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System 39 (2011) 391e402

www.elsevier.com/locate/system

English as a global language in China: An investigation into

learners and teachers language beliefs
Lin Pan*, David Block
Beijing Language and Culture University, 15 Xueyuan Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100083, PR China
Received 15 January 2011; accepted 25 May 2011

Abstract
This paper discusses issues related to language beliefs held by teachers and students of English in China; namely, the status of
English, the learners expectations of English and the focus of English teaching and learning in China. These beliefs are examined
in the context of globalization and Chinas ever-deepening integration into the global economy, in particular, during the period
when China hosted the Beijing Olympic Games in 2008. Both questionnaire and interview data will be presented and these
databases highlight the prevalence of the belief that English is an international and global language in contrast to Chinese. Belief in
the instrumental value of English, both to the country and to the individual, is also found to be common among research participants. Nevertheless, the emphasis on the learning and teaching of English is still found to be examination oriented, which may be
an obstacle to the development of the students communication skills in English.
Crown Copyright 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: English; Global language; English teaching and learning; CET examinations (the College English Test); China

1. Introduction
While in the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, the view of English as a global language was a vague notion, from the
1980s onwards it became omnipresent, leading authors such as David Crystal to make rather bold statements such as
English is the global language(Crystal, 1997, p. 1). Indeed, in a questionnaire distributed globally by the British
Council in 1995 (British Council, 1995), 96.3% of the 1,398 respondents indicated that they either agreed or strongly
agreed that English was and would remain in the foreseeable future the dominant language of world communication.
In addition, 79.2% replied that they either disagreed or disagreed strongly that another language would challenge the
role of English as the worlds main language. With reference to such surveys, Fishman (1996, p. 628) concluded that:
The world of large scale commerce, industry, technology, and banking, like the world of certain human
sciences and professions, is an international world and it is linguistically dominated by English almost
everywhere, regardless of how well established and well-protected local cultures, languages, and identities
may otherwise be.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 86 (10) 82303513.
E-mail address: lplinpan@googlemail.com (L. Pan).
0346-251X/$ - see front matter Crown Copyright 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.system.2011.07.011

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While English has come to be recognized by many, if not most, as a global language (Crystal, 1997; Graddol, 1997,
2006) since Fishmans statement, it is interesting to explore how this belief is manifested in different contexts around the
world. And with the rise of China as an economic force to be reckoned within the world today (Arrighi, 2007), it is
important to explore what the Chinese people think about the status of English. In China, language policymaking has seen
tremendous changes in the last half-century. Starting from 1978, with the implementation of the open-door policy and the
drive for modernization and internationalization, there have been a number of official measures to promote foreignlanguage education (Hu, 2005; Lam, 2005; Li et al., 1988). The emphasis on learning English has continued unabated
in recent years and at present, China boasts the largest English learning population in the world. Over 200 million students
in China (or about 20% of the total in the world) are learning English in schools, as are about 13 million young people at
university (Taylor, 2002). Hence, in the context of globalization and the official popularization of English in China, an
investigation into how the Chinese learners of English and teaching practitioners view English seems to be of utmost
importance. In short, we know that the Chinese are studying English in the hundreds of millions; what we dont know is
what they think about this.
This paper is an attempt to investigate the language beliefs, both in general terms and with regard to English, among
the Chinese learners and teachers of English. It intends to provide answers to the following questions:
A What do the Chinese learners and teachers of English think about the status and the significance of English in
China?
A What motivates the students to learn English?
A What is the current focus of the teaching and learning of English in classrooms?
Questionnaire results are presented as indicators of teachers and students beliefs. The general patterns emergent
are then brought more to life with selected excerpts from interviews with one university student and one university
English language teacher in Beijing.
2. Language beliefs and discourses on English as a global language
As stated above, this paper examines beliefs about the status of English, the significance of English and the teaching and
learning of English that the Chinese learners and teachers of English hold. As background to this exploration of these
different beliefs, it is necessary to clarify first of all what is meant by beliefs and second to review two discourses on English
as a global language which can be related to commonly held beliefs about the spread of English around the world.
2.1. Language beliefs
In what has come to be the must-be-cited article on beliefs in education, Pajares (1992) presented a thorough review
of how the construct beliefs had been conceptualised in educational psychology up until the 1990s. Early in this
review, there is the suggestion that the construct is very difficult to pin down:
Defining beliefs is at best a game of players choice. They travel in disguise and often under alias e attitudes,
values, judgements, axioms, opinions, ideology, perceptions, conceptions, conceptual systems, preconceptions, dispositions, implicit theories, personal theories, internal mental processes, action strategies, rules of
practice, practical principles, perspectives, repertoires of understanding, and social strategy, to name but a few
to be found in the literature. (Pajares, 1992, p. 309)
Nevertheless, after discussing research by over 50 different authors, Pajares did offer a list of what he considered to
be key dimensions of beliefs. In this list, there are references to beliefs as cognitive structures which are formed early
in life and which are resilient to change; the function of beliefs and how they influence understandings of the world;
how beliefs influence and shape behaviour; the relative strength of different beliefs in broader belief systems; the
socially shared nature of beliefs; and finally, beliefs as a part of hierarchical cognitive architecture. Further to this list,
Pajares takes on the issue of how beliefs are different from knowledge. This distinction is summed up nicely in later
work by Devon Woods (1996) and Anita Wenden (1998). Woods (1996, p. 195) suggests that while knowledge refers
to things we know- conventionally accepted facts . [,] [b]eliefs refer to an acceptance of a proposition for which
there is no conventional knowledge, one that is not demonstrable, and for which there is accepted disagreement.

