1

What is Auto Transformer ?

Under Electrical Transformer

Auto Transformer
Auto transformer is kind of electrical transformer where primary and secondary
shares same common single winding.
Theory of Auto Transformer
In Auto Transformer, one single winding is used as primary winding as well as
secondary winding. But in two windings transformer two different windings are used
for primary and secondary purpose. A diagram of auto transformer is shown below.
The winding AB of total turns N1 is considered as primary winding. This winding is
tapped from point C and the portion BC is considered as secondary. Let's assume the
number of turns in between points B and C is N 2.
If V1 voltage is applied across the winding i.e. in between A and C.

Hence, the voltage across the portion BC of the winding, will be,

As BC portion of the winding is considered as secondary, it can easily be understood

that value of constant k is nothing but turns ratio or voltage ratio of that auto
transformer.
When load is connected between secondary terminals i.e.between B and C, load
current I2 starts flowing. The current in the secondary winding or common winding is
the difference of I2 & I1.

Copper Savings in Auto Transformer

Now we will discuss the savings of copper in auto transformer compared to
conventional two winding transformer.
We know that weight of copper of any winding depends upon its length and cross sectional area. Again length of conductor in winding is proportional to its number of
turns and cross - sectional area varies with rated current.
So weight of copper in winding is directly proportional to product of number of turns
and rated current of the winding.
Therefore, weight of copper in the section AC proportional to,

and similarly, weight of copper in the section BC proportional to,

Hence, total weight of copper in the winding of auto transformer proportional to,

In similar way it can be proved, the weight of copper in two winding transformer is
proportional to,

N1I1 + N2I2
2N1I1

(Since, in a transformer N1I1 = N2I2)

Let's assume, Wa and Wtw are weight of copper in auto transformer and two winding
transformer respectively,

Saving of copper in auto transformer compared to two winding transformer,

Auto transformer employs only single winding per phase as against two distinctly
separate windings in a conventional transformer. Advantages of using auto
transformer. For transformation ratio = 2, the size of the auto transformer would be
approximately 50% of the corresponding size of two winding transformer. For
transformation ratio say 20 however the size would be 95%. The saving in cost is of
course not in the same proportion. The saving of cost is appreciable when the ratio of
transformer is low, that is lower than 2.
Disadvantages of Using Auto Transformer
But auto transformer has the following disadvantages:

1. Because of electrical conductivity of the primary and secondary

windings the lower voltage circuit is liable to be impressed upon by
higher voltage. To avoid breakdown in the lower voltage circuit, it
becomes necessary to design the low voltage circuit to withstand higher
voltage.

2. The leakage flux between the primary and secondary windings is small
and hence the impedance is low. This results into severer short circuit
currents under fault conditions.

3. The connections on primary and secondary sides have necessarily to be

same, except when using interconnected starring connections. This
introduces complications due to changing primary and secondary phase
angle particularly in the case-by-case of delta / delta connection.

4. Because of common neutral in a star / star connected auto transformer it

is not possible to earth neutral of one side only. Both their sides have to
have their neutrality either earth or isolated.

5. It is more difficult to preserve the electromagnetic balance of the

winding when voltage adjustment tappings are provided. It should be
known that the provision of adjusting tapping on an auto transformer
increases considerably the frame size of the transformer. If the range of
tapping is very large, the advantages gained in initial cost is lost to a
great event.

Autotransformer Connection Explained

Pos ted Ju l 2 201 2 by jigup arma r in En ergy and Po w er , Tra ns fo rm er s wi th 10 C om me nts

High efficiency autotransformer with 6%, 4%, 2% tap settings (photo by Legend Power)

Autotransformer Connection
An Ordinary Transformer consists of two windings called primary winding and secondary winding. These
two windings are magnetically coupled and electrically isolated. But the transformer in which a part of
windings is common to both primary and secondary is called Autotransformer.
In Autotransformer two windings are not only magnetically coupled but also electrically
coupled. The input to the transformer is constant but the output can be varied by
varying the tapings.
The autotransformer is both the most simple and the most fascinating of the connections involving two
windings. It is used quite extensively in bulk power transmission systems because of its ability to multiply the
effective KVA capacity of a transformer.
Autotransformers are also used on radial distribution feeder circuits as
voltage regulators.
The connection is shown in Figure 1 below.

Figure1 Boosting autotransformer connection

The primary and secondary windings of a two winding transformer have induced emf in them due to a
common mutual flux and hence are in phase. The currents drawn by these two windings are out of phase by
180. This prompted the use of a part of the primary as secondary. This is equivalent to common the secondary
turns into primary turns.
The common section need to have a cross sectional area of the conductor to carry (I2I1) ampere. Total
number of turns between A and C are T1. At point B a connection is taken. Section AB has T2 turns. As the
volts per turn, which is proportional to the flux in the machine, is the same for the whole winding, V1 : V2 =
T1 : T2
When the secondary winding delivers a load current of I2 Ampere the demagnetizing ampere turns is I2T2.
This will be countered by a current I1 flowing from the source through the T1 turns such that,
I1T1 = I2T2
A current of I1 ampere flows through the winding between B and C. The current in the winding between A and
B is ( I2 I1 ) ampere. The cross section of the wire to be selected for AB is proportional to this current
assuming a constant current density for the whole winding. Thus some amount of material saving can be
achieved compared to a two winding transformer. The magnetic circuit is assumed to be identical and hence
there is no saving in the same.
To quantify the saving the total quantity of copper used in an autotransformer is expressed as a fraction of
that used in a two winding transformer as:
Copper in autotransformer / copper in two winding transformer
= ( ( T1 T2 ) I1 + T2 ( I2 I1 ) ) / T1I1 + T2I2
Copper in autotransformer / copper in two winding transformer
= 1 ( 2T2I1 / ( T1I1 + T2I2 ) )
But T1I1 = T2I2 so,
The Ratio = 1 ( 2T2I1 / 2T1I1 ) = 1 ( T2/T1 )
This means that an autotransformer requires the use of lesser quantity of
copper given by the ratio of turns. This ratio therefore the savings in copper.

8
As the space for the second winding need not be there, the window space can be less for an autotransformer,
giving some saving in the lamination weight also. The larger the ratio of the voltages, smaller is the savings. As
T2 approaches T1 the savings become significant. Thus autotransformers become ideal choice for close ratio
transformations.

