758
195
4 476
/
ANNEX TABLES
A17
Annex table 6. Value of announced greenfield FDI projects, by source/destination, 20082014 (continued)
Partner region/economy
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Madagascar
Malawi
Mali
Mauritania
Mauritius
Mozambique
Namibia
Niger
Nigeria
Reunion
Rwanda
Sao Tome and Principe
Senegal
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Somalia
South Africa
Swaziland
Togo
Uganda
United Republic of Tanzania
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Asia
East and South-East Asia
East Asia
China
Hong Kong, China
Korea, Democratic
Peoples Republic of
Korea, Republic of
Macao, China
Mongolia
Taiwan Province of China
South-East Asia
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia
Indonesia
Lao Peoples Democratic
Republic
Malaysia
Myanmar
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand
Timor-Leste
Viet Nam
South Asia
Afghanistan
Bangladesh
Bhutan
India
Iran, Islamic Republic of
Maldives
Nepal
Pakistan
Sri Lanka
West Asia
Bahrain
Iraq
Jordan
Kuwait
Lebanon
Oman
Qatar
Saudi Arabia
State of Palestine
Syrian Arab Republic
Turkey
United Arab Emirates
Yemen
Latin America and the Caribbeana
South America
Argentina
Bolivia, Plurinational State of
Brazil
2008
Worlda as destination
2010
2011
2012
2009
494
326
11
11
22
11
334
764
15
671
724
15
4 526
7 503
110
151
39
44
11
55
9
670
33
320 547 218 646
155 819 121 350
108 541 83 141
47 529 25 757
16 025 16 538
2013
2014
2008
By source
3 552
471
532
585
421
2
22
22
2 534
1 577
298
3 273
1 752
58
289
402
654
1 012
636
2 812
641
22
2
6
389
14
4 563 28 533
1 982
6 666
5 564
48
280
55
199
80
11
7
52
51
22
138
297
46
33
12
6
556
170 813 198 878 170 707 171 595 186 257
122 334 126 226 108 398 117 002 145 108
86 211 92 672 71 322 93 154 110 991
20 472 41 158 19 467 22 092 63 295
7 389 10 799 11 997 53 614 11 832
32 897
70
12 020
47 278
105
65
229
28 840
12 007
38 208
209
1 097
30 025
150
28 176
36 123
319
27 499
13 216
33 554
70
4 998
29 495
10 363
37 076
189
861
11 139
81
6 229
23 848
184
366
23 412
12 453
34 117
140
108
856
185
81
16 102
604
19 697
7 672
2 619
34 253
104
32 402
425
1
1 286
33
130 476
15 800
547
15 779
518
173
8 495
4 896
357
4 871
78 988
52
17 856
15 397
420
11 027
14 362
1 496
13 656
5 784
1 605
23 212
51
17 382
5 726
22
32
74 085
14 758
20
897
3 394
571
3 069
13 536
5 946
61
3 883
27 952
12 475
9 983
875
5 896
20 092
2 044
9 498
3 322
848
20 323
113
19 351
638
3
146
72
28 156
797
598
2 479
268
107
1 583
1 435
3 075
17 744
70
22 462
19 619
1 267
11 703
3 639
71
369
13 042
10 036
1 330
33 177
37
101
32 156
515
31
245
93
39 475
734
51
50
2 824
220
220
11 508
5 627
219
3 019
15 003
20 724
9 726
533
4 281
17 694
545
15 084
2 527
175
28 743
131
25 974
1 563
151
92
832
33 565
1 530
1 015
1 215
415
99
7 514
2 033
15
0
4 139
15 578
11
10 398
6 661
1 349
3 130
3 542
160
530
12 903
5 235
928
15 955
13
1
14 794
243
739
165
38 638
618
53
107
9 806
166
466
1 496
2 701
6 803
16 402
21
20 499
14 131
1 368
66
9 159
9 676
2 023
16 530
3 962
741
14 220
48
13 274
382
434
84
26 929
467
553
399
220
269
252
1 926
2 685
20 159
8 689
4 592
69
1 590
2009
Worlda as investors
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
By destination
1 417
556
29
33
6
321
912
2 364
1 017
3 635
2 305
56
512
4
5 103
281
53
558
22
104
216
211
358
316
206
23
559
29
15
0
792
25
52
46
274
350
22
1 312
63
1 389
140
51
341
3 200
8 928
3 207
6 281
8 801
378
886
764
1 066
184
100
277
350
19
9 272
3 789
6 277
6 320 10 800
150
1 663
591
1 202
434
496
150
150
6
801
81
1 159
1 312
377
130
11
37
156
37
230
218
110
611
34
40
378
165
5 951 10 845
4 604
5 765
3 833
439
7
150
67
410
370
22
7 830
2 393
421
816
426
837
3 112
1 064
782
569
1 206
2 398
747
1 075
2 990
750
5 432
3 103
473
457
300 605 332 651 228 966 241 266 268 884
198 409 212 085 148 642 158 851 192 612
114 474 126 100 97 124 90 942 96 173
96 010 105 106 78 547 75 740 77 411
6 075
6 342
7 285
5 943
5 263
597
12
2 600
1 337
22
400
270
323
6 590
1 799
3 141
