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B.108
refineries, and so on. Each of these types of piping must meet the requirements of its
applicable code.
(B4.1)
Equation (B4.1) has an unnecessary operation of dividing both sides by 2 before
comparing them. For the sake of simplicity, a stress defined as 2max and equal to max
-min of the three principal stresses has been used for Class 1 piping. This stress is
called the equivalent intensity of combined stresses, or stress intensity. Thus the stress
intensity S is directly comparable to the tabulated yield stress values Sy from tensile
tests with some factor of safety.
Stress Categories
There are various failure modes which could affect a piping system. The piping engineer
can provide protection against some of these failure modes by performing stress analysis
according to the piping codes. Protection against other failure modes is provided by
methods other than stress analysis. For example, protection against brittle fracture is
provided by material selection. The piping codes address the following failure modes:
excessive plastic deformation, plastic instability or incremental collapse, and highstrainlow-cycle fatigue. Each of these modes of failure is caused by a different kind
of stress and loading. It is necessary to place these stresses into different categories
and set limits to them.
B.109
The major stress categories are primary, secondary, and peak. The limits of these
stresses are related to the various failure modes as follows:
1. The primary stress limits are intended to prevent plastic deformation and bursting.
2. The primary plus secondary stress limits are intended to prevent excessive plastic
deformation leading to incremental collapse.
3. The peak stress limit is intended to prevent fatigue failure resulting from cyclic
loadings.
Primary stresses which are developed by the imposed loading are necessary to
satisfy the equilibrium between external and internal forces and moments of the piping
system. Primary stresses are not self-limiting. Therefore, if a primary stress exceeds
the yield strength of the material through the entire cross section of the piping, then
failure can be prevented only by strain hardening in the material. Thermal stresses
are never classified as primary stresses. They are placed in both the secondary and
peak stress categories.
Secondary stresses are developed by the constraint of displacements of a structure.
These displacements can be caused either by thermal expansion or by outwardly
imposed restraint and anchor point movements. Under this loading condition, the
piping system must satisfy an imposed strain pattern rather than be in equilibrium
with imposed forces. Local yielding and minor distortions of the piping system tend
to relieve these stresses. Therefore, secondary stresses are self-limiting. Unlike the
loading condition of secondary stresses which cause distortion, peak stresses cause
no significant distortion. Peak stresses are the highest stresses in the region under
consideration and are responsible for causing fatigue failure. Common types of peak
stresses are stress concentrations at a discontinuity and thermal gradients through a
pipe wall.
Primary stresses may be further divided into general primary membrane stress,
local primary membrane stress, and primary bending stress. The reason for this division
is that, as will be discussed in the following paragraph, the limit of a primary bending
stress can be higher than the limit of a primary membrane stress.
It also can be seen in Fig. B4.1 that a design limit of 2/3 Sy for general primary
membrane stress Pm and a design limit of Sy for primary membrane-plus-bending
stress Pm + Pb provide adequate safety to prevent yielding failure.
For secondary stresses, the allowable stresses are given in terms of a calculated
elastic stress range. This stress range can be as high as twice the yield stress. The
reason for this high allowable stress is that a repetitively applied load which initially
stresses the pipe into plastic yielding will, after a few cycles, shake it down to
elastic action.
This statement can be understood by considering a pipe which is strained in tension
to a point e1 somewhat beyond its yield strain, as shown in Fig. B4.2. The calculated
elastic stress at this point would be equal to the product of the modulus of elasticity E
and the strain 1, or S1 = E1. The path OABC is considered as cycling the strain from
0 to 1 (loading) and back to 0 (unloading). When the pipe is returned to its original
position O, it will retain a residual compressive stress of magnitude S1 - Sy. On each
subsequent loading cycle, this residual compression must be overcome before the pipe
can go into tension; thus the elastic range has been extended by the value S1 - Sy.
B.111
Therefore, the allowable secondary stress range can be as high as 2Sy when S1 =
2Sy. When S1 > 2Sy, the pipe yields in compression and all subsequent cycles generate
plastic strain EF. For this reason 2Sy is the limiting secondary stress which will shake
down to purely elastic action.
Fatigue
As mentioned previously, peak stresses are the highest stresses in a local region and
are the source of fatigue failure. The fatigue process may be divided into three stages:
crack initiation resulting from the continued cycling of high stress concentrations,
crack propagation to critical size, and unstable rupture of the remaining section.
Fatigue has long been a major consideration in the design of rotating machinery,
where the number of loading cycles is in the millions and can be considered infinite for
all practical purposes. This type of fatigue is called high-cycle fatigue. High-cycle fatigue