Figure 2 Close ratio transformations

The autotransformer shown in Figure 2 above is connected as a boosting autotransformer because the series
winding boosts the output voltage. Care must be exercised when discussing primary and secondary
voltages in relationship to windings in an autotransformer.
In two-winding transformers, the primary voltage is associated with the primary
winding, the secondary voltage is associated with the secondary winding, and the
primary voltage is normally considered to be greater than the secondary voltage.
In the case of a boosting autotransformer, however, the primary (or high) voltage is associated with the series
winding, and the secondary (or low) voltage is associated with the common winding; but the voltage across the
common winding is higher than across the series winding.

Limitation of the autotransformer

One of the limitations of the autotransformer connection is that not all types of three-phase connections are
possible. For example, the -Y and Y- connections are not possible using the autotransformer.
The Y-Y connection must share a common neutral between the high-voltage and low-voltage windings, so the
neutrals of the circuits connected to these windings cannot be isolated.
A autotransformer connection is theoretically possible; however, this will create a peculiar phase shift.
The phase shift is a function of the ratio of the primary to secondary voltages and it can be calculated from the
vector diagram.
This phase shift cannot be changed or eliminated and for this reason, autotransformers are very seldom
connected as transformers.

Advantages of the autotransformer

1.

There are considerable savings in size and weight.

2.

There are decreased losses for a given KVA capacity.

9
3.

Using an autotransformer connection provides an opportunity for achieving lower

series impedances and better regulation. Its efficiency is more when compared
with the conventional one.

4.

Its size is relatively very smaller.

5.

Voltage regulation of autotransformer is much better.

6.

Lower cost

7.

Low requirements of excitation current.

8.

Less copper is used in its design and construction.

9.

In conventional transformer the voltage step up or step down value is fixed while
in autotransformer, we can vary the output voltage as per out requirements and
can smoothly increase or decrease its value as per our requirement.

Disadvantages of the autotransformer

1.

The autotransformer connection is not available with certain three-phase

connections.

2.

Higher (and possibly more damaging) short-circuit currents can result from a
lower series impedance.

3.

Short circuits can impress voltages significantly higher than operating voltages
across the windings of an autotransformer.

4.

For the same voltage surge at the line terminals, the impressed and induced
voltages are greater for an autotransformer than for a two-winding transformer.

5.

Autotransformer consists of a single winding around an iron core, which creates a

change in voltage from one end to the other. In other words, the self-inductance
of the winding around the core changes the voltage potential, but there is no
isolation of the high and low voltage ends of the winding. So any noise or other
voltage anomaly coming in on one side is passed through to the other. For that
reason, Autotransformers are typically only used where there is already some sort
of filtering or conditioning ahead of it, as in electronic applications, or the
downstream device is unaffected by those anomalies, such as an AC motor during
starting.

Application

Used in both Synchronous motors and induction motors.

Used in electrical apparatus testing labs since the voltage can be smoothly and
continuously varied.

10

They find application as boosters in AC feeders to increase the voltage levels.

Used in HV Substation due to following reasons:

1.

If we use normal transformer the size of transformer will be very high which leads
to heavy weight, more copper and high cost.

2.

The tertiary winding used in Autotransformer balances single phase unbalanced

loads connected to secondary and it does not pass on these unbalanced currents
to Primary side. Hence Harmonics and voltage unbalance are eliminated.

3.

Tertiary winding in the Autotransformer balances amp turns so that

Autotransformer achieves magnetic separation like two winding transformers.

An autotransformer is a transformer having part of its winding included in both the input and output
circuit. A simple autotransformer connection is shown in Fig. 1. Note that because there is a common
portion of the winding (Section 1-2), there is no isolation between the input and output circuits. Also
note that there is only one winding.
As shown in the diagram, the line current is 10A for a 2000VA output (10A x 200V). The load current
is 20A at 100V or 2,000VA output.
The winding is tapped at 100V so that the autotransformer functions as a 200V-to-100V stepdown
transformer. While this is an acceptable transformer connection, its application is rather limited
because of the absence of isolation between input and output circuits.
Note that the load current flows in the opposite direction as the line current, which is typical in all
transformers. The current in Section 1-2 is, therefore, the difference between these two currents, or
10A (20A load minus 10A line).

Calculating equivalent size

The equivalent size of the autotransformer in the diagram below can be found as follows.
Section 2-3 VA equals 100V times 10A, or 1,000VA. Section 1-2 VA equals the quantity of the load
current minus the line current times 100V[(20A-10A) x 100V], or 1,000VA.
Therefore, the equivalent physical size is equal to Section 1-2 VA plus Section 2-3 VA, divided by
2[(1,000VA + 1,000VA)/2], or 1,000VA. Thus, we have a transformer whose equivalent size is
1,000VA but supplies a load of 2,000VA. Are we getting something for nothing here? Not really. The
transformation noted here is, in reality, only half of the load kVA rather than all of it, as it would be
with an isolated transformer.
The following equation can be used for calculating the equivalent size of any autotransformer.

11
Equivalent physical size = [([V.sub.H] - [V.sub.L])/[V.sub.H]] x [kVA.sub.load] (equation 1)
where [V.sub.H] = input voltage
[V.sub.L] = output voltage
Referring back to the diagram and inserting the known values into Equation 1, we have the following.
Equivalent physical size = [([V.sub.H] - [V.sub.L])/[V.sub.H]] x [kVA.sub.load]
= [(200V - 100V)/200V] x 2kVA
= 1kVA
Note that the larger the transformation ratio, the larger the transformer's equivalent physical size and
the smaller the transformation ratio, the smaller the equivalent physical size. For example, let's
suppose we have an autotransformer with a 200V-to-50V ratio feeding the same size load kVA
(2kVA). The equivalent physical size is as follows.
Equivalent physical size = [([V.sub.H] - [V.sub.L])/[V.sub.H]] x [kVA.sub.load]
= [(200V - 50V)/200V] X 2kVA
= 1.5kVA
Now let's suppose we have an autotransformer having a smaller transformation ratio, 200V-to-190V,
but feeding the same size load kVA. Its equivalent physical size is as follows.
Equivalent physical size = [([V.sub.H] - [V.sub.L])/[V.sub.H]] x [kVA.sub.load]
= [(200V - 190V)/200V]/200kVA
= 0.1kVA
As you can see, the larger the transformation ratio, the less economical an autotransformer
becomes. As a result, autotransformers with transformation ratios over 2 are seldom used.