28 402
265
280
1 324
141
78
161
12 199
21
146
2 935
2 120
1 305
1 020
558 381
304 815
144 826
121 661
6 300
67
22
1 315
26
824
164
710
58
108
785
1 501
7 807
315
532
1
260
5 847
11
15
1 431
431
2 229
1 000
403 869
236 370
127 203
109 145
7 943
606
221
59
227
11 282
4 784
689
490
335
257
3 953
4 363
159 989 109 167
379
434
3 372
3 747
32 608 26 005
3 793
221
1 655
6 720
83 936
204
1 423
13 062
9 634
483
356
4 120
85 985
5 928
2 109
27 600
6 201
2 356
249
2 486
51 518
76
1 540
15 649
5 934
257
657
2 185
67 908
45
2 186
10 579
10 828
870
165
1 635
96 438
134
2 250
17 330
261
1 254
703
459
1 016
6 023
6 982
1 995 13 727
4 124
3 744
9 072
8 857
6 065
5 634
79
6 192 15 695
39 296 26 368
227
320
2 267
912
35
183
31 267 18 917
80
279
107
603
4 153
3 067
1 068
2 180
41 028 56 047
3 950
1 166
978 15 020
1 459 10 938
614
2 168
222
106
4 311
1 662
2 089
1 597
7 859
6 351
7
3
8 996
9 714
10 245
7 141
302
178
77 808 153 023
55 394 68 031
5 837
4 263
10
1 028
30 081 28 317
19 190
4 456
7 357
11 999
8 870
10
23 828
38 957
2 051
24 976
1 667
108
390
7 858
1 906
37 316
1 018
2 270
1 730
238
1 182
1 528
1 215
9 967
20
4
4 779
12 856
510
89 446
40 528
3 273
502
18 713
/
1 133
2 074
A18
Annex table 6. Value of announced greenfield FDI projects, by source/destination, 20082014 (concluded)
Partner region/economy
Chile
Colombia
Ecuador
Guyana
Paraguay
Peru
Suriname
Uruguay
Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of
Central America
Belize
Costa Rica
El Salvador
Guatemala
Honduras
Mexico
Nicaragua
Panama
Caribbeana
Antigua and Barbuda
Aruba
Bahamas
Barbados
Cayman Islands
Cuba
Dominica
Dominican Republic
Grenada
Guadeloupe
Haiti
Jamaica
Martinique
Puerto Rico
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Saint Lucia
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Trinidad and Tobago
Turks and Caicos Islands
Oceania
Fiji
French Polynesia
Micronesia, Federated States of
New Caledonia
Papua New Guinea
Samoa
Solomon Islands
Transition economies
South-East Europe
Albania
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Montenegro
Serbia
The former Yugoslav Republic of
Macedonia
CIS
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Belarus
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Moldova, Republic of
Russian Federation
Tajikistan
Turkmenistan
Ukraine
Uzbekistan
Georgia
Memorandum
Least developed countries (LDCs)b
Landlocked developing countries
(LLDCs)c
Small island developing States (SIDS)d
2008
772
600
69
16
2
2 491
1 566
5
48
1 397
62
54
893
10
608
7
880
5
69
67
2
22 495
660
7
653
2009
Worlda as destination
2010
2011
2012
1 462
109
368
358
45
870
2 438
55
264
116
1 923
81
55
35
987
39
13
3
86
70
10
6
20 549
325
316
By source
2 217
1 791
3 384
815
190
81
27
265
2
5
830
1 955
2 748 10 790
13
119
11
145
20
71
146
1 701 10 532
246
3
465
65
95
209
1
5
32
65
483
31
25
8
28
168
13
20
10
3
16
185
10
35
7
150
19 801 16 827
498
182
105
19
3
7
365
146
2013
1 175
812
41
12
142
3 725
3
205
37
3 474
3
4
12
8
21
295
12
9 737
75
4
71
1 600
1 073
400
11
453
6 121
114
55
222
373
5 291
31
35
247
96
76
9
237
1
18 818
225
3
38
9
78
2014
2008
1 421
392
2
376
741
3 678
84
7
3 446
2
139
420
37
464
133
232
13
42
1
0
0
5 801
148
3
4
142
6 515
8 953
529
1 000
280
9 791
107
4 356
4 084
41 651
508
529
992
1 062
35 217
147
3 196
6 790
69
65
70
310
2 281
2 861
267
3
245
747
387
65
4 684
111
1 400
2 638
500
35
97 848
16 415
3 324
1 981
715
7 734
2009
Worlda as investors
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
15 847
3 167
324
12
65
10 768
248
1 075
32 507
5
1 403
718
1 108
121
26 173
751
2 228
3 385
6
28
98
958
1 336
49
38
6
681
1
316
2 283
302
18
1 927
36
49 974
5 589
116
1 316
120
3 262
By destination
5 721 14 814 10 903
13 048
7 102
3 258
108
619
488
159
45
302
369
111
369
11 320
4 332
3 023
160
31
724
1 027
753
6 086
494
338
20 931 26 937 20 447
1
259
1 711
2 983
677
252
479
230
892
237
384
246
483
51
16 078 20 531 17 706
265
270
350
1 487
1 954
790
2 422
7 788
1 968
6
25
65
68
479