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Meanwhile, Wenden (1998, p. 517) suggests that in contrast to knowledge, beliefs are viewed as individual subjective
understandings, idiosyncratic truths, which are often value related and characterized by a commitment not present in
knowledge.
The more subjective and idiosyncratic nature of beliefs vis-a`-vis what is known as knowledge has remained
constant in research over the past two decades in which beliefs have been a key construct. In addition, as Kalaja (2003)
notes, there is a need to consider the socially situatedness of beliefs, as emergent in moment-to-moment interaction.
However, perhaps most relevant to this paper is work which links individually expressed beliefs to larger social forces.
As Barcelos explains, because [l]anguage learning is embedded in a political and historical context and learners
views will inevitably touch upon these (Barcelos, 2003, p. 237), beliefs necessarily relate to the wider socio-political
context. This concern might be addressed drawing on Bakhtinian notions of heteroglossia and polyphony, the idea
that individually expressed beliefs draw on the voices of many as opposed to being a purely individual matter. Dufva
(2003) expresses this view as follows:
. beliefs . consist of different voices that may be attributed to various sources . Thus some elements may
seem to be directly related to the individuals own lifespan and . personal experiences. Others would reflect
the linguistic attitudes of the community at large and still others would be related to the discourses within
language education, language policies, curricula, syllabi and teachers practices. (p. 138)
2.2. Discourses on English as a global language
In this paper, it is two broad discourses of English and its role as a global language which are the focus. The first of
these discourses emerges in the work of De Swaan (2001) and his world linguistic system theory. Accordingly,
a single coherent global language system is now operating around the world and all known languages are connected
in a strongly ordered, strongly connected, hierarchical, multi-tiered pattern. At the core of the system is hypercentral
English, which is linked to a dozen supercentral languages, each of which in turn serves as a focal point for a cluster
of peripheral languages. This world language system is held together by bilingual speakers and De Swann assumes
that when speakers of a central language learn an additional language, more often than not, they learn a language that
is perceived to provide them with some kind of greater communication advantage. In other words, they choose to
learn a language occupying a higher level than their L1 in the hierarchy, as there is an attraction felt by the speakers of
the peripheral languages towards the centre. Calvet (2006) has described this attraction as a gravitational force.
Though De Swaans account of the global language system is not without its limitations (see Ferguson, 2006;
Blommaert and Pan, 2007), it is a useful conceptualization of the hierarchical ordering of languages in the world
and it offers a reasonable explanation for the relationships that exist between and among languages as well as the
global spread of English. It also highlights the evident inequalities between languages and takes into account how the
English language has become a valued commodity (Gray, 2010), a notion which links to the second discourse of
English in the world.
This second broad discourse of English of interest in this paper frames English according to its instrumental value. In
both policy and lay circles the English language is often described as a gatekeeper to the modernization of a state and the
acquisition of social and economic prestige for individuals (Pennycook, 2000; Ferguson, 2006; Phillipson, 2010). As
the worlds foremost additional language today, English is regarded as a form of linguistic capital (Bourdieu, 1991),
which is easily convertible into other forms of capital, such as cultural capital (in the form of educational qualifications)
and economic capital (in terms of the income accrued from having a well remunerated job which results, to a great
extent, from having the right cultural capital). This idea of English as necessary for economic advancement, both of
individuals and of entire societies, is often voiced from what Kachru and Nelson (2006) terms the Outer and Expanding
Circles, where people (as second language learners or foreign language learners) regard English as a window on the
world and a tool that empowers them. This belief is also apparent in the large sums of money a lot of people are willing to
spend on English language education so as to equip themselves with a competitive edge.
The preceding discussion of beliefs as a construct and discourses of English in the world serves as backdrop for
what is to come in the remainder of this paper, that is, an attempt to address language beliefs by investigating whether
the two types of discourses outlined above are present in the context of China. However, before moving to examine the
questionnaire and interview data which will serve as bases for such answers, we first discuss the research methodology
employed.

