Unit 5

Surround & 3D
Sound Systems
Digital Audio Processing (20023)
Sound and Image in Telecommunication Engineering
Course 2015/2016
Sergio Bleda Prez
Department of Physics, Engineering Systems and Signal Theory

Introduction

Introduction
n

In this unit we are going to review the different sound

systems available to produce surround sound

But prior to see these systems we must review the

concepts of spatial hearing

Spatial Perception of Sound

Spatial Perception
n

If you havent noticed yet: we have 2 ears

Why two?
Because our sound localization mechanism needs two
different signals
Using only one, localization is very very difficult

But not always impossible

To explain the sound localization mechanism, Lord

Rayleight proposed the Duplex theory in its Theory of
Sound in 1877.
5

Duplex Theory
n

The sounds perceived by both ears are similar both

not identical

Comparing both sounds the brain is able to locate the sound

source
n

The hearing sense localizes sound sources using

fundamentally two different parameters:

Inter-Aural Time Difference (ITD)

Inter-Aural Intensity Difference (IID)
n

If not the exact position, at least the direction of arrival (DOA)

Also known as Inter-Aural Level Difference (ILD)

These parameters allow a left/right localization

They allow Azimuth localization (lateralization)

ITD
n

It measures the temporal difference between the

arrival of the sound to the left and right ears

In this case, right signal

arrives before left signal
7

ITD
n

Its useful for low frequency signals

What is the low frequency limit?

The phase shift (delay) between both ears is easy to calculate

with low frequency signals

1.5 kHz
This frequency has a wavelength similar to the head size

For higher frequencies, hearing uses the ITD of the

envelopes (not the waveform)

But its much less relevant than ITD for lower frequencies

IID
n

It measures the difference of signal level/intensity

between both ears
The head produces a shadow zone
Consequently both ears doesnt receive the same amount of
signal

Unless the sound source is in front of (or at the back of) the head

Left ear is in
shadow zone

IID
n

It is useful to perform localization of high frequency

sources
Head produces sound shadows above 1.5 kHz
Below this limit, diffraction reduces considerably the
shadowing, avoiding effective localization

No shadow
due to diffraction

10

Duplex Theory
n

Hearing uses both ITD and IID

They are not used alternatively, they are used at the

same time

For low frequency content ITD

For high frequency content IID

But this theory has limits, It cant distinguish between:

In front of / behind sources

Above / Below sources

11

Duplex Theory
n

Example of ambiguity:

Both cases produce:

ITD = 0

12

Cone of Confusion
n

If we trace a imaginary straight line between both ears,

we obtain the: interaural axis

Using only the duplex theory we are going to obtain revolution

symmetry
Every sound source
located in the cone
produce the same
ITD & IID

Ambiguity

13

Improving localization
n

To eradicate the ambiguity we need to add some

different aspects to the localization mechanism

We need to include the effects of:

Head
Shoulders
Pinna

All of them produce reflections & diffraction

over the sound

14

Improving localization
n

Head, shoulders & pinna effects:

Sound
source

Sound
source

Head, shoulders & pinna

produce reverb like reflections
15

Improving localization
n

If the listener or the sound source moves, all changes

Reflections (and diffraction) are completely different

But, how all of these affect localization?

When we are young, the brain learns that a sound

arriving from a given direction has a distinctive reverb
like pattern

These reverb like patterns are known as: cues (marcas)

So, a sound including a given cue is detected as

coming from a given direction
16

Improving localization
n

The use of the cues improves considerably the spatial

localization mechanism

But, there are still some ambiguities that are not

solved

Example: still in front of / behind sources

To eliminate the remaining ambiguities, humans tend

to move involuntarily the head

When you are looking for something that makes noise,

instinctively you start moving the head

17

Other Additional Factors

n

There are some other factors that affect the

localization

Additional factors:

Kind of sound
Length of the sound
n

Onset
n

Long sounds are easier to find

The instant were the sound begins

Spectral content of the source

n
n

Wider spectral contents are easier to find

On the other hand, tones are extremely difficult to find
18

Location of Several Sound Sources

n

When there is more than one sound source, the sound

of all the sources is overlapped

If the sound sources are incoherent or partially

incoherent

That is to say, they are mixed together

Hearing treats each one alone

So, hearing detects one different location for each source

If the sound sources are coherent

They are joined together

So, hearing detects only one location
This unique location is known as Phantom Image
19

Phantom Image
n

When dealing with coherent sources, the phantom

image appears

There is only one unique location

But, which location?