A small quiz
To help you understand autotransformer applications, let's take a small quiz. Please study the
transformer connections shown in Figs. 2, 3, and 4. Fig. 2 is a wiring diagram of an isolated
transformer, including the input and output voltage at each winding. Fig. 3 shows this same isolated
transformer connected as a stepdown autotransformer, while Fig. 4 shows it connected as a bucking
autotransformer.
Suppose you want to step a 132V line down to 120V. Which autotransformer connection should you
use and what physical size transformer is required to handle a 10kVA load?

12
Answer. If you chose Fig. 4, you're wrong because this connection calls for 132V on a 120V winding.
The voltage on the 12V winding would be 13.2V. Thus, you would end up with 118.8V (132V - 13.2V)
on the load side because this is a bucking connection. As a result, the transformer would overheat
because the input voltage is 10% high.
The correct answer is Fig. 3 because this connection uses both windings at their rated voltage, and
the exact voltage ratio required is provided.
Now for the equivalent physical size. Maybe we should rephrase this question. We actually want to
know the kVA rating needed for our isolated transformer so that, when connected as an
autotransformer, it will handle the 10kVA load. Referring back to Equation 1 again and using the Fig.
3 connection, we have the following.
Equivalent physical size = [([V.sub.H] - [V.sub.L])/[V.sub.H]] x [kVA.sub.load]
= [(132V - 120V)/132V] x 10kVA
= .91kVA
Thus we need an isolated transformer rated at .91kVA and connected as shown in Fig. 3 to handle
our 10kVA load. In practice, we would choose a standard rating that is close to but slightly higher
than that calculated. In this instance, we would choose a 1kVA

How does an Autotransformer work?

Updated on August 28, 2014

Read more on transformers

1.

How does a transformer work?

2.

Parts of a Power Transformer

3.

Equivalent circuit and Phasor diagram of transformers

4.

Types of transformer

5.

Losses in Transformers

6.

Testing of transformers

7.

Cooling of Transformer

8.

Tap Changing in transformers

13
9.

What is a Buchholz relay? How does it work?

10.

Properties of transformer oil

11.

Insulating materials used in transformers

12.

Current transformer- Definition, Principle, Equivalent circuit, Errors and types

13.

Potential Transformers in detail

14.

How does an Autotransformer work?

Consider that you are provided with a fixed AC supply. But you are in need of a voltage little higher
or lower than the available voltage. During such situations, one of the techniques that you can adapt
is making use of a suitable auto -transformer. A fixed AC Voltage can be converted into a variable AC
voltage using an auto -transformer.

By definition, an auto -transformer is a transformer in which the primary and secondary windings
are electrically connected so that a part of the winding is common to both the windings. In other
words, an auto -transformer is a transformer with only one winding and the same windings acts as
both the primary and secondary sides of a transformer.

Staco Energy Product Co. Variable Autotransformer Model 3PN1010B

Buy Now

14

Construction
It consists of a single copper wire common to both the primary and secondary circuit. The copper
wire is wound over a silicon steel core. At least three taps are provided over the windings which
provide three levels of output voltage. By providing a smooth sliding brush over the winding a
variable turns ratio can be obtained. Even a small incremental voltage can be made possible by
using the sliding contact. The primary and the secondary windings are connected electrically as well
as coupled magnetically. This make the auto -transformers much cheaper, smaller and more efficient
for voltage ratings less than 3 than ordinary transformers. Also, an auto -transformer has lower
reactance, lower losses, smaller excitation voltage and better regulation compared to its two winding
counterpart.

3 Phase Autotransformer

15

Working
An auto -transformer is shown in the figure. Auto -transformers are often used to step up or step
down a constant supply voltage. As mentioned earlier auto -transformers consists of a single
winding. The primary voltage is applied across the two ends of the winding. The primary and the
secondary share the same neutral point. The secondary voltage is obtained across any one of the
tapping and the neutral point.

Autotransformer
Click thumbnail to view full-size

How does a Transformer Work?

This article makes the readers very clear about the working of the power transformer. Basic
working principle of the transformer is mentioned very clearly and briefly

16
In an auto -transformer energy transfer is mainly through conduction process and only a small part is
transferred inductively. Since the voltage per turn is same in both primary and secondary, the voltage
can be varied by simply varying the number of turns. So the load is connected in such a way that
one terminal is connected to any one of the tapping and the other is connected to the neutral.
A single phase auto -transformer having N1 turns primary with N2 turns tapped for lower voltage
secondary are shown in the figure. The winding section BC of N2 turns is common to both primary
and secondary circuits. In fact it is nothing but a conventional two winding transformer connected in
a special way. The winding section AB must be provided with extra insulation, being it higher voltage.
It will be assumed here that the magnetizing current is negligible; but it can easily be determined by
a no-load test and accounted for.

What do you think?

Are auto transformers and potential dividers the same?

Yes

No

No idea

See results without voting

134

Make a poll and check your answer in the preceding section.

With reference to figure the two winding voltage and turn- ratio is
a = (V1 - V2) / V2
= (N1 - N2) / N2 ; N1 > N2
As an auto -transformer its voltage and turn ratio is

a' = V1 / V2
= N1 / N2

Relating the above equations, we can write

17

a' = 1 + a
Comparing the VA ratings, if it is used as a two winging transformer
(VA)TW = (V1 V2) I1 = (I2 - I1) V2
When used as an autotransformer
(VA)AUTO = V1 I1 = I2 V2
Comparing the above equations it is evident that
(VA)AUTO > (VA)TW
It is therefore seen that the two winding transformer of a given rating when connected as an auto
-transformer can handle higher VA. This is because in the auto -transformer connection part of VA is
transferred conductively. It is for this reason that autotransformers are commonly used when turn
ratio needed is less than or equal to 3, like in interconnecting two high voltage systems at different
voltage levels. For low voltage, low VA rating auto -transformer is used to obtain variable supply for
testing purposes, by changing the N2 tap.

Equivalent circuit and Phasor diagram of transformers

Equivalent circuit and Phasor diagram of transformers are derived explained clearly.

Difference between auto transformers and potential dividers.