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3. Research methods
This study is part of a larger project which aimed to investigate English language ideologies in China (Pan, 2010).
In that project, university students and English teaching professionals were the main research subjects and data was
collected via a questionnaire and face-to-face interviews. Seven items from the original 48-item questionnaire and two
excerpts from the interviews have been selected as they touched upon issues of language beliefs. It should be noted
that the questionnaire was designed, piloted and administered simultaneously with the interviews, which means that
the questions asked during interviews were very similar to items on the questionnaire. Indeed, the questionnaire was
seen as ground-clearing, temperature-taking exercise while the interviews were designed to explore in depth salient
trends emerging in the questionnaire data. The research was carried out from July to September in 2008 when China
was hosting the Olympic Games. This period was chosen because it was seen as an epoch-making turning point for
China with accelerated internationalization, which in turn, it was anticipated, would have an impact on teachers and
students beliefs about the English language as well as the teaching and learning of English in China.
3.1. The questionnaire
As explained above, this paper focuses on seven questionnaire items which directly relate to the research questions.
Most items are rating scales except item 2 and 4 which are multiple choice questions to clarify reasons. These items
look as follows:
1. English is the current dominant global language.
2. English is popular in China because:
3. With the popularization of English, China will be more globalized and internationalized.
4. (Only students) The reason I learn English is because:
5. The current English education in schools and universities is exam oriented.
6. The current English exam emphasizes more on the grasp of English grammar.
7. (Teachers) The English education my students receive meets their expectations and needs.
(Students) The English education I received meets my expectations and needs.
The aim of these questions is to examine how prevalent particular beliefs are among the teachers and students.
Items 1 to 3 probe the students and the teachers beliefs on the status of English and their expectations of English in
China. Item 4 is a question only to the students to investigate their motivations in learning English. Items 5 to 7 aim to
find out whether the students learning expectations are being met by exploring the current focus of English teaching
and learning both from the teachers and students perspectives.
The questionnaires were distributed to 53 university teachers and 637 students in 6 universities in Beijing, covering
respondents majoring in different subjects such as humanities, social science and science and engineering. The return
rate for teacher questionnaires was 77% and student questionnaires were all returned. It should be noted that students
questionnaires were all filled out in classrooms and some scholars (Cohen et al., 2007) pointed out that such kind of
administration may often generate a high response rate but exert a sense of compulsion on the respondents. In order
not to make our respondents feel threatened or uncomfortable, it was made clear to the students in particular that they
were under no obligation to respond to the questionnaires. Indeed, the teachers administering the questionnaires were
asked to make it clear to students that this questionnaire is to help with a research project and it is not compulsory
to fill it out.
3.2. Interviews
While questionnaire findings will be discussed first, to give a view of how prevalent particular beliefs are among the
research participants, two interview extracts will also be presented to provide a more in-depth exploration into what
the questionnaire responses might mean. The extracts are from interviews with a university teacher and a student,
respectively. Extract 1 illustrates how the student perceives English as an international language and Extract 2
discusses the current English teaching in China from the perspective of a teacher. Both extracts have been translated from Mandarin to English and translations have been checked by two professional translators whose native

L. Pan, D. Block / System 39 (2011) 391e402

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Table 1
English is the current dominant global language.

