SUMMER TRAINING

REPORT

FLUID FLOW

SUBMITTED TO:
SUBMITTED BY:
Ms. PRIYANKA
PRABHAKAR

GAURAV

15001005903
CHEMICAL
2nd Yr.

FLOWMETERS

VARIABLE-AREA

GENERAL INFORMATION :

In variable-area meters, fluid flowing through a slightly tapered tube causes a float
(as in the animation below), piston, or vane to change position inside the tube,
adjusting the area available for fluid to pass through. The fluid velocity determines
the final float position.

1. ROTAMETER

Rotameters such as the one shown below contain a float inside a tapered
tube to indicate flow rate. The taper is so slight it's very difficult to see.
When a balance is reached between the upward force of the flowing stream
and the float's weight, the float is stable. The scaled or direct flow rate is
read from the markings on the tube. The higher the float, the higher the
flow rate. A number of tube and float shapes are used to compensate for
various flow conditions.

DISADVANTAGES

ADVANTAGES

Low pressure drop, which remains

mostly constant across the
operating range of the meter.
Easily read, installed, and
maintained.
May be constructed from a variety
of materials and cover a wide
range of temperatures and
pressures.
Easily converted to handle flows of
different fluids.
Can be installed immediately
before or after pipe fittings.
Self-cleaning.

Requires relatively clean fluid to

prevent plugging.
Rotameters must be vertically
mounted.
Usually only provides direct
readings for air and water,
calculations must be made for
other fluids.
Rotameters are adversely affected
by moderate to high viscosities.
Can only be used on flows less
than 200 gal/min and in pipes less
than 3 inches in diameter.
Cannot be used in systems where

Piston meters and vane meters can

be mounted in any position.
Low cost.
Accurate within 2%

vibration is present.

2.ORIFICEMETER
GENERAL INFORMATION/EQUIPMENT DESIGN
Orifices, also called orifice plates, constrict fluid flow using a flat metal disc with
a circular hole in the center, as shown below. This constriction causes a pressure
drop across the plate. Pressure taps on both sides of the orifice measure the
differential.
The left picture below shows an orifice plate installed between flanges in a pipe.
Different flow conditions are accommodated by changing the location of
the orifice in the plate and the way the edge is bored, as shown below on the
right.

USAGE EXAMPLES
Orfice plates are the most common differential pressure meter in the chemical
process industry. Most gas, water, steam, and air applications are easily metered
by orifice plates.
Orifices made of bronze or of steel, as shown below, can be used to meter lube oil,
cooling water systems, and compressed air flow. The bronze orifice on the left
meters gases while the one in the middle meters liquids.

ADVANTAGES

No moving parts, low maintenance

Low cost
Small
Available in a large variety of
materials

DISADVANTAGES

Moderate accuracy of 2 - 4%
Pressure drops are large relative to
other differential pressure devices
Requires lengths of straight pipe
upstream and downstream
Contraction of flow reduces
accuracy of downstream pressure
measurement

3. VENTURI TUBE
GENERAL INFORMATION/EQUIPMENT DESIGN
Venturi tubes are specially shaped pipe sections with tapered inlets and outlets,
and straight throats. As the pipe diameter decreases, the fluid velocity increases,
causing a pressure drop proportional to the flowrate across the venturi tube's
throat.

VENTURI TUBE
USAGE EXAMPLES
Venturi tubes such as the one below to the left are common in water and
wastewater treatment facilities, power plants, and chemical and petrochemical
processing operations.

ADVANTAGES

Handle large flow volumes at low

pressure drops.
No moving parts, low
maintenance.
Accommodate liquids with high

DISADVANTAGES

Require four or more pressure taps

to accurately measure pressure
differential.
Require lengths of straight pipe
upstream and downstream.

solids content.
Shape is inherently self-cleaning.
May be mounted horizontally or
vertically.

Accuracy depends on consistent

flow profile.
Less accurate at low flow rates.

3.PITOT TUBES
GENERAL INFORMATION/EQUIPMENT DESIGN
Pitot tubes measure the difference between impact pressure in a flowing stream
and static pressure at the pipe wall. The impact tube's end is bent at a right angle
to face the flow and has a hole in the tip, as shown in the animation. Fluid flows
into the hole and up the length of the tube
The static tube is straight and has one or several holes along its length, as shown in
the pictures below. The height of the liquid in the tube indicates the pressure.

USAGE EXAMPLES
Pitot tubes are used industrially to meter clean liquids, gases and steam. They are
most frequently used to measure air velocity, particularly in HVAC systems, but in
other applications as well. For example pitot tubes can be seen in the plane to the
left and NASA's X-31 fighter jet to the right. The jet travels at speeds of 1000 mph
at an altitude of 40,000 ft. Most jets can only travel at 250-500 mph.

ADVANTAGES

Suitable for measuring steam

DISADVANTAGES

Subject to clogging

Low pressure drop

No moving parts, low maintenance
Easy to install and ideal for
retrofitting
Inexpensive

Limited to point measurements

3.REYNOLDS EXPERIMENT
OBJECTIVE:
To perform the Reynolds experiment for determination of different regimes of
flow.
BASICS:
The flow of real fluids can basically occur under two very different regimes
namely laminar and turbulent flow. The laminar flow is characterized by fluid
particles moving in the form of lamina sliding over each other, such that at
any instant the velocity at all the points in particular lamina is the same. The
lamina near the flow boundary move at a slower rate as compared to those
near the center of the flow passage. This type of flow occurs in viscous
fluids , fluids moving at slow velocity and fluids flowing through narrow
passages. The turbulent flow is characterized by constant agitation and
intermixing of fluid particles such that their velocity changes from point to
point and even at the same point from time to time. This type of flow occurs
in low density Fluids, flow through wide passage and in high velocity flows.
Reynolds conducted an experiment for observation and determination of
these regimes of flow. By introducing a fine filament of dye in to the flow of
water through the glass tube ,at its entrance he studied the different types of
flow. At low velocities the dye filament appeared as straight line through the
length of the tube and parallel to its axis, characterizing laminar flow. As the
velocity is increased the dye filament becomes wavy throughout indicating
transition flow. On further increasing the velocity the filament breaks up and

diffuses completely in the water in the glass tube indicating the turbulent
flow.
After conducting his experiment with pipes different diameters and with
water at different temperatures Reynolds concluded that the various
parameters on which the regimes of flow depend can be grouped together in
a single non dimensional parameter called Reynolds number. Reynolds
number is defined as, the ratio of inertia force per unit volume and is given
by

where:

v is the maximum velocity of the object relative to the fluid (SI units: m/s)

L is a characteristic linear dimension

is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid

(nu) is the kinematic viscosity

is the density of the fluid

BERNOULLI EQUATION
The Bernoulli Equation can be considered to be a statement of the conservation of
energyprinciple appropriate for flowing fluids. The qualitative behavior that is
usually labeled with the term "Bernoulli effect" is the lowering of fluid pressure in
regions where the flow velocity is increased. This lowering of pressure in a
constriction of a flow path may seem counterintuitive, but seems less so when you
consider pressure to be energy density. In the high velocity flow through the
constriction, kinetic energy must increase at the expense of pressure energy.