Auto transformer

Potential divider

Output voltage is obtained varying the number of turns

Output voltage is obtained by voltage division across a pair of

resistors

Input and output power are almost equal

Output power is less due to drop across resistor

Hence auto transformer and potential dividers are not the same. They are two different devices working on two
different principles.

Savings of conductor material using auto -transformer

Let us compare the copper needed for given voltage ratio and VA rating for a two winding
transformer and an auto -transformer. Let us assume that the current density in the conductor is
constant.

18

GAUTO / GTW = {(N1 N2) I1 + (I2 - I1) N2} / {N1 I1 + I2 N2}

= 1 N2/N1 (considering N1 I1 = I2 N2)

= 1 V2/V1

Where G stands for the weight of the winding material.

GAUTO = GTW * (1 V2/V1)
= GTW - GTW* V2/V1

GAUTO - GTW = (1/ a) * GTW

= savings of conductor material using auto -transformer

If transformer turn ratio is higher the savings of conductor material is less and for very small turn
ratios of 1.1 the savings of conductor material is as high as 90%. Hence it is used for turn ratios less
than 3.

Advantages
1.

Smooth variation of voltage as per the requirement is possible.

2.

More efficient than the conventional transformer.

19
3.

Requires less conductive material (copper) than two winding transformer.

4.

Smaller and less expensive than two winding transformer.

5.

The resistance and leakage reactance is less compared to two winding transformer.

6.

Less copper loss.

7.

Superior voltage regulation than two winding transformer.

Limitations
1.

The main limitation of the auto -transformer is that the primary and secondary are not
electrically isolated. Any undesirable condition at the primary will affect the equipment
connected to the secondary.

2.

Due the lack of isolation harmonics generated by the equipment connected to supply will be
passed to the supply.

3.

Auto -transformers have low impendence hence high short circuit currents on the secondary
side.

4.

If the section common to both primary and secondary is opened, whole primary voltage will
occur across the secondary which may lead to severe accidents.

Applications
1.

It is used as an auto starter for induction machines.

2.

It is used in testing laboratories.

3.

Used in the interconnection of EHV systems (220 kV and 132 kV).

Comparison of Auto-transformer with two winding transformer

Autotransformer

Two winding transformer

Auto transformer consists of a single winding per phase

Two winding transformer consists of a pair of winding per phase

The primary and secondary of an auto transformer share the same

winding

In a two winding transformer primary and secondary has seperate

windings

The output voltage for a given constant input voltage can be varied
from zero to the maximum level by simply varying the number of
secondary turns

The output voltage can be varied only by varying the input voltage or
by tap changing

Wide range of voltage variation is possible in autotransformer.

Only a small variation of output voltage for a given input voltage is

possible.

In auto transformer energy transfer occurs by both conduction and

induction.

Energy transfer is only through induction.

20
Autotransformer

Two winding transformer

Excitation current requirement is very small.

Excitation current requirement is larger compared to auto

transformer.

Load connected to the auto transformer is electrically connected

with the source.

Load connected to the auto transformer is electrically isolated from

the source.

Winding material requirement is less in auto transformer

Winding material requirement is more.

Auto transformer is more efficient and economical than its two

winding counterpart.

Less efficient than auto transformers.

Auto Wound Transformers

An auto transformer has a single winding with two end terminals, and one or more terminals at intermediate
tap points. The primary voltage is applied across two of the terminals, and the secondary voltage taken from
two terminals, almost always having one terminal in common with the primary voltage. The primary and
secondary circuits therefore have a number of windings turns in common. Since the volts-per-turn is the
same in both windings, each develops a voltage in proportion to its number of turns. In an autotransformer
part of the current flows directly from the input to the output, and only part is transferred inductively,
allowing a smaller, lighter, cheaper core to be used as well as requiring only a single winding however, a
transformer with separate windings isolates the primary from the secondary, which is safer when using mains
voltages.
Auto transformers are often used to step up or down between voltages in the 110-117-120 volt range and
voltages in the 220-230-240 volt range, e.g., to output either 110 or 120V (with taps) from 230V input,
allowing equipment from a 100 or 120V region to be used in a 230V region.
Auto transformers are very simply one tapped winding, they offer no isolation between the primary and
secondary windings therefore do not have the isolation properties of a Double wound transformer with safety
isolating screen. Auto transformers are however popular in many sectors machine builders with additional
protection within the circuit favour the auto transformer due to its size and cost advantages.
By effectively reducing the equivalent frame size you ultimately reduce the cost of the transformer, to
calculate the equivalent frame size (VA) of an auto transformer our engineers have provided the following
equation.

The Auto transformer is advantageous when the high and low voltage spread is closest. The closer the
voltages the smaller the equivalent frame size of the transformer will be.

21
Power transformer design[edit]

The designer first needs several known factors to design a transformer. For a transformer using a
sine or square wave, one needs to know the incoming line voltage, the operating frequency, the
secondary voltage(s), the secondary current(s), the permissible temperature rise, the target
efficiency, the physical size one can use, and the cost limitations. Once these factors are known,
design can begin.
Initial calculations[edit]

The designer first starts with the primary voltage and frequency. Since they are a known factor,
they are the first numbers to be plugged into the equations. One then will find the power in watts
(or volt-amperes) of each secondary winding by multiplying the voltage by the current of each
coil. These are added together to get the total power the transformer must provide to the load(s).

Hysteresis loop similar to Permalloy

A normal BH Curve within a Loop

The transformer losses in watts are estimated and added to this sum to give a total power the
primary coil must supply. The losses are from wire resistance (I2 R loss), loss in the core from

22

magnetic hysteresis and from eddy currents. These losses are dissipated as heat. Here, the
permissible temperature rise must be kept in mind. Each type of core material will have a loss
chart whereby one can find the loss in watts per pound by looking up the operating flux density
and frequency. Next, one selects the type of iron by what efficiency is stated, and the value of
losses to the user. Once the iron is selected, the flux density is selected for that material.
Type of iron (electrical steel)[edit]

The relative permeability (ur) of a magnetic material is essentially how easy it will become
magnetized. In this case, one looks for a core material with high permeability and a high flux
density. Of course, the better each become, the material goes up in price due to the
manufacturing cost of the material, and the different chemistries they have. Some basic values of
relative permeability for electrical steel are: SiFe unoriented 400, SiFe oriented 1500, 50-50
NiFe oriented 2000, and 79 Permaloy 12,000 to 100,000. In other words, a grain-oriented silicon
steel conducts magnetic flux 1500 times better than a vacuum. Ref:[3].

