AN OVERVIEW OF FORGING PROCESSES AND THEIR SIMULATION TO

ENABLE OPTIMIZATION IN INDUSTRY

Shubham Semwal
UG Scholar, Department of Materials & Metallurgical Engineering, PEC University Of Technology, Chandigarh,
India
semwal.shubham@gmail.com

material is plastically deformed in one or more

operations into a product of relatively complex
configuration. Forging usually requires relatively
expensive tooling. Thus, the process is economically
attractive when a large number of parts must be
produced and/or when the mechanical properties
required in the finished product can be obtained only
by a forging process.

ABSTRACT: The aim is to study the various

Forging Processes. A brief description about
classification of forging processes on the basis of
temperature of work piece (hot, cold and warm
forging) and on the basis of arrangement of dies
(open, impression and closed die forging) is given.
Die design parameters, die material requirements
and selection of proper die materials are briefly
discussed. Also, briefly described are the forging
equipments (press and hammer). In addition to
this, an approach for a holistic simulation of
forging processes considering the interactions
between forging press, tooling system and forging
process is presented. It can be used in coupled
simulations and will enable industrial users in
forging industry to do simulation-aided tool
optimizations in the design stage of newly
developed forging dies. The final aim is to reduce
the time-consuming experimental optimization
process of these dies on the production machine
which nowadays leads to high overall costs.

High dimensional accuracy of the final workpiece is

one of the most important targets in forging. In
addition, a long tool life is aspired, which is the basis
for cost-effective and highly productive forging
processes that are often performed as multi-stage
operations simultaneously on one press. In many
cases, newly developed processes need to undergo an
experimental time-consuming optimization process on
the production press until the geometrical accuracy of
the final part is reached. This optimization implies a
deep and comprehensive knowledge of the
manufacturing technology and leads often to
reworking of dies and tooling system. So the
dimensions of forged parts are directly influenced by
the elastic deformations of the forging dies on the one
hand and by the displacements in the die holders and
tooling systems as well as in the press on the other
hand. Simulation systems available today not offer
adequate ways of modeling and considering the
aforementioned interactions taking place between the
workpiece and the tooling system or press. They
provide no possibility, therefore, of achieving
simulation-aided tool optimization in order to
minimize the efforts and costs involved in trial-anderror optimization processes.

KEYWORDS: Forging Process, Forging Press,

Coupling, Forging Simulation Systems, Dies &
Tooling System, Optimization, Forging Die
I. INTRODUCTION

Forging is defined as a metal working process in

which the useful shape of work piece is obtained in
solid state by compressive forces applied through the
use of dies and tools. It is one of the oldest known
metalworking processes with its origin about some
thousands of years back. Traditionally, forging was
performed by a smith using hammer and anvil. Using
hammer and anvil is a crude form of forging. The
smithy or forge has evolved over centuries to become
a facility with engineered processes, production
equipment, tooling, raw materials and products to
meet the demands of modern industry.
In modern times, industrial forging is done either with
presses or with hammers powered by compressed air,
electricity, hydraulics or steam. Forging process
produces parts of superior mechanical properties with
minimum waste of material. In this process, the
starting material has a relatively simple geometry; this
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II. CLASSIFICATION & DESCRIPTION OF

PROCESSES

to anneal prior to forging, and favorable as-forged

properties that can eliminate heat treatment. In warm
forging, the billet is heated below the recrystallization
temperature, up to 700 to 800 0C for steels, in order
to lower the flow stress and the forging pressures.
Advantages: High production rates, Excellent
dimensional tolerances and surface finish for forged
parts, Significant savings in material and machining,
Favorable grain flow to improve strength, Greater
toughness of the forged part.

A) In forging, an initially simple part- a billet, is

plastically deformed between two dies to obtain the
desired final configuration. For understanding and
optimization of forging operations, it is useful to
classify this process in a systematic way. There are a
large number of forging processes that can be
classified as follows:
1) Classification based on Temperature of the work
piece
a) Hot forging (most widely used): Forging is carried
out at a temperature above the recrystallization
temperature of the metal. The recrystallization
temperature is defined as the temperature at which the
new grains are formed in the metal. This kind of
extreme heat is necessary in avoiding strain hardening
of the metal during deformation.
Advantages: High strain rates and hence easy flow of
the metal. Recrystallization and recovery are possible,
Forces required are less.
Disadvantages: Lubrication is difficult at high
temperatures; Oxidation and scaling occur on the
work piece, Poor surface finish, Less precise
tolerances, Possible warping of the material.