Teachers
Students
a
b

Mean

SD

1a

1.68
1.59

0.82
0.77

62.2%b
67.5%

7.8%
6.3%

30.0%
26.1%

1, Agree; 2, not sure; 3, disagree.

Frequency distribution were presented as percentages.

languages are Chinese and English, respectively. Interview transcriptions were examined for themes arising and
extracts presented in this paper have been organized into stanzas and lines, following a presentation technique
elaborated by Gee (1999). Each line is deemed to carry a piece of new and salient information and is numbered
separately. The letters a and b after some line numbers indicate that they contain the same information and belong
to the same line. However, as the information contained within a single line of speech is very often too small and
limited to capture all that a speaker wants to say, a set of lines is grouped into a stanza. According to discourse analysts
such as Gee (1986, 1991), Hymes (1996), Scollon and Scollon (1981), a stanza is a set of lines devoted to a single
topic, event, image, perspective or theme. Therefore, whenever there are more than two topics or issues addressed in
one extract, it is divided into stanzas and each stanza is named according to its theme. In this way, each specific theme
which arises in the interview is foregrounded to facilitate thematic analysis.
4. Findings and discussion
4.1. Questionnaire findings
4.1.1. The status and significance of English
The questionnaire results point to a prevalent view that English is a global language. In this sense, over 60% of
teachers and students acknowledge that they agree with the proposition that English is the current dominant global
language (see Table 1). In addition, when asked why English is popular in China in a multiple choice question (see
Table 2), the top three answers unanimously chosen by both the teachers and the students are: C: English is more
international and global than the other languages; G: as the language for international business, English is
necessary for Chinas economic development; and H: English is a handy tool for Chinas rise as a superpower. With
regard to the benefits of English to Chinese society, the questionnaire reveals that over 70% of both teachers and
students (see Table 3) indicate that they agree or strongly agree that with the popularization of English, China will be
more globalized and internationalized.
These results suggest that both the teachers and students in China recognize the status of English as a global
language and acknowledge that English is important to the development of China. Besides this instrumental value, the
majority of questionnaire respondents also describe English as more international and global than other
languages. This point of view resonates with De Swaans (2001) global linguistic system discussed above in that
research respondents recognize the communication advantages that English has and therefore seem to put English on
a higher hierarchical level in the linguistic system.
Table 2
English is popular in China because.

A. it is superior to other languages in terms of language structure and grammar.

B. it is easy to learn, to understand and to master.
C. It is more International and global than the other languages.
D. Britain had great influence in world history.
E. U.S. is now the most powerful country in the world and it speaks English.
F. Chinese people indiscriminately aspire to everything foreign.
G. As the language for international business, English is necessary for Chinas economic development.
H. English is a handy tool for Chinas rise as a superpower.
I. Others

Teachers (%)

Students (%)

13.6%
21.0%
74.1%
4.9%
23.5%
2.5%
63.0%
39.5%
0.0%

9.0%
24.6%
72.7%
6.2%
19.9%
6.8%
68.5%
50.3%
4.3%

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396

Table 3
With the popularization of English, China will be more globalized and internationalized.

Teachers
Students
a
b

Mean

SD

1a

1.96
2.20

0.80
0.89

31.6%b
20.0%

48.1%
53.6%

15.2%
16.1%

2.5%
7.2%

2.5%
3.10%

1, Strongly agree; 5, strongly disagree.

Frequency distribution were presented as percentages.

Table 4
The reason I learn English is because (only students).
Student (%)
A. I have an intrinsic interest in it.
B. I have to pass English exams to graduate.
C. I adore western cultures and traditions
D. I want to go abroad to study.
E. I want to emigrate / live abroad.
F. English is a kind of capital which can bring more opportunities to my career.
G. English is a kind of capital which can raise my profile among my classmates, friends and colleagues.
H. English opens a window to the world for me.
I. English improves my status and I feel I am more modern, international, and connected with the world.
J. English brings me competitive edge in studying, work and promotion.