The location is a mean of the locations of the different sources

But the mean is weighted by the levels of each source
n

This is known as: Sum of locations

Moreover, phantom Image depends on the spectral

content of the signal

In high frequencies the pinna interferes the location

So, location of high frequencies tends to be diffuse
n

HF Sound sources seem wider

20

Location with Reverb

n

All of the localization mechanism said previously are in

free field conditions

But in real world there is always some kind of room

There is no room involved

Or at least the floor

So, there will always be some reverb

What signal arrives to the ear?

Direct sound + Several reflections

21

Location with Reverb

n

What signal arrives to the ear?

In this case the hearing can locate the sound without

problem

Direct sound + Several reflections

But, the perceived sound is colored due to comb filtering

effects

But, direct sound & reflections are coherent signals

Theory says that there should appear a phantom image
providing an incorrect location
But hearing has other useful tool to avoid this: Haas effect

22

Haas Effect
n

The Haas effect is known under two other names:

Law of the first wavefront

Precedence effect

The Haas effect does the following:

Once the first wavefront (usually the direct sound) arrives
It inhibits the location mechanism during the following 2 to 50
ms
This way the location of the reflections is avoided, effectively
blocking the formation of the (wrong) phantom image

Haas Effect is influenced by the head, shoulders and

pinna reflections

It works better in the horizontal plane

23

Distance Perception
n

What does hearing notice when a sound is near of far?

It depends on reverberation

In free field conditions (without reverberation) :

We appreciate a drop of 6 dB
n

Each time we double the distance

Low frequencies are less attenuated than high frequencies

Another aspect is the wavefront curvature:

Near sources produce a spherical wavefront

Far sources produce a planar wavefront
n

But this is not noticed by hearing, at least not if we do not move

24

Distance Perception
n

In diffuse field conditions (with reverb.)

Near sources have high content of direct sound

We notice a change in the direct sound/reverb proportion

And relatively low content or reverb

Far sources have more reverberation

The reverb proportion is increased with distance

25

Movement Perception
n

When the sound source and/or the listener are in

movement we obtain the Doppler effect

When they are getting closer / away:

Apparent frequency is raised / lowered respectively

c
f a =
c + vr

f s

fa: apparent frequency

fs: real frequency
vr: relative speed
c: speed of sound

26

Distance + Movement
n

There is one additional effect due to distance and

movement both at the same time: Motion Parallax

Motion Parallax:

Near moving sources produce large sound level differences

Far moving sources have a constant level

E.g: a flying mosquito at night (when you are trying to sleep)

n
n

When is far you didnt notice it (it has a constant low level)
When is near it seems like a plane (it produces large sound
level differences)
And, of course: doppler
27

Distance + Movement
n

This effect is not limited to sound

Example: A car running fast in a motorway

High

Speed: traffic barrier (near)

Low Speed: mountains (far)

28

Spatial Sound Systems

29

Spatial Sound Systems

n

There are 3 different families:

Stereophonic Systems
Binaural Systems
Sound Field Reconstruction Systems

It may be systems that are a mix between families

30

Monoaural Sound
n

The first sound system was the monoaural, in which

there is only one channel

With this system there is no possibility to move the

sound out of the position of the speaker

All the sound sources are located in the position of the

loudspeaker

This is our starting point

31

Stereophonic Systems

32

Stereo
n

The stereo systems uses 2 channels: L & R

It allows the (apparent) movement of the sound source

It produces a substantial enhancement in sound quality

The movement is only based on IID (it does not use ITD)
Producing phantom sources

The use of IID for movement has a severe

consequence:

We are using a parameter that uses the head as reference

In any stereophonic system, the reference point is
ALWAYS THE HEAD
33

Stereo
n

Phantom sources are located between the arc that

unites both speakers

Maximum aperture
must be 60

= o
Otherwise phantom
gets unstable

SWEET SPOT

Unique place in which

phantom source is perceived OK
34

Stereo Panning
n

Since we are using the IID the movement of the

source is controlled with a panning

Sending more or less signal to each channel

There are several options to calculate the proportion of

the signals:

Linear law
Sine law
Tangent law

35

Stereo Panning
n

Linear law:
This is the easiest law, but it is not advisable
Since it does not maintain the apparent level of the source
during the movement

Hearing is not linear, is logarithmic

Phantom Source

100 %

R
GR

Gain applied
to each channel

GL

0%

gL = 1 gR

36

Stereo Panning
n

Sine law:

This more elaborated law maintains a constant level when the

source moves
Phantom
position

sin p

gL gR
=
sin o g L + g R

Maximum
aperture
37

Stereo Panning
n

Tangent law:

This law maintains a constant energy level when the source

moves
Phantom
position

tan p

gL gR
=
tan o g L + g R

Maximum
aperture

This is the most

accurate panning law
38

Stereo Panning
n

Both previous laws only say the proportion between

gains

But we need another equation to be able to calculate

the gains:

(Two equations for two unknowns)

GL + GR = 1
For Free Field

GL2 + GR2 = 1
For Diffuse Field
39

Stereo Panning
n

To take into account: mixing consoles and other

equipment has a panning control

Panning control uses tangent law

But the maximum aperture used is 90

In this case, tangent law with difusse field can be

simplified to the following equations:

GR = sin( P )
GL = cos( P )

This is why tangent law is also

known as Sine-Cosine law

40

Quadraphonic
n

Since the apparition of the stereo was a revolution,

manufacturer of Hi-Fi equipment decided to go further

They designed the quadraphonic systems

Instead of 2 channels they use 4 channels

It was a complete disaster

In 1970 this was very difficult to implement
Each manufacturer produced its own standard
With vinyl discs we needed 2 discs being reproduced at the
same time
The use was simple with eight-track cartridges

41

Quadraphonic
n

As you can see, speakers do not maintain the rule:

The maximum aperture must be 60

42

Phantom with several speakers

n

How do we locate phantom sources with more than 2

speakers?

The answer is the same for every stereo based system

Phantom sources are always created using only 2

speakers

Speakers are always used by pairs for creating phantom

sources, only two are used at a time

But remember to maintain always the maximum aperture of

60 degrees

43

Dolby Stereo
n

The Dolby Stereo system was designed for cinema

There were two different domestic versions:

Dolby Surround
Dolby Surround ProLogic

It uses 4 different channels: L, R, C, S

All of them were mixed in only two channels

C (center) is used to maintain the dialogues stable
S (surround) is used for ambient sound

44

Dolby Stereo
n

Maximum aperture is 60

0
-30

30

Phantom images
are only possible
with L & R speakers

45

Dolby Stereo
n

Example: Dolby Stereo in Cinema

As you can see, surround channel uses several speakers

But everyone emits the same sound

46

Dolby Stereo
n

Example: Dolby Surround ProLogic at Home

The Dolby Surround version does not have the center channel
47

3/2 System
n

Also known as 5.0 system

Or 5.1 If it includes the subwoofer channel (LFE)

It uses 5 channels:

L, R, C, LS & RS

All the speakers must reside over a circle

Since it is a stereo based system, its location power is

the same as stereo

It only allows a better ambient definition (surround)

48

3/2 System
n

Diagram:

Surround
channels
are not fixed

100-120

100-120

They are not

used for
location of
sources
49

3/2 System
n

Using more speakers does not enhance localization

6.1

7.1

50

10.2 System
n

This system has a slogan:

Twice as good as 5.1

Its designer is the engineer creator of THX

As the name implies, it uses 10 channels plus 2 LFE

The interesting part is that is uses:

2 channels for elevation at 45

n

They allow the reproduction of sounds above the stage

2 Channels at 55
n
n

They enhance localization

And allow lateral reflections: increasing the spatial sensation
51

10.2 System
n
n

LH & RH: Left/Right height

LW & RW: Left/right wide

52

22.2 System
n

This is a System proposed by the NHK

The national television of Japan

It consist of 22 channels + 2 LFE

Channels are divided in layers, allowing elevation

effects

53

22.2 System
n

The placement of the speakers is as follows:

54

VBAP
n

Vector Based Amplitude Panning

As the name implies, it uses an amplitude panning to

move the source around

But now the movement can be in 3D too

Well, 3D with severe restrictions

To allow elevation it needs an additional speaker

So now we are going to make pannings with 3 speakers

Applying a generalized version of the tangent law
55

VBAP
n

We are going to maintain the listener as reference

point
Phantom
coordinates

g = [ pn
Gain
(1x3)

pm

pk ]

Speakers
coordinates

ln1 ln 2 ln3
l

l
l
m1 m 2 m3
lk1 lk 2 lk 3

We can use more than 3 speakers

But always making triangles

56

Binaural Systems

57

Binaural Systems
n

Stereo systems has severe limitations when dealing

with precise spatial location

They are only using IID

We could choose to use ITD instead (or both at a time)

Delaying the sound from each channel we can achieve the
same results than with IID
But its more complex and it enhances nothing

So, instead of using only IID (or ITD) we can make

another approach
Use everything: ITD + IID + Reflections & Diffraction on head,
shoulders and pinna
These are Binaural systems

58

Binaural Systems
n

So, binaural systems try to:

Reconstruct exactly the same signals that are produced by

real sound sources over the ears

But, at first sight this is very, very complex

How do we include head, shoulders & pinna

reflections & diffraction?

With the HRTF

59

HRTF
n

HRTF: Head Related Transfer Function

A HRTF is a filter

This filter introduces all the needed effects

Reflections & diffraction due to head, shoulders & pinna

Indeed, we need a large set of filters

Two filters (HRTFs) for each direction of arrival

n

One for the left ear & one for the right ear

How do we compute/measure the HRTF filters?

With a bit or work

60

HRTF Measurement
n

We need to use 2 small microphones

Located inside the ears

An then, with the head still, we are going to produce

sound from every possible direction

With a given resolution (e.g. 5 or 10 degrees)

61

HRTF Measurement
n

To speed up the process we can use a semicircular

array of speakers

Anechoic chamber
gets rid of
room reflections

62

HRTF Measurement
n

From each speaker at a time we send an impulse

Or any other signal useful for obtaining an impulse response

HRIR

Impulse

HRIR: Head Related Impulse Response

63

HRTF Measurement
n

If we represent all the HRIR for the horizontal plane

we obtain the following map:

This example
is for the
right ear

64

HRTF Measurement
n

We have measured an HRIR then, what is a HRTF?

A HRTF is the Fourier transform of the HRIR

The previous chart in frequency becomes:

65

HRTF
n

One big problem that comes with the HRTF is the

uniqueness

People tend to have different heads, shoulders and

ears

If we are going to use them

So, each person will have a different set of HRTFs

We will have to measure the HRTFs for each person

There are sets of general HRTF that work more or

less with everyone

But you will achieve much more accuracy with your own
HRTFs

66

Binaural Systems
n

Once we have measured the HRTFs the binaural

systems are very easy to implement
You only have to filter the sound with the corresponding pair
of HRTFs of the desired direction
And apply a delay and gain proportional to the distance of the
phantom source
n Since HRTF always measured at a given (short) distance
from the head

Source

HRTFL

HRTFR

R
67

Binaural Systems
n

One severe drawback of binaural systems is that we

need to use headphones for reproduction
We are computing the sound in the ears once it has passed
the pinna
If we use speakers we are going to include the pinna twice

If you do this, everything is ruined

68

Binaural Systems
n

More problems due to headphones:

It appears the Inside the Head effect: in several positions of

the sources, the sound seems to come from inside the head,
not the outside
n

People like speakers over headphones for something

We

are bond to the head: If the listener moves the head,

the scene moves with him/her

To break the bond there are two options:

Obvious:

Do not move the head!

Complex: Include a tracking mechanism. Following the
movement of the head and compensating for it
(changing the HRTFs)
69

Transaural Systems
n

The use of headphones is a severe drawback in the

vast majority of scenarios

Worst scenario ever: Cinema

Best scenario: videogames

The transaural systems appear as an alternative to binaural

systems that tries to overcome the headphone problem

Using a bit of signal processing we can change the

headphones for speakers

Lets see what we will hear using speakers

70

Transaural Systems
n

If we change headphones for speakers, we need to

deal with crosstalk

We need left speaker to left ear, and right speaker to right ear
But we also have crosstalk
Crosstalk:
dashed lines

We need to cancel the crosstalk using signal

processing

71

Transaural Systems
n

How do we do this?