B-H Curve for M-19 CRNO Steel.

Perm. Vs. Mag. Curve.

Each type of iron (steel) has a maximum flux density it can be run at without saturating. The
designer refers to B-H curves for each type of steel. They select a flux density where the knee
either starts on the curve, or slightly up on it. The start of the knee is where saturation starts and
permeability is at its highest. As saturation starts, the permeability curve starts dropping off
rapidly to zero, and the primaries inductance falls rapidly. By selecting this point on the knee, it

23

will give a transformer with the lowest weight possible for that material. The curve shows that as
saturation begins, the magnetic field strength in Oersted's (H) raises rapidly as compared to any
increase in flux density (B), and so will the ampere turns. When using the equations, the two
most important are the number of turns (N), and the core area (a). One needs to find the core area
in square centimeters or inches, and match it to the total power in watts or volt-amperes. The
larger the core, the more power it will handle. Once this core size is calculated, one then finds the
number of turns for the primary. One then is looking at a transformer whose primary voltage will
cause a flux density of a specified amount due to the number of turns in a certain type/size of
core.
For sine wave operation, the designer then uses either the two short formulas, or they begin using
the long formulas which are more exact, and whereby all the factors can be changed. For square
wave operation, refer to the notes at the end of the equations section. Either way, it's time to use a
transformer design sheet. The design sheet has places to write the details such as the flux density,
the number of turns, calculate the turns per layer, and thickness of the coil.
Secondary turns calculation[edit]

Once the number of turns of the primary are calculated, the secondary windings numbers can be
calculated with the same turns per volt figure. If the primary has 120 turns for 120 volts input,
we would have 1 turn per volt. If we needed a 12 volt secondary, then we would require 12 turns
on it. This is for a perfect transformer without losses though.
In reality, there are losses that have to be added, as the 12 turn coil will not produce 12 volts
under load, but a lower voltage. A rule of thumb is to allow for 5% in losses. (Transformers
below 300w often have higher regulation losses). In this case, we would multiply the 12 turns by
1.05 to get a new number of turns equaling 12.6 turns. Since fractional turns are not possible for
line frequency transformers, 13 turns would be used. It is best to have a slightly higher voltage
than one too low. Beware, smaller transformers which have a higher turns per volt, have higher
losses, and the efficiency drops as the size goes down.
The turns per volt figure typically varies from 1 to about 4, with around 4 turns per volt common
for small appliance transformers, and around 1 turn per volt used for intermittent duty fan cooled
microwave oven transformers. Volts per turn is commonly used for larger transformers, since
they are less than one turn per volt, or as an example, 1/2 turn per volt, or 'two volts per turn'.
Distribution transformers are often limited by excessive insulation required between each turn,
thus they are ran at high flux densities and oil cooled.
Here is where trial and error still comes into transformer design. Since the primary coil has to be
wound with a wire that is large enough to handle the total power the transformer will handle at a
certain flux density, and the secondary or secondaries have to be wound with heavy enough wire
for their loads, the finished coil must still fit within the core's windows once the overall size is

24

calculated after adding the bobbin and paper thickness of each layer. Most of the time, the design
has to be modified or adjusted several times over this, because the coil is too big for the
windows. If the coil does not fit, there are a few options. A larger core with larger window
openings having the same core area can be used, or the flux density can be raised by reducing the
turns on the primary. Once these turns are reduced, the turns in the secondary will be reduced.
This since the number of volts per turn in the primary equal the number of volts per turn in the
secondary minus losses. However, this is at the expense of raising the flux density, the
magnetizing current, the temperature, and lowering the efficiency. It's much better to select a
larger core which has larger windows to accept the coil. The depth or thickness of the new core
can be adjusted to equal the old core area in square centimeters or square inches. This
measurement is the cores tongue width multiplied by its depth or thickness. As the core size goes
up, so does the tongue width, which would add to the core area.
Thickness of coil windings[edit]

Random Wound Transformer Coils on plastic bobbin.

Coil Within Window Of A Transformer

25

A Through Section Of A Transformer

Transformer Section For Cooling

When calculating the coil thickness, several things need to be considered. The voltage that each
winding sees will determine the wires insulation thickness. Once this voltage is known, the
diameter of the selected insulated wire can be used. By knowing the wire diameter, the number
of turns per layer can be calculated, and the number of layers by using the window height and
winding margins. The windows are the openings on either side of the core. The window area is
simply found by multiplying the window width by its height. Next, one adjusts the thickness of
the insulation paper for the layers of each winding due to the voltage between the coils. This
thickness is added to the total coil thickness by multiplying the paper thickness by the number of
layers. The paper that separates two different windings is always thicker than the layer paper to
match the voltage difference between the windings and must support the wire. Last, the bobbin,
(13B on drawing), thickness is added. All is then added to the design sheet and the total
calculated. This total thickness is compared to the window dimensions for a fit. The design
should not exceed 80-85% of available opening to allow for manufacturing tolerances. In
certain circumstances, it may be better to reduce the number of windings in the coil, and use
another smaller transformer to supply them. This can actually save money in the long run by
reducing the possibility of coil failure over heat.

26

A smaller coil with few layers is always recommended. A coil with a large number of layers will
run hotter than one with a few. Each winding has a "hot spot" which is always located mid-way
at its center. If the winding has a number of layers, the heat will increase at this hot spot. The hot
spot is almost always where the winding will fail due to heat. The heat from each winding has to
travel through each layer and is dissipated from the outside of the coil. This means that the
winding, (13 on drawing), closer to the core, (12 on drawing), will be hotter than the outer ones.
Since this is the case, and most of the time the winding closest to the core is the primary, the
largest wire that will fit for the current drawn should be used. The exception to having the
primary here is using a winding with very small diameter wire. Since the coil will expand due to
heat, a small wire coil on the outside could break because of the expansion. Being at the core, it
would expand less and not break the wire. Most small bias windings, rated at a few milliamperes,
and used in vacuum tube circuits are wound in this manner. A good rule of thumb is to use 1000
circular mills per ampere for the wire selection, when designing the primary winding.
It should be noted that some small transformers fail, when the wire coming up from the bottom
of the coil, breaks near the terminal post. This could be due to expansion of the coil, or from the
connection between the wire and terminal not being soldered properly.
Referring to the transformer sectional cooling drawing in this section, the spacer, (14 on
drawing), is added to each side of the coil to separate the two windings, thus allowing a cooling
vent to cool the coils. This is done in some small power and large distribution transformers.
There is also a special insulation paper that has wood slats glued to the surface to hold the
windings apart. If the windings are separated completely, it also raises the electrical insulation
between the two windings by adding an air gap.
For using a two section bobbin (for a two winding transformer), the above is not necessary.
These are used by jumble or random winding the wire on each section of the bobbin. Jumblewinding by definition means that the wire is wound on the bobbin in a random way without
layers separated by paper. However, the amount of wire used for each winding has to fit within
the bobbin so it too will fit inside the cores windows. Most small transformers are manufactured
this way to save cost, as it would be very difficult to neatly stack extremely fine wire.