30.7%
44.6%
5.8%
20.0%
7.7%
75.6%
17.0%
58.3%
45.0%
3.3%

4.1.2. The motivations for English learning

While the status and significance of English are manifested in the above questionnaire item responses, it is essential
to probe what the learners think are the reasons which motivate them to learn English. Hence, an item only for students
the reason I learn English is because: (see Table 4) was asked and the top three most chosen answers are English is
a kind of capital which can bring more opportunities to my career (75.6%); English opens a window to the world for
me (58.3%) and English improves my status and I feel I am more modern, international, and connected with the
world (45%). In all three answers, English is described as a capital, a window and a link to get connected with
the world. It seems then that it is the instrumental value of English that most attracts these students and it suggests that
questionnaire respondents believe that a good command of English is necessary for acquiring social prestige.
4.1.3. The focus of the teaching and learning of English
Although students cite the usefulness of English both to the development of China and to themselves as individuals,
they appear to have questions about whether or not they are receiving the kind of instruction that they need. Hence
questions concerning the current English teaching and learning were asked to explore whether the students expectation
for English learning was met. The questionnaire results show that 71.5% of teachers and 56.7% of students agree or
strongly agree that the current English education in schools and universities is examination oriented (see Table 5), while
69.1% of teachers and 69.3% of students indicate (shown by strongly agree and agree) that the current English
examinations are most about a command of English grammar (see Table 6). While there is less difference in opinions
about the focus of examination and grammar in teaching, teachers and students did not agree on the teaching outcome.
Only 20.8% of students indicate that they agree or strongly agree that the English education they received meets their
expectations and needs in contrast to 53.7% who disagree or strongly disagree (see Table 7). This result is in contrast
with that of the teachers, as only 6.7% of teachers show that they disagree that the English education students receive
Table 5
The current English education in schools and universities is exam oriented.

Teachers
Students
a

Mean

SD

1a

2.35
2.54

1.08
1.30

16.7%
18.4%

54.8%
38.3%

9.5%
18.4%

15.5%
20.1%

3.6%
4.7%

1, Strongly agree; 5, strongly disagree.

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397

Table 6
The current English exam emphasizes more on the grasp of English grammar.

Teachers
Students
a
b

Mean

SD

1a

2.29
2.29

0.80
0.86

15.5%b
16.6%

53.6%
52.7%

19.0%
17.6%

10.7%
11.6%

1.2%
1.5%

1, Strongly agree; 5, strongly disagree.

Frequency distribution were presented as percentages.

Table 7
Teachers: The English education my students receive meets their expectations and needs.
Students: The English education I received meets my expectations and needs.
Mean
Teachers
Students
a
b

2.25
3.40

SD
0.70
1.05

1a
b

18.7%
4.0%

44%
16.8%

30.7%
25.5%

6.7%
42.2%

0.0%
11.5%

1, Strongly agree; 5, strongly disagree.

Frequency distribution were presented as percentages.

does not meet students expectations and needs. Both the mean and distribution are markedly higher for the students,
indicating that students are generally much less satisfied than teachers as regards the effectiveness of English teaching/
learning (See Table 7). The questionnaire results point to a contradiction whereby in practice examinations are
emphasized rather than the development of communication skills. It therefore seems that to the students, English
language education in China at the moment still needs to be improved to meet their expectations and needs.
To summarize, the questionnaire results present an overall view that English is the global language and that it is
regarded as a more modern and international language than other languages, including Chinese. English is considered
useful to the development of both the nation and individuals. However, respondents have also indicated that although
English has communication advantages, the teaching and learning of it in universities are still examination-oriented.
At this stage, it is necessary to look into what the teachers and students say about English and English learning and
teaching so as to get a deeper understanding of the issues. Therefore, the interview extracts below will probe both the
teachers and the students beliefs, respectively.
4.2. Interviews
Extract 1 is from an interview with a second-year university student who was, at the time, studying economics in
a language-study focused university in Beijing. When asked if he agreed that English is the only world language at
Extract 1
English is an international language.
Stanza 1: English is an international language
1
It cannot be denied that English is an international language.
2a
For example, if you go abroad and speak Chinese,
2b
you may be understood by some in southeast Asia,
2c
but not in Europe or America.
3
If you use English in south Asia, it is fine,
4
so English is more of an international language than Chinese.
5a
It is possible that Chinese may catch up (with English),
5b
but it will take a long time.
6
So I agree that English is the only international language at the moment.
Stanza 2: English is a survival skill in Hong Kong
7
Researcher: Why do you think we cant let English standards fall?
8
Student: Studying English has almost become a trend.
9a
If you speak English on the street,
9b
many people can understand it and can speak it.
9c
So English has been integrated into our work and study.
10
Also, competence in English is a great advantage in finding jobs.
11a
Films from Hong Kong show that when people from the Mainland (China) go to there to find work,

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11b
11c
11d
12

L. Pan, D. Block / System 39 (2011) 391e402

the first question asked would be Can you speak English?
A person who answered No immediately lost the opportunity of work.
Later he befriended a Hong Kong girl who taught him English.
English is needed in that work environment.