2) Classification based on Arrangements of Dies

a) Open-die forging: Forging in which the flat dies of
simple shape are used to allow the material to freely
deform in lateral directions of applied load.

b) Impression-die forging: Forging in which the

material is shaped to fill out a die cavity created by
the upper and lower die halves. The dies are not fully
closed and allow some material to escape as Flash.
Flash formation builds pressure inside the bulk of the
work piece, aiding material flow into unfilled
impressions. Figure shows impression-die forging
operation.

b) Cold forging: Forging is carried out at or near

room temperature (below the recrystallization temp.)
of the metal. Carbon and standard alloy steels are
most commonly cold-forged. Cold forging is
generally preferred when the metal is already a soft,
like aluminum. This process is usually less expensive
than hot forging and the end product requires little or
no finishing work. Cold forging is also less
susceptible to contamination problems, and the final
component features a better overall surface finish.
Advantages: Production rates are very high with
exceptional die life, Improves mechanical properties,
Less friction between die surface and work piece,
Lubrication is easy, No oxidation or scaling on the
work.
Disadvantages: Residual stress may occur, Heavier
and more powerful equipment is needed, Stronger
tooling is required, Tool design and manufacturing
are critical.

c) Closed-die forging: Forging in which the material

is fully constrained in the cavity created by the upper
and lower die halves. It allows more accurately
shaped parts to be formed, No flash is formed in this
process therefore no waste of material, Higher
interface pressures required, Requires very accurate
control of material volume and proper die design.
Closed-die forging is a form of impression-die
forging, which does not depend on flash formation to
achieve complete filling of the die. Material is
deformed in a cavity that allows little or no escape of
excess material, thus placing greater demands on die
design.

c) Warm forging: The temperature range for the warm

forging of steel runs from above room temperature to
below the recrystallization temperature. Compared
with cold forging, warm forging has the potential
advantages of: Reduced tooling loads, reduced press
loads, increased steel ductility, elimination of need
2

B) Die design parameters

Die design depends on the knowledge of strength and
ductility of work piece material, sensitivity of
material to the rate of deformation and temperature,
frictional characteristics, shape and complexity of
work piece, die distortion under high forging loads.
Die material requirements: Strength and toughness at
elevated temperature, Hardenability and ability to
harden uniformly, Resistance to mechanical and
thermal shocks, Wear resistance- to resist abrasion
wear due to scales present on work piece.
Selection of proper die material depends on: Die size,
Composition and properties of work piece,
Complexity of shape- No. of performing steps,
Forging temperature, Type of forging operation, Cost
of die material, No. of forgings required, Heat transfer
from work piece to dies, etc.
Die materials used: Tool and die steels with Cr, Ni,
Mo, Va.

belt (belt-drop hammer), a chain (chain-drop

hammer), or a piston (oil-, air-, or steam-lift drop
hammer). The ram is lifted to a certain height and
then dropped on the stock placed on the anvil. During
the down stroke, the ram is accelerated by gravity and
builds up the blow energy. The upstroke takes place
immediately after the blow. The operation principle of
a power-drop hammer is similar to that of an air-drop
hammer. In the down stroke, in addition to gravity,
the ram is accelerated by steam, cold air, or hot air
pressure. In the power-drop hammer, the acceleration
of the ram is enhanced with air pressure applied on
the
top
side
of
the
ram
cylinder..
2) Forging Press: In press forging, the metal is
shaped not by means of a series of blows as in
hammer forging, but by means of a single continuous
squeezing action. There are two main types:
mechanical and hydraulic presses. Mechanical presses
function by using cams, cranks and/or toggles to
produce a preset (a predetermined force at a certain
location in the stroke) and reproducible stroke. Due to
the nature of this type of system, different forces are
available at different stroke positions. Mechanical
presses are faster than their hydraulic counterparts (up
to 50 strokes per minute). Their capacities range from
3 to 160 MN (300 to 18,000 short tons-force).
Hydraulic presses use fluid pressure and a piston to
generate force. Figure below shows hydraulic press. It
is a load restricted machine. It has more of squeezing
action than hammering action. Hence dies can be
smaller and have longer life than with a hammer.
Features of Hydraulic Press: Full press load is
available during the full stroke of the ram, Ram
velocity can be controlled and varied during the
stroke, It is a slow speed machine and hence has
longer contact time and hence higher die
temperatures, The slow squeezing action gives close
tolerance on forgings, Initial cost is higher compared
to hammers. The advantages of a hydraulic press over
a mechanical press are its flexibility and greater
capacity. The disadvantages include a slower, larger,
and costlier machine to operate.