Emitting two signals that cancel each other crosstalk when

received by ears

x1

x: signals emitted by speakers

y: signals received by ears
Hab: HRTF between speaker-ear pair
n a speaker
n b ear

x2
H12

H21

H11

H22
y1

y2

72

Transaural Systems
n

We need to solve the following system of equations:

! y $ ! H
# 1 & = # 11
#" y2 &% #" H 21

H12
H 22

$! x $
&# 1 &
&%#" x2 &%

x1

x2
H12

H21

H11
This is the desired sound
(already known)

This is the sound

that we must send

H22
y1

y2

73

Transaural Systems
n

Block diagram:

So, at the end we apply the following block diagram

74

Transaural Systems
n

Now, the question is: does this really work?

The answer is: Yes & No

Transaural systems work only in controlled scenarios

Room reverberation ruins our effort

n

The head of the listener must be completely still

n

It is very difficult to include & cancel reverberation issues

A small movement changes reflections drastically and avoiding
an effective crosstalk cancellation
In this case, we should perform a tracking of the head, and
compensate for it
Although during the time of reaction crosstalk is clearly
noticeable

In an anechoic chamber, it works great

75

Sound Field
Reconstruction Systems

76

Sound Field Reconstruction

n

This last family of sound systems use a different

approach to solve the spatial sound problem

Stereophonic & binaural systems are focused on the

hearing sense
They try to deceive the localization mechanism with more or
less skill
But these approaches have a common problem: they are
head dependent

The new family will try a completely different and novel

approach

They are going to try to synthesize the sound field in a whole

area, not only in the ears

77

Sound Field Reconstruction

n

Lets explain it:

Instead of deceiving the localization mechanism
We are going to build a sound field identical to the one that
the real sound source would produce
The sound field reconstruction is not limited to the sound in
the ears only, we will reconstruct it in the whole room

This way, in a cinema with a lot of people, each one

will perceive the scene in a different way (as happens
in the real world)

Instead of making only one scene for all people at the same
time

78

Sound Field Reconstruction

n

Example:

Virtual Sound Source

All listeners perceive the

same source position

But each one with a

different DOA

DOA depends on
the current position
of the listener

Listener 1

Listener 2
Listener 3
(moving)

Now we are:
Head Independent!
79

Sound Field Reconstruction

n

To achieve our goal there are two different systems

They are very different at first sight but, at the end,

they are based on the same physics

Both perform the same task but from different point of views

Sound Reconstruction Systems:

Ambisonics
Wave-Field Synthesis

80

Ambisonics
n

Ambisonics is a sound system that started as a

microphone technique used to store spatial sound

It stores the original sound filed of a given (and

unique) point in a finite number of channels

It measures the sound field in a given point

Then in reproduction it extrapolates the signal that

must be sent to each speaker

When the signal emitted by each speaker arrives to the

original (measured) point it recreates the same sound field
that was stored for this point
81

Ambisonics B-Format
n

The most simple version is the Ambisonics B-Format

It stores 4 different channels:

W: pressure
X: velocity in x axis
Y: velocity in y axis
Z: velocity in z axis

This is achieved with 4 different microphones:

One omnidirectional (W) and three bidirectional (X, Y, Z), one

for each axis
*Image source: wikipedia

82

Ambisonics B-Format
n

Having stored only the pressure (W) we can decide in

which direction we want to be the source:

Giving to angles: Azimuth() & Elevation()

The signals to be sent to the speakers will be:

We only need to compute the D matrix
D: decoding matrix
n

It depends on the speaker locations

83

Ambisonics
n

Example of use:

Ambisonics does not store the sound to be emitted by

each speaker in a different channel
It computes the signal to be sent to each speaker during
reproduction time
Using the decoding matrix

84

Ambisonics
n

Advantages:

The format does not define the position of the speakers

We can locate the speakers as we want

Disadvantages:

Speakers cant be located anywhere

n
n

It

Decoding matrix depends on speaker positions

To be able to compute the decoding matrix we need speakers at
regular positions (shapes: circle, sphere, semi-sphere, )

only works in the sweet spot

n
n

The center of the regular shape array of speakers

As in stereo systems

85

Ambisonics
n

But we said that this system was a Sound Field

Reconstruction System

Not something similar to a stereo system

Yes, but this is only possible with: HOA

Higher Order Ambisonics

86

Higher Order Ambisonics

n

We have seen the most basic Ambisonics system

B-Format
It uses only 4 channels to encode the sound

With HOA we are going to store more than 4 channels

Increasing the number of stored channels, we achieve a
greater sweet spot
Sweet spot becomes a Sweet Area

n
n

More channels wider area

The channels now represent Spherical Harmonics

But the complexity of the calculus needed to compute the

decoding matrix is increased notably

87

Higher Order Ambisonics

n

Representation of the Spherical Harmonics up to 3rd

order:

*Image source: wikipedia

88

Higher Order Ambisonics

n

The equations of the spherical harmonics up to 4th

order are:

4th order HOA needs 25 channels

89

Higher Order Ambisonics

n

Example of a 3D 3rd order ambisonics reproduction

system, CHESS (Guillaume Pottard):

90

Higher Order Ambisonics

n

The worst drawback of ambisonics is the need of a

regular shape array of speakers

In 2D the common regular shape is the circle

Think about a cinema with the speakers forming a circle
around the seats
Its not operative

91

Wave-Field Synthesis
n

WFS is the second system that falls inside the Sound

Field Reconstruction Systems

At first sight is very different from Ambisonics

But in fact, they are almost the same

Its starting point is the Huygens Principle

So lets review it

92

Huygens Principle
n

Every point of the wavefront can be seen as a new

source of spherical waves

93

Wave-Field Synthesis
n

WFS uses the Huygens principle to reconstruct the

sound filed
Secondary
sources

Original
source

If the wave front is created combining the spherical

waves of the secondary sources

Lets replace secondary sources by speakers

This is known as acoustic curtain principle
94

Acoustic Curtain Concept

n
n
n

Step 1 Put an speaker over each secondary source

Step 2 Form a linear array, instead of curve
Step 3 Get rid of the original source

95

Wave-Field Synthesis
n

Stereo VS WFS comparison:

96

Wave-Field Synthesis
n

Available types of sound sources:

Stereo: Only
Point Sources

Focused
source

97

Wave-Field Synthesis
n

Now, the thought part

Which sound must be emitted by each speaker?

We must calculate it

Kirchhoff-Helmholtz integral:

It is used the describe (with Huygens principle) the sound field

that is inside a given surface (S)

It says: The acoustic field inside a given volume can be

recreated using secondary sources distributed around the
surface that encloses the volume

98

Wave-Field Synthesis
n

Kirchhoff-Helmholtz integral:

Sound
Source

Listener

Secondary
sources

99

Wave-Field Synthesis
n

Simplifying:
Lets suppose that the volume is an infinite cube, the surface
is now only a plane that divides inside from outside
Now lets reduce even more, from 3D we change to 2D, the
surface is now a straight line
And last, we discretize the surface in N points

100

Wave-Field Synthesis
n

So, at the end, each speaker must emit:

A delayed and attenuated version of the original sound

Plus a high pass filter:
n

This filter appears when reducing from 3D to 2D

All speakers form a linear array

Delay due
to distance

HP Filter

Pressure

Distance
attenuation

101

WFS Limitations
n

Linear array:

Since we are using linear arrays of speakers, the sound

emitted has cylindrical divergence instead of spherical
n

The sound decays only 3 dB each time we double the distance

102

WFS Limitations
n

Diffraction:

The array of speakers is finite, it has limits

In both extremes it will appear diffraction

103

WFS Limitations
n

Spatial Aliasing:

Speakers must be located at some distance between them (at

least their size)
n

In the Huygens principle, each secondary source is infinitely

small and there are infinite sources
High Frequencies are not well reconstructed
Pure tone
with and
without
aliasing

104

WFS Limitations
n

Loudspeakers directivity:
In theory, secondary sources are omnidirectional
In practice, speakers are not omnidirectional at all the
frequencies
But this is not so important, in low frequencies they work ok

In high frequencies, spatial aliasing is worse than this

105

WFS Examples
n

WFS Cinema in Ilmenau (Germany)

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WFS Examples
n

Prototype at the IRCAM (France)

It uses planar DML speakers

107

WFS Examples
n

Prototype at UPV (Valencia)