Typical Plastic Bobbin

27
Insulation[edit]

The insulation materials used in transformer construction varies, but are mainly the finish applied
to the laminations, varnish or coated insulation on the wire, paper (fish paper, crepe paper, etc.),
or plastic film for the coil, cardboard or plastic for the bobbin, and the varnish that the completed
transformer is dipped into at the end of construction. Though this all works well for electrical
insulation, it is also a thermal insulation, and causes the coil to hold in heat. This being the case,
the thinnest insulation should be used that will supply the correct electrical insulation for the
transformer.
The varnish dip that is applied, is generally done in a vacuum chamber. Most varnish is a clear
color, but some is dyed black. The vacuum atmosphere assures that the coil is totally saturated
with varnish, as the vacuum removes any bubbles or air pockets that could form without it. After
the dip is completed, the transformer is placed into an oven, and is baked until the varnish is dry.
The main purpose of the varnish, besides increasing the electrical insulation, is to keep any form
of moisture from effecting the coil, and to stop the windings from humming or vibrating when
magnetized.
Wire selection[edit]

The wire generally used in small transformer coils is magnet wire. Magnet wire is generally a
solid copper wire with an insulating jacket such as varnish. Other wires such as litz wire are
common use for r.f. transformers. Large power transformers use stranded wire, which may be
rectangular in cross-section, with periodic transpositions in the strands to equalize current and
reduce loss. Windings for large currents may be made in strip form, or have a square or
rectangular cross section. Aluminum is sometimes used in power transformer windings to reduce
costs. The connections on smaller transformers are soldered, but larger transformer connections,
especially ones handling high current, are brazed or welded.
The wire is selected by its ability to carry the proper amount of current without getting hot
enough to melt the insulation or wire itself. It is sized by its cross sectional area measured in
circular mils per ampere (CGS measurement system), or more commonly in engineering design
circles, amperes per square meter (MKS measurement system). In transformer use, the circular
mils per ampere runs anywhere from 500 cir. mils for intermittent operation, to 1500 cir. mils for
heavy duty continuous operation. For most applications, 800 to 1000 cir. mils is a good starting
point. The real value chosen is iterative, because heat is often not the limiting factor, as the
desired regulation often puts the temperature rise well below insulation limits. Most wire charts
have the wires cross sectional area in circular mils to make selection easier.

28

Heavy windings in an Electric Arc Furnace transformer.

Winder checking insulation at lathe.

The core stack[edit]

EI Lamination Pair.

29

Eddy Currents Inside Laminations.

Interleaved Transformer Core Diagram.

EI-2 Scrapless Lamination Dimensions.

The core stack is the total amount of the steel laminations needed to produce the correct core
area for the power in watts, or volt amperes that the transformer is required to handle.

30

The core can be stacked in two different ways when using steel laminations. The most common
is the interleaved fashion where each lamination is staggered opposite to the other (turned 180
degrees opposite the other). This provides for the least amount of air gap in the core, and the
highest efficiency. The other way is butt stacked. In this way, all the E type lams are stacked on
one side, and all the I type lams are stacked on the other. This way though creates an air gap
where the butt joint is created thus increasing the losses. However, when a DC current is
superimposed on an AC current as in an audio transformer or filter choke, the air gap can stop
the core from saturating. A combination of the two stacking types can be used with good results
obtaining the best properties of both.
Stacking Factor[edit]

When using the formulas on this page to calculate the core area, a stacking factor should be
included. The stacking factor is given by the lamination manufacturer on the individual
specification sheet for each size lamination. It varies by the thickness of the material, type, and
whether it is either butt stacked, or interleaved. This factor ranges from around 0.80 to 0.98. The
formulas here can be used as is, but one will have a slightly smaller core if the factor is not
added.
The stacking factor is needed due to each iron lamination having a thin coating of insulation on
each face. This coating thereby insulates each lamination from the other minimizing eddy
currents. The stacking factor adjusts the core size due to the extra thickness of this insulative
coating so that the proper amount of iron is used in the core. Without this factor placed into the
equations, the core would be slightly under-sized in iron content, even though the core stack
equaled the calculated measurement. The core in mention, not using the stacking factor, would
then have a slightly higher flux density than what was wanted.
Scrapless Laminations[edit]

When EI and other laminations are produced, they are literally punched out of a coiled strip of
electrical steel with a punch press. To reduce the amount of scrap as much as possible, the
lamination is dimensioned in such a way that if one placed two E laminations with their open
ends toward each other, the two sections that make the windows would make the two I's needed
when all four pieces are punched out at once. Due to this, the window width, and the leg width is
generally 1/2 the width of the tongue. The window height would be equal to 1/2 the width of the
whole E lamination. The lamination height would be equal to the window height plus the width
of the window or leg. There are exceptions to this rule, as a few shapes have wider or taller
windows such as custom laminations. These measurements are handy to know, as once one
knows the tongue width, they will know the window width by dividing the tongue width in half.
One could simply work out the total dimensions of a lamination in their mind when design time
comes.