24
122
227
4
248
282
299
1 552
446
221
253
5 307
603
4
6
30
25
59
350
45
37
458
12
15
497
1 071
952
65
145
65
24
131
118
31
2 486
3 278
1 388
159
36
70
156
10
2 195
3 045
1 196
221
65
46 169 55 628 37 092
4 937
6 833
7 736
58
317
288
277
1 258
1 349
372
424
350
3 775
3 981
4 633
10 195
12 191
803
38
401
5 688
13
1 075
4 021
76 074
100
762
858
1 058
548
30 545
40 597
1 606
8 918
16
6
195
2 858
0
434
1 363
2 555
65
1 513
221
3 066
12
3 054
29 345
6 345
56
878
612
4 223
6 610
3 162
562
326
5 464
1 160
755
45 611
4
1 363
515
379
1 551
33 319
725
7 755
3 307
2 221
84
221
240
298
19
1 375
1
221
505
221
965
44
31
3
923
48
35
840
25 650
6 094
53
1 006
1 143
2 926
33
99
2 661
776
454
853
1 117
576
966
21 761
47
1 215
1 410
350
81
537
15 421
82
2 617
75
20 195
3 418
395
700
31
14 890
8
754
29
19 296
13
569
2 075
693
14 885
1 063
7
16 464
70
422
109
343
0
14 619
901
181
8 895
120
2 883
75
137
4 251
1 429
0
766
18 562
220
539
219
3
16 376
1 206
31
5 653
110
222
419
4 569
334
-
78 919
590
1 530
974
16 218
463
153
46 149
223
4 024
7 644
952
2 514
40 549
878
2 063
1 143
1 743
45
487
26 583
539
1 262
4 463
1 344
3 836
40 185
229
646
1 783
2 379
271
29 645
2
300
4 062
867
1 047
47 100
658
1 384
1 012
7 455
277
346
22 416
1 060
2 219
2 869
7 404
1 694
28 827
486
1 496
616
1 188
60
155
16 683
587
7
3 061
4 488
529
21 707
811
1 006
594
1 386
49
282
12 468
159
4 669
285
1 292
18 701
281
647
348
2 165
70
115
12 974
482
35
1 090
495
855
875
589
861
896
1 131
1 624
1 604
52 569
31 192
37 704
31 629
22 061
40 279
47 680
3 258
4 312
1 483
1 213
3 500
1 047
1 220
44 241
23 815
22 271
38 535
18 640
17 712
16 398
1 292
887
2 585
1 928
339
3 605
2 021
5 302
3 163
6 101
7 079
2 456
6 504
4 841
Source: UNCTAD, based on information from the Financial Times Ltd, fDi Markets (www.fDimarkets.com).
a
Excluding the financial centers in the Caribbean (Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba, the Bahamas, Barbados, the British Virgin Islands, the Cayman Islands, Curaao, Dominica, Grenada,
Montserrat, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Sint Maarten and Turks and Caicos Islands).
b
Least developed countries include Afghanistan, Angola, Bangladesh, Benin, Bhutan, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cambodia, the Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, the Democratic Republic
of the Congo, Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, the Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Haiti, Kiribati, the Lao Peoples Democratic Republic, Lesotho, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi,
Mali, Mauritania, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nepal, the Niger, Rwanda, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Solomon Islands, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, Timor-Leste, Togo,
Tuvalu, Uganda, the United Republic of Tanzania, Vanuatu, Yemen and Zambia.
c
Landlocked developing countries include Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bhutan, Bolivia, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, the Central African Republic, Chad, Ethiopia, Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan, the Lao Peoples Democratic Republic, Lesotho, The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Malawi, Mali, the Republic of Moldova, Mongolia, Nepal, the Niger, Paraguay,
Rwanda, South Sudan, Swaziland, Republic of Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uganda, Uzbekistan, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
Small island developing countries include Antigua and Barbuda, the Bahamas, Barbados, Cabo Verde, Comoros, Dominica, Fiji, Grenada, Jamaica, Kiribati, Maldives, the
Marshall Islands, Mauritius, Federated States of Micronesia, Nauru, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Samoa,
Sao Tome and Principe, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, Timor-Leste, Tonga, Trinidad and Tobago, Tuvalu and Vanuatu.
Note:
ANNEX TABLES