Stanza 3: English makes one competitive in the job market

13a
Researcher: That happened in Hong Kong, didnt it?
13b
Does that also happen in the Mainland?
14a
Student: Of course.
14b
For instance, when my friends in senior grades went for job interviews,
14c
they said they were in an advantageous position
14d
because the interview was in English
14e
and students from our university have a higher level of English
15a
though in fact our university is not as famous as some other universities.
15b
This is because our university always pays attention to English teaching
15c
and learning in addition to students major subjects.
Stanza 4: English is a new additional skill even in a small village
16
Researcher: Is English useful in your hometown? (a small village in south China)
17
Student: Yes, of course. Let me tell you a story.
18a
One day, my brother-in-laws younger brother,
18b
a taxi driver with little education,
18c
was reciting English vocabulary, so I asked him why he did that.
19a
He said he lost many opportunities to take foreigners because he could not understand what they were saying.
19b
20
If he did, he could have made more money.
21a
He then asked me to teach him how to say simple sentences like Where are you going? and How much?
21b

the moment, he gave an affirmative answer and illustrated the importance of English at different levels of Chinese
society:
In stanza 1, the interviewee assigns to English a higher and superior status. This hierarchical ordering of English, a de
facto global language, over Chinese, his mother tongue, along with his comments on the dynamics and the
communication value of English, echoes De Swaans (2001) depiction of the world linguistic system as discussed
above. This example is in line with the questionnaire results (see Table 1) and illustrates that thanks to the
communication potential that English brings with it, the respondent places English on a higher hierarchical level in the
linguistic system over Chinese, his native language.
In the next three stanzas, the student provides three different examples to further illustrate the importance of
English at different levels of Chinese society. He describes English in terms consistent with Bourdieus linguistic
capital (see Section 2.2) and he positions English as a valued resource which empowers one to gain entry into
a particular socio-economic group through employment. He states clearly that peoples upward mobility and
professional development depend on a good command of English, a symbolic and economic asset.
It is also worthwhile to highlight the idea expressed here that the value of English to individuals lies in its being an
unstated qualification for employment, further education and an imperative for career development. By unstated, we
mean that it is not made explicit in the current foreign language education policies (Pan, in press) but is indicated in the
remarks by both the students (see Extract 1 for example) and the teachers (see Extract 2). That is, similar to the status
of Chinese, which is the legitimate official language, English has become the unofficial and unstated key to a persons
success in China today, and to some extent determines a persons career advancement. Such a view about English may
partly explain the students aspiration to learn it and it goes some way towards an understanding of the embrace of
English in the education system as a whole.
While the usefulness of English is commonly recognized, as illustrated in the questionnaire responses and the
interview extract, it is interesting to see how research participants comment on the current classroom teaching. As can
be observed in Table 5, both students and teachers often find themselves preoccupied with the multitude of English
exams. Here a few background explanations will be made to understand the examination culture in China. Since
ancient China, examinations have been regarded as crucial in measuring whether a person is doing well in his studies.

L. Pan, D. Block / System 39 (2011) 391e402

399

A written examination, the imperial exam, was held for about 1,300 years as the sole method for selecting the best
government officials. Though the imperial exam was abolished at the beginning of the 20th century, the examination
culture is deep-rooted and examinations have always been taken seriously by authorities, teachers, students and
parents in China (Lee, 1996). In foreign language education, English had always been taught as a subject of study
rather than a means of communication (Cheng, 1992; Lam, 2005). It is true that the recent two decades have witnessed
the growing emphasis placed on communicative competence and communicative language teaching (CLT) and the
reforms to the English examinations; nevertheless, the present-day examination system still follows the principles of
the traditional Chinese imperial examination system and English has been listed as a compulsory test subject from
basic education to tertiary education, which has resulted in a practice of put exams first in current language teaching