Uses 96 channels

108

WFS Examples
n

Prototype at the UA

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Ambisonics VS WFS
n

Ambisonics:

It allows elevation (only for small orders of HOA)

n

Higher orders are too expensive with computing power needs

It needs a regular array of speakers

To obtain a big Sweet Area it needs a very high order
At the end, with the maximum order = WFS

WFS:

At the moment, without elevation

n

It allows any array configuration

n

But equations allow it, the problem is the money (& computer power)
Using combinations of linear arrays

There is no sweet spot

n

But the center is a preferential location

110

Sound in Movie Theatres

111

Sound in Cinema
n

The sound in Cinema has had two great milestones:

The use of more than two channels enhances the

spatial perception

The apparition of sound

The stereo system

But the difference of perception between mono & stereo is far

better

In the following slides we are going to review briefly

the different attempts made in cinema sound

And we are going to learn how to store sound in a film

112

Monoaural Sound
n
n

At the beginning of the cinema, the sound and the

image were stored separately
During the reproduction they used a gramophone

Varying the speed to maintain the synchronization

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Monoaural Sound
n

Later, when the sound was already treated as a

electric current (over 1926)

The sound started to be stored jointly with the image

The sound was stored as an opaque band over a

transparent section of the film (optic format)

Sound
band

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Multichannel Sound
n

The first multichannel Sound Track was One hundred

men and a girl in 1937
It was recorded in 9 channels
But at the end all channels were mixed together in the
monoaural optic band

From this moment and on, several attempts were

made to enhance the sound in cinema

But, the vast majority were a failure

The technology was very expensive for the moment

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Fantasound (1940)
n

In 1940, it was performed the first projection of a true

multichannel film: Fantasia
9 different sound channels
Mixed in 4 different optic bands
Using 3 speakers behind the screen and 65 small speakers
around the theatre
It was amazing but too much expensive, only used in Fantasia

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Cinerama (1952)
n
n
n

It used 3 joined projectors to produce a panoramic format

And 7 audio channels stored in a magnetic multitrack player
As with fantasound, it was so expensive that there were only a
few compatible cinemas and short list of produced films

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Cinemascope (1953)
n

Born in 1953
The system used an anamorphic lens to deform the image
and convert a 4:3 film in a 16:9 format
The lens must be used both at recording & reproduction
It used 4 audio channels stored in 4 magnetic tracks over the
film

Lens
Magnetic audio tracks

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Dolby (1970)
n

In 1970 Ray Dolby introduced the Dolby-A noise

reduction system

Stanley Kubricks A Clockwork Orange was the first film to

use it (1971)

In 1974 is introduced the Dolby Stereo system

The 4 channels
are mixed in
2 optic bands

Later it
became an
ISO standard

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Sensurround (1974)
n

This (defunct) system was an extension of the 4

channel system

And the precursor of the subwoofer channel

It added 4 very big speakers behind the screen

2 at each side
Each one driven with a 1 kW amplifier
Emitting only infrasounds (bellow 20 Hz)
n

All of them controlled with 1 additional track

It was presented with the film:

Earthquake
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Digital Sound (1986 - )

n

Digital Sound in cinemas was introduced in 1986

There are several standards:

Dolby Stereo Digital

n

DTS
n

Digital Theater System

SDDS
n

Dolby Digital or Dolby SR-D

Sony Dynamic Digital Sound

From the previous unit we already know how to

process the sound

But, the question is How is stored the digital sound in the

film?

121

Digital Sound
n

Digital sound is stored in optic format

Dolby
Digital

Dolby
Stereo
(analog)

SDDS

DTS

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Digital Sound
n

As you have seen in the previous slide, the sound is

stored near the holes of the film

It seems like the QR codes used for smartphones

Dolby Digital is stored in a very bad place

The projector trailing mechanism deteriorates the stored
signal each time is reproduced
After two weeks presenting the film (or even less), the sound
system will change to the analog sound track due to the errors
encountered when decoding dolby digital

And DTS

Its so simple only a small amount of dashes

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DTS
n

DTS is a system very similar to Dolby Digital

It is supposed to produce better quality (with more bitrate)

But you must be well trained to notice it

The major difference is the storing mechanism

It does not store the sound in the film
It stores the sound in CDs (or DVD / Bluray)
In the film it only stores a Time-Code to synchronize the
player

124