C) Forging equipments
Forged components are shaped either by a hammer or
press. Forging on the hammer is carried out in a
succession of die impressions using repeated blows.
The quality of the forging, and the economy and
productivity of the hammer process depend upon the
tooling and the skill of the operator. In press forging,
the stock is usually hit only once in each die
impression and the design of each impression
becomes more important while operator skill is less
critical. The continuous development of forging
technology requires a sound and fundamental
understanding of equipment capabilities and
characteristics. The equipment i.e. presses and
hammers used in forging, influences the forging
process, since it affects the deformation rate and
temperature conditions, and it determines the rate of
production. The requirements of a given forging
process must be compatible with the load, energy,
time, and accuracy characteristics of a given forging
machine.
1) Forging Hammer: The most common type of
forging equipment is the hammer and anvil. The
hammer is the least expensive and most versatile type
of equipment for generating load and energy to carry
out a forging process. This technology is
characterized by multiple impact blows between
contoured dies. Hammers are primarily used for hot
forging. There are basically two types of anvil
hammers: Gravity-drop hammers and Power-drop
hammers. In a simple gravity-drop hammer, the upper
ram is connected to a board (board-drop hammer), a
3

III. APPROACHES FOR MODELING MACHINE AND

in x-, y-, and z-direction and rotation around these

axes. In this way clearance and different elasticity
behavior depending on the axis direction can be
considered. The advantage of an integrated model of
the press in the forging process simulation is the
direct interaction accompanied by high numerical
stability with stable contact situations. This improves
the accuracy of the forming simulation and makes the
computation less time consuming than other
approaches.
So the computational cost of the Simufact.forming
model is increased only by 2% if the translations and
rotations due to the machine elasticity are considered.
However, the method reaches its limits if the press
properties shall be examined or multistage processes
are the object of simulation, because this leads to
elaborate models

TOOL ELASTICITY IN FORGING SIMULATION

In order to consider the occurring deformations in

tools and press, the FE simulation has to be able to
predict them. In the possible deformations are
differentiated between local and global elastic
deformations which result from different reasons.
There are local deformations of the dies, global
deflections of the die holders or tooling systems and
global dislocations as an influence of the press.
Commercial, special-purpose Finite Element (FE)
forging simulation systems, e.g. Simufact.forming,
FORGE, DEFORM or AutoForm, are mainly
used in forging industry today to observe material
flow and capture defects or to calculate the press
forces and die stresses. These systems offer
capabilities to simulate local deformations of the dies
by using volume elements and linear-elastic material
models. However, in case of large tool models, e.g.
die holder systems or multi-stage processes, this leads
to
unacceptable
preprocessing
effort
and
computational times for industrial applications.
In almost all cases, local deformations are small
compared to global tool deflections and tool
dislocations. Of course, global tool deflections or
dislocations can also be modeled as elastic bodies for
tooling system and press within the FE simulation but
with the aforementioned problems of large models.
Therefore, different approaches for coupling FE
workpiece models and press or tooling system models
were developed. Figure 3 shows three general
coupling principles which are classified according to
their method of integration in offline-coupling, model
integration and co-simulation.

IV. ENHANCED COUPLED SIMULATION CONSIDERING

INTERACTIONS OF THE TOOLING SYSTEM

The presented approach of coupled simulation with

GekoSim allows the consideration of global

dislocations of the dies within the forging simulation

as an influence of the press behavior. To consider
additional deflections of the dies resulting by
interactions of the die holders or tooling systems in
general two approaches are available.
The one hand a combined model of the forging
process and the tooling system can be used. This is
possible for single-stage processes or multi-stage
processes, too, if all forging stages are integrated in
one comprehensive FE forging simulation model.
However, the disadvantages of that approach are the
already mentioned increase of CPU time and
preprocessing effort. One the other hand a model of
the tooling system can be combined with the existing
analytical machine model of the coupled simulation.
For this purpose, the software tool GekoSim was

The approach named model integration uses one

simulation environment to model the press elasticity
and the forming process. Usually, the workpiece
model within the FE simulation is extended by a
simplified press model. The tilt and the vertical
deflection of the press ram can be taken into
consideration by means of discrete spring and
damping elements. General purpose simulation
systems, such as MARC, ABAQUS or LSDYNA, provide the prerequisite for using this
approach but these systems are complex and therefore
not very often used in industry.
Some typical forging simulation systems also allow
modeling of press elasticity by model integration.
Using the simulation system FORGE, for example,
it is possible to define linear elastic stiffness behavior
of the press in 6 dimensions, which means translation
4