Extract 2
A discussion of the CET 4 Exam with a lecturer of English.
Stanza 1: CET 4 exam and the university degree conferment
1
Researcher: Is the requirement for English the same for students who are majoring in different subjects?
2
Teacher: Originally, the CET 4 was connected to the Bachelors Degree
3
now theoretically it is no longer the case, but not in reality.
4
Researcher: In which year was the change in policy made?
5
Teacher: in 2006 or 2007.
6
Researcher: It seems that in the past students could not graduate without passing the CET 4.
7
Teacher: They could not get their Bachelors Degree.
8
Researcher: No degree?
9
Teacher: Yes, no degree.
10
Researcher: Is the requirement given by the universities or by the ministry of education?
11
Teacher: I dont know.
12
But it seemed all the universities were following the same requirement.
13
Now they are no longer connected.
14
The total mark for CET 4 is 700. The passing mark is 425.
15
A score sheet will be given to the students.
16
Some companies will require 500 marks, while others may require 600.
17
The requirements are different.
Stanza 2: CET and English teaching
18
Teacher: Previously, in the final term of a students second year,
19
we mainly concentrated on CET 4 preparation in class.
20
Now due to the disconnection,
21
we teach the textbook in addition to having CET 4 preparation.
22
We do both things at the same time and work on several simulated CET 4 tests.
23a
Researcher: In other words, it is not necessary to prepare for the university examinations
23b
but the pass rate is still important.
24
Teacher: Yes, this year the pass rate for our university was 91.47 %
25
This was good news.
26
So you see pass rate is still a standard.
27
Researcher: More than 90%, that is a high rate. Does your university regard it as an honour?
28
Teacher: Yes, and it is reported on the university website.
29
Researcher: So the CET result is still important.
30
Teacher: yes.
Stanza 3: English and job requirement
31
Researcher: Just now you mentioned English as a job requirement.
32
Will students actually use English in their work?
33
Whats the requirement for non-English majors in our society?
34
Teacher: You know the saying when the water rises the boat rises with it.
35
English is required even if it is not used.
36
For instance, some companies require PhDs but the job does not really demand a PhD.
37a
It is similar with English. For some small companies English really isnt necessary
37b
but they just require it.

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L. Pan, D. Block / System 39 (2011) 391e402

and learning. Even teachers at various levels of teaching showed similar concerns. Extract 2 is a detailed illustration of
the put exams first view, as expressed by a university teacher.
The CET 4 (The College English Test Band 4) examination is the central theme in this extract. From the above
illustration, it seems the value and significance of CET 4 exams has gone beyond an assessment of students
competence to become an indicator of the rankings of universities in the national league table (Jin and Yang, 2006).
CET 4 is a national standardized proficiency test administered by the National College English Testing Committee on
behalf of the Chinese Ministry of Education. It is said to be designed and implemented in 1987 to meet the need for
Chinas reform and its open-door policy (Jin and Yang, 2006; Wu, 2009). That is, all university students (non-English
majors) across China are required to attend the test after completing the English foundation course in the second
school year. Those who do not pass it are not entitled to their first degree (Shao, 2006). CET 4 then quickly became the
worlds largest EFL test in the world administered nationwide and the results of the exam soon became an important
marker measuring the quality of English teaching (Jin and Yang, 2006). Though the test was reformed in 2006, it has
remained controversial because in pursuing a high pass rate, many universities have focused almost exclusively on
teaching examination techniques, leaving to the side the development of students communicative abilities. In
addition, teachers are left powerless as regards deciding what to teach and how to teach (Jin, 2008), as indicated in the
above extract. Another problem to be solved in CET 4 is that speaking is excluded from the testing system. Although
an optional CET 4 oral test has been introduced gradually in some provinces and big cities since 1999, only a small
share of students who get top in the CET 4 written exam have the opportunity to opt for it (Jin and Yang, 2006; Wu,
2009). When addressing language teaching, Littlewood (1981) pointed out that developing students practical
communicative competence is of crucial importance; hence the absence of a speaking test or the impracticality of
carrying out large scale speaking tests in China contributed to the consequence that while Chinese students tend to be
very good at grammar-based written examinations, they are by no means good speakers, and they are often reticent
learners who lack the willingness to communicate verbally (Wen and Clement, 2003, p. 18).
Furthermore, the teachers comment on English as a job requirement even if it is not used in lines 34e35 of
stanza 3 reveals that education is seen more as a process of accumulating knowledge than as a practical process of
constructing and using knowledge for immediate purposes, i.e. oral communication in the case of English. This is in
parallel with what Scollon (1999) and Wang (2001) (cited in Hu, 2002, p. 97) have pointed out that traditional
education in China has rested on the popularly held notion that true knowledge resides in written texts, especially
classics and authoritative works and learning is equated with reading books and perceived as a knowledgeaccumulating process. Yu (1984, p. 35), cited in Hu (2002), vividly compares the accumulation of knowledge and
the use of that knowledge to saving money in the bank and spending it later: When you put your money in the bank it
is not important to be sure what you are going to do with it; but when you do need the money for some emergency, it is
there for you to use. Such a point of view may be another contributing factor to explain the difficulty in implementing
CLT principles that promote teaching and learning for practical needs and downplay the importance of static
authoritative knowledge.
5. Conclusion
This paper has drawn on questionnaire and interview data to explore teachers and students beliefs about English
as a global language in China. In particular, it has investigated the status of English, learners motivations, and the
teaching and learning of English in China. In line with the commonly held beliefs about the spread of English around
the world, respondents seem to view English in a relatively unproblematic and unproblematised way as part and parcel
of international development and as the global language. In short, English is regarded as useful to Chinas internationalization and globalization. In addition, English is described by a good proportion of research participants as the
most international and global language and is placed in what amounts to the hypercentral position in De Swaans
global linguistic system. Furthermore, English is regarded as having an instrumental value, a linguistic capital that
could be beneficial to employment and career development of individuals. Thus, it has begun to be positioned by many
Chinese nationals as equal and even superior to Chinese in some fields of social activity, such as business and
education.
However, the perceived importance of English, and above all the importance of being able to communicate in
English, does not seem to have affected how it is taught and when asked about classroom teaching and learning of
English, participants reveal a complex state of affairs. Thus, although English competence is believed to be useful, the