31
Core Stack Assembly[edit]

There are several ways that the core stack is held together after assembly. One way, is using
mechanical fasteners, but this can promote a problem, if the fastener is made of a magnetic
material, and the screw hole in the lamination is too far into the flux path of the lamination. If the
magnetic flux cuts through a magnetic fastener, it causes the fastener to heat up, acting like a
short-circuit, which in reality, is what happens, allowing the flux lines to mingle between the
laminations as if they were shorted together. To cure this, the fastener holes in the laminations
are generally placed in the far corner of the laminations, where the least amount of magnetic flux
travels. Also, magnetic fasteners have been used by adding a paper sleeve over the screw, to
insulate it somewhat, or a non-magnetic fastener, such as made from Aluminum or Brass, have
been used.
Some transformers, today, have a welded seam placed on the outside of the laminations to hold
them together, but this can cause a small amount of loss, the same way a magnetic screw would
allow the magnetic flux to mingle between the insulated laminations. Since it is on the outside
surface of the lamination, though, and away from the majority of the magnetic flux toward the
center and coil, the loss is generally low.
Small power transformer are sometimes held together with a formed sheet metal housing, which
encapsulates the circumference of the core stack, and this stops the need for using mechanical
fasteners to hold the cores laminations together.
Watts versus volt-amperes[edit]

A transformer's power handling ability is determined in two different ways. If the transformer's
secondary is supplying a totally resistive load, one can simply use wattage, or the voltage
multiplied by the current. However, if the transformer's secondary is supplying a reactive load,
containing capacitance and or inductance, such as in most DC power supplies, one must use voltamperes in place of watts. Volt-amperes, (S) or (VA), is simply the wattage (P), divided by a
power factor, or P / PF = VA; for example: 1000 watts (P) / 0.80 (PF) = 1,250 Volt-amperes
(VA). The power factor for the better transformer circuits is around 0.80 to 0.85. However, some
are lower, with a PF of around 0.60, especially in some appliance transformers.
When calculating the power required in Volt Amperes for the secondary windings in DC power
supplies, one must take into account the equivalent series resistance of the capacitors, and or the
way they, or any inductors act in the filtering circuits. This is due to the current either leading or
lagging the voltage in reactive circuits, and or any harmonics. The type of rectifier circuit also
comes into play, and is described in the following section. Also, please see this section for the
formulae for the power, in volt amperes, of each rectifier circuit.
Rectifier transformers[edit]

32

Rectifier transformers are transformers used to feed a rectifier circuit which converts an AC
current into a DC current. Due to the small conduction angle when feeding a rectifier & reservoir
(capacitor), the rms AC current in the transformers secondary is somewhat higher than the DC
load current. Each rectifier circuit has different conduction angles, and thus different rms current
needs. The proper rms current the transformer needs to supply, and the volt amperes of each
secondary, are calculated using the following formulae. (Note: Some may use "S" in place of
"VA" in the following formulae). The formulae below does not take into consideration any extra
current needed by voltage regulation circuits fed by the rectifier/filter assembly. They need to be
added to the total power that the rectifier circuit will feed. Each rectifier and voltage regulation
system uses different amounts of current, and each case has to be calculated differently.[4][5][6]

Half Wave Rectifier (HWR):

Without capacitor;
IAC = 1.6 x IDC
VA = 3.5 x (watts + IDC)
With capacitor;
IAC = 2.6 x IDC
VA = 2.3 x (watts + IDC)
Full Wave Center Tap (FWCT):
Without capacitor;
IAC = 0.8 x IDC
VA = 1.4 x (watts + IDC)
With capacitor;
IAC = 1.27 x IDC
VA = 1.7 x (watts + IDC)
Full Wave Bridge (FWB):
Without capacitor;

33

IAC = 1.1 x IDC

VA = 1.2 x (watts + (2 x IDC))
With capacitor;
IAC = 1.8 x IDC
VA = 1.4 x (watts + (2 x IDC))
Dual Complementary Rectifiers (DCR):
Without capacitor;
IAC = 1.1 x IDC
VA = 1.2 x (watts + (2 x IDC))
With capacitor;
IAC = 1.8 x IDC
VA = 1.4 x (watts + (2 x IDC))
Equations[edit]

There are two approaches used in designing transformers. One uses the long formulas, and the
other uses the Wa product. The Wa product is simply the cores window area multiplied by the
cores area. Some say it simplifies the design, especially in C-core (cut core) construction. Most
manufacturers of C-cores have the Wa product added into the tables used in their selection. The
designer takes the area used by a coil and finds a C-core with a similar window area. The Wa
product is then divided by the window area to find the area of the core. Either way will bring the
same result.
For a transformer designed for use with a sine wave, the universal voltage formula is:Ref:[7][8][9][10]
[11]

thus,

34

where,

E is the sinusoidal rms or root mean square voltage of the winding,

f is the frequency in hertz,

N is the number of turns of wire on the winding,

a is the cross-sectional area of the core in square centimeters or inches,

B is the peak magnetic flux density in gauss (volt seconds per square
centimeter), or lines (maxwells) per square inch ,

P is the power in volt amperes or watts,

W is the window area in square centimeters or inches and,

J is the current density.

Note: 10 kilogauss = 1 Tesla.

This gives way to the following other transformer equations for cores in square centimeters (cgs
meas. sys.):

The derivation of the above formula is actually quite simple. The maximum induced voltage, ,
is the result of N times the time-varying flux:

If using RMS voltage values and E equal the rms value of voltage then:

35

and

Since the flux is created by a sinusoidal voltage, it too varies sinusoidally:

where

= area of the core

Taking the derivative we have:

Substituting into the above equation and using

with the maximum value yields

and the fact that we are only concerned

Imperial measurement system[edit]

The formulas for the imperial (inch) system are still being used in the United States by many
transformer manufacturers. Most steel EI laminations used in the US are measured in inches. The
flux is still measured in gauss or Teslas, but the core area is measured in square inches. 28.638 is
the conversion factor from 6.45 x 4.44 (see note 1) the 6.45 factor is simply the square of 2.54
cm in 1 Inch. The formulas for sine wave operation are below. For square wave operation, see
Note (3):

36

To determine the power (P) capability of the core, the core stack in inches (D), and the windowarea (Wa) product, the formulas are:

where,

P is the power in volt amperes or watts,

T is the number of turns per volt,

E is the RMS voltage,

S is the current density in circular mils per ampere (Generally 750 to 1500 cir
mils),

W is the window area in square inches,

C is the core width in square inches,

D is the depth of the stack in inches and,

Wa is the product of the window area in square inches multiplied by the core
area in square inches. This is especially useful for determining C-cores, but
can also be used with EI types. The window area is simply the windows height
multiplied by its width.