extended by reduced analytical models of the die and

tool holder system.
Next Figure shows a simplified example of that
approach for the elasticity of the die holder in the
direction of ram movement (z). The picture on the left
shows the FE process model of an upsetting with
elastic modeling of the upper die holder and a coupled
simulation of the forging press (indicated as spring).
In the picture on the right the same process model
without elastic die holder in the FE simulation but
with an additional analytical model for the holder
within the coupled simulation (spring for tooling
system) can be seen. The simulation results for the
final workpiece geometry are nearly the same with
both models. An important difference can be seen in
the computation time (table in Figure). Due to the
additional modeling of the die holder in the FE model
the computation time for the coupled simulation with
the press increases by over 50% compared to a rigid
tooling system. The consideration of the die holder as
additional elasticity within GekoSim, on the other
hand, does not influence the computation time
significantly. At this point it is important to mention,
that the total computation time for the coupled
simulation of this simple upsetting process seems to
be very long. In this example the total computation
time is determined by the time for coupling and data
transfer between the simulations. Due to the simple
FE model the computation time for one time
increment of the forging simulation is very short
compared to this coupling time. In case of complex
FE simulation models this relation would look quite
different and the total time for simulation would be
determined by the forging process.

V. CONCLUSION

Forging is an experience oriented process.

Throughout the years, a great deal of know-how and
experience has been accumulated in this field, largely
by trial-and-error methods. Forging process produces
final products in very short time with little or no
scrap. Thus there is saving in energy and material.
Forgings sometimes cost more than parts produced by
other processes like- casting or machining, but it
gives more reliable parts with better mechanical and
metallurgical properties.
Also, an approach of coupled simulation was
presented which considers the workpiece-tool-press
interactions in the FE simulation of forging processes.
The method makes it possible to reconstruct the
development of forging errors caused by the press in
single- and multi-stage processes by simulation.
In addition to the workpiece-based interaction of the
different forging stages in multi-stage processes,
where only one stage is in contact with the tools at
any point in time, the machine-based interaction is
also taken into account by using coupled simulation
software GekoSim. It is these two interactions in
particular that represent a challenge when optimizing
multi-stage processes with two or more active stages.
In present work the coupled simulation approach was
enhanced to include the interactions with the tooling
system in the forging simulation in an easy way, too.
Furthermore a direct implementation of the GekoSim
functionalities to Simufact.forming is in progress.
Prediction of the mentioned interaction results
through simulations represents a significant
improvement over the state of the art in forging
simulations and can help to perform simulation-aided
process optimizations. Optimization criterion may be
for instance the workpiece geometry at the end of the
forging process, the resultant force and torque on the

Another advantage of the approach with GekoSim is,

that the analytical models for die or tool holder
systems only once have to be parameterized.
Afterwards they can be used for coupled simulations
of any process which works with the same tooling
system. This is often the case in closed-die forging.
The parameterization of the models can be done by
using measurement or simulation results. In case of
the example shown in Figure, the FE simulation of the
elastic die holder was used to deduce the elasticity
behavior and hence the stiffness for GekoSim.
With this enhanced functionalities of GekoSim it is
possible to create holistic coupled simulation models
for single- or multi-stage forging process consisting
of the several FE forging process simulations and a
combined analytical model of the press and the
tooling system.
5

press or the stress generated in the dies. The

procedure of such optimizations is just like the
experimental procedure on the basis of forging tests,
but in a virtual way. So the experimental optimization
effort of forging processes can be reduced and the
efficiency increases.
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[1] Taylan Altan, Gracious Ngaile, Gangshu Shen- Cold and
Hot Forging- Fundamentals and Applications, Handbook by
ASM International- February 2005
[2] C.J. Van Tyne and J. Walters- Understanding geometrical
forging defects- April 1, 2007
[3] Mahendra G.Rathi - An Overview of Forging Processes
with their defects June 6, 2014
[4] Doege, E., Klawitter, G., 1999, Vom Lastenheft zum
Schmiedewerkzeug, die CAEntwicklungskette in der
Schmiedetechnologie. Umformtechnik 2000 Plus, Bamberg,
Meisenbach, 121-128.
[5] Slagter, W., Hambrecht, J., 2002, Schmiedesimulation:
Umfrageergebnisse zur Wirtschaftlichkeit, Schmiede-J.,
September 2002:14-16.
[6] Brecher, C., Schapp, L., Tannert, M., 2008, SimulationAided Optimization of Multi- Stage Dies Coupled
Simulation of Forging Processes with Non-Linear-Elastic
Machine Models. Proc. of 1st Int. Conf. on Process Machine
Interactions (PMI), Hannover, Germany, 167-174.
[7] Modeling of Tool and Machine Elasticity in Coupled
Forging Simulation, M.Tannert, C.Brecher, S.Baumler,
K.Bakarinow, RWTH Aachen Germany