L. Pan, D. Block / System 39 (2011) 391e402

401

deeply rooted examination culture leads to an exam-based syllabus, which clashes with the CLT approach which
teachers are supposed to implement. In short, there is a put exams first mentality which reigns supreme. In such
circumstances, English comes to be defined in individually and collectively held belief systems as serving two distinct
though interrelated functions in contemporary China. On the one hand, it is a commodity, defined by exam results,
which can be exchanged on the job market (Block, 2010). From this point of view, it really does not matter that exam
results do not indicate communicative competence as having English comes to be embodied in a certificate which
constitutes a part of a larger credentialisation process. On the other hand, for those Chinese nationals who have contact
with non-Chinese nationals, English actually serves a concrete communicative function. Here, the belief that English
is necessary for Chinas participation in all things global actually comes to life.
Since language beliefs are dynamic and situated, the aspiration to learn English and the dissatisfaction with current
teaching practice expressed by the teachers and students is inevitably influenced by the social context, that is, the
recent economic development of China, its need for internationalization and the accelerated social change when it was
preparing and hosting the global event of Olympic Games. And this shows how language beliefs are social and
political products. Hence, while allowing that beliefs are individual subjective understandings (Wenden, 1998, p.
517), we hope to have highlighted that language beliefs are connected to the broad socialepolitical context and
suggest a social and political dimension in understanding and analysing language beliefs.
Of course this opens up a good number of questions in the case of China, not least how beliefs about English will
evolve there over the next 25 years. In 2010, China became the worlds second largest economy and reasonable
projections place it as the largest economy sometime in the next 20e30 years. It is currently buying the debt of many
of the worlds most economically advanced nations, such as the US and EU member states Spain, Greece and
Belgium. And finally, it is involved in extensive investment in the infrastructures of oil producing African nations,
such as Angola and Nigeria, as well as various projects in most countries of the world, including India and Indonesia.
Thus, the worlds economic stage is rapidly changing, as is Chinas political and social role in it. From this perspective,
the kinds of beliefs about English manifested by the Chinese respondents in this paper, above all those which are
consistent with de Swanns world linguistic system, may well begin to change. And in an increasingly China-led
world, beliefs about the overwhelming necessity of English may well wane as Mandarin comes to be seen as
necessary to economic development.
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