Simpler formulae[edit]

A shorter formula for the core area (a) and the turns per volt (T) can be derived from the long
voltage formula by multiplying, rearranging, and dividing out. This is used if one wants to design
a transformer using a sine wave, at a fixed flux density, and frequency. Below is the short
formulas for core areas in square inches having a flux density of 12 kilogauss at 60 Hz (see note
2):

37

And for 12 kilogauss at 50 Hz:

Equation notes[edit]

Note 1: The factor of 4.44 is derived from the first part of the voltage formula.
It is from 4 multiplied by the form factor (F) which is 1.11, thus 4 multiplied
by 1.11 = 4.44. The number 1.11 is derived from dividing the rms value of a
sine wave by its average value, where F = rms / average = 1.11.

Note 2: A value of 12 kilogauss per square inch (77,400 lines per sq. in.) is
used for the short formulas above as it will work with most steel types used
(M-2 to M-27), including unknown steel from scrap transformer laminations in
TV sets, radios, and power supplies. The very lowest classes of steel (M-50)
would probably not work as it should be run at or around 10 kilogauss or
under.

Note 3: All formulas shown are for sine wave operation only. Square wave
operation does not use the form factor (F) of 1.11. For using square waves,
substitute 4 for 4.44, and 25.8 for 28.638.

Note 4: None of the above equations show the stacking factor (Sf). Each core
or lamination will have its own stacking factor. It is selected by the size of the
core or lamination, and the material it is made from. At design time, this is
simply added to the string to be multiplied. Example; E = 4.44 f N a B Sf

Electrical steel types[edit]

Silicon steel[edit]

Iron was used in the first transformers and motor designs along with early steel. Steel is simply a
de-carbonized alloy of iron. This early steel had the problem of aging, and it's magnetic
properties changed with age. Next, silicon steel came into use, as it was found to raise the
magnetic resistance against eddy currents, reduce hysteresis, increase permeability, and the aging

38

problems were countered. Electrical silicon steel and its alloys are what are in use today. Ref:[12]
[13][14][15][16][17]

Type
See
Material
Note
(1)

Approx.
Max. Recommended
Nominal
Permeability Operating Flux
Silicon %
(3)
Density B

Usage

15,000

17 kilogauss but
magnetizing current
rises rapidly over 15
kilogauss

Highest efficiency
power transformers

M-7, MCRGO 2.8-3.5

8

10,000

17 kilogauss but
magnetizing current
rises rapidly over 15
kilogauss

Large generators and

power transformers

M-14

8,500

14 kilogauss

Power and distribution

transformers, high eff.
rotating machines

M-4, MCRGO 2.8-3.5

5, M-6

CRNO 4.0-5.0

M-15

CRNO 2.8-5.0

8,000

13 to 14 kilogauss

Transformers
requiring low core loss
and excellent
permeability

M-19

CRNO 2.5-3.8

7,500

12 to 13 kilogauss

Communication
transformers and
reactors
Cores of high
reactance,
intermittent duty
transformers

M-22

CRNO 2.5-3.5

7,500

12 kilogauss

M-27

CRNO 1.7-3.0

7,000

10 to 11 kilogauss

Small transformers
operating at

39
moderate induction
M-36

CRNO 1.4-2.2

<7,000

10 kilogauss

Used extensively for

rotating machines

M-43

CRNO 0.6-1.3

<7,000

10 kilogauss

Fractional HP motors
and relays

M-45

CRNO 0.0-0.6

<7,000

10 kilogauss

Fractional HP motors
and relays

M-50

CRNO 0.0-0.6

<7,000

10 kilogauss

Intermittent operating
apparatus and pole
pieces

Note 1: CRGO = Cold rolled, grain oriented, and CRNO = cold rolled, non
oriented.

Note 2: In the "M" numberining system set by the ASTM, the smaller number
yields the highest efficiency, and lowest core losses. M-43 has a core loss at
12 kilogauss of approx. 2 watts per pound. M-15 at 12 kilogauss is approx.
0.75 watts per pound, and M-6 material has a loss of 0.64 watts per pound at
15 kilogauss.[18][19]

Note 3: These figures are relative permeability, (or are the permeability for a
given material at a given flux density), and are unitless. For the actual
permeability, multiply by the permeability of a vacuum 0 in appropriate
units. However, the Material Permeability, m, of different materials can
range from: Iron alloys, 0.8K to 25K, Ferrites, 0.8K to 20K, and Amorphous,
0.8K to 80K.Ref:[20]

Note 4: For selection purposes, Armco (AK Steel), suggests the following for
transformers in their non-oriented bulletin; Transformers over 10 KVA: M-15,
M-19, and M-22. Transformers under 10 KVA: M-27, M-36, and M-43, however,
M-19 has been used in certain smaller electronic amplifier transformers (0.5
KVA and up to 3 KVA). [21]

Other alloys[edit]

There are various iron alloys other than silicon-steel or low-carbon steel. These include alloys
which contain nickel-iron (Permalloy), cobalt-nickel-iron (Perminvar), cobalt-iron (Permendur),
and vanadium-cobalt-iron. Others include Supermalloy, amorphous Metglas, Mu-metal, Sendust,
iron powder, and ferrite types.
Some of the Permalloy types are processed to accentuate the squareness of the B-H loop and
carry proprietary names like SuperSquare 80 (Magnetic Metals Corp.), and Square Permalloy
Hy-Ra 80 (Carpenter Steel Co.). The squareness of the B-H loop helps in switching transformers

40

as in inverter type power supplies with a square wave input. The nickel-iron content may range
from about 45% to over 85%.
Perminvar exhibits a substantially constant permeability and low hysteresis loss at low flux
densities. This is mainly due to the addition of cobalt to the nickel and iron. In some cases it may
have the odd property of low coercive force and remanence although the hysteresis loop area is
still greater than zero. One type of Perminvar is Fernico.
Permendur is created by mixing cobalt with iron. It has a high permeability at high flux densities
with a very high saturation point. It also has a high incremental permeability and is very good to
use with a combination of AC and DC voltages combined such as in filter chokes.
Vanadium-cobalt-iron has the very highest saturation point with low losses, but it is very
expensive.
For descriptions of the other materials and shapes, refer to the Wikipedia section titled Magnetic
core.