RECO2006 Construction IV

Concrete Defects and Repair

Strategy
Edward CY YIU
Department of Real Estate and Construction
January 2007

Deterioration Theories of
Reinforced Concrete
Design, Materials and Workmanship
Embedded Metal Corrosion-induced cracking
and spalling
Reduction in Structural Capacity
Chloride Penetration
Carbonation

Thermal and Moisture

Fire
Loading
2

Corrosion
Process

The rate of corrosion increases sharply from

0.25mm/year to 0.8mm/year when the
alkalinity of the concrete drops from pH=4 to 1.

Concrete is a highly
alkalinity material (pH=12).
Embedded steel is
protected from corrosion by
a passivating film bonded to
the bar surface.
Corrosion-an
electrochemical process is
accelerated in an acidic
environment
Emmons, 1993, p.9

Corrosion Promotors

Oxygen (cracks, honeycombs)

Water (cracks, honeycombs)
Acidic environment (carbonation)
Chlorides (salts, atmosphere, water)
Insufficient concrete covers (penetration
path)

Emmons, 1993, p.9

Reduction in Structural Strength

More than 1.5%
corrosion of re-bar, the
ultimate load capacity
began to fall,
At 4.5% corrosion, the
ultimate load was
reduced by 12%
Al-Sulaimani, Kaleemullah, Basunbal and Rasheed, (1990)
Influence of Corrosion and Cracking on Bond Behavior and
Strength of Reinforced Concrete Members, ACI Structural
Journal, Mar-Apr, p.220

Chloride
Penetration
Chlorides penetrate into
concrete due:

Surface moisture
Crack
Construction joint
Cast-in chloride

Corrosion begins when

chlorides contact steel
Delamination and
spalling are resulted

Emmons, 1993, p.12

Corrosion Threshold
Standard Threshold:
The concentration level of chloride ions at which the
protective passivity layer on the surface of the
embedded steel breaks down and corrosion initiates.
An international recognized threshold of the chloride
concentration is of 0.40% by weight of cement for a
concrete with 400 kg/m3 of portland cement (i.e.
corresponding to a critical chloride content of about
0.05-0.07% by weight of concrete).

Source: Grace Construction Products

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Carbonation
pH is lowered by:
CO2+H2O+Ca(OH)2->CaCO3+2H2O
Carbon dioxide penetrates into the pores
of concrete by diffusion
Concrete protection of the steel is LOST!
The process proceeds by 1mm annually,
15years -> 15mm threshold

Emmons, 1993, p.15

Fire Damage
Temperature gradient
is built up (21C800C)
Spalling of expanding
concrete
Cement mortar
converts to quicklime
at 400C
Re-bar loses tensile
capacity at 700C

Emmons, 1993, p.45

Fire Damage on Concrete

Proportion
of
Strength
0.7

0.3

Normal

300

Pink

600

Whitish Grey

10

Load Effects
Re-bars are placed in
the concrete to provide
tensile strength
Concrete is poor in
tension, good at
compression
Tension Cracks are
formed

Emmons, 1993, p.48

11

Improper placement of re-bars

Compare Slab and Cantilever canopy
Albert House Case

12

Durability Assessment of Concrete

Sarja and Vesikari (1996)
a general theory of stochastic durability design
based on the probability of failure of serviceability limit state
model.
The degradation process is modeled by the interaction of a
resistance R and
a load S, which are assumed to be normally distributed,
then the failure probability, Pf(t) can be determined using the
safety index :
Eurocode 1 (EN, 2000) specifies the acceptable failure
probability of not exceeding 7%, and that in the NS-3490
(Norwegian Standards, 1999) of not exceeding 10%
Pf (t ) = P{R(t ) S (t )} = ( )

where and denote the mean and

the standard deviation of the variables,
and
is the cumulative density function of
the standard normal distribution N(0,1) .

where

(t ) =

[R, t ] [S , t ]

2 [R, t ] + 2 [S , t ]

13

Embedded steel corrosion induced

degradation of concrete structure
Structural failure

Corrosion-induced damage

Spalling /
Delamination

Limit state

Cracking
Onset of corrosion

t0

Time

t1
tL

Source: Ferreira et al., 2004

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Ficks Second Law of Diffusion

The rate of chloride penetration into
concrete is modeled by:
dC ( x, t )
d 2 C ( x, t )
= Dc
dt
dx 2

where C(x,t) is the gradient of chloride

content, i.e. the chloride ion concentration
at a distance x from the concrete surface
after being exposed for a period of time t,
and Dc is the chloride diffusion coefficient
15

Sarja and Vesikari (1996, p.130)

solved and simplified to the following
formula by using a parabola function:

C ( x, t ) = C s 1

2 3Dc t

Normal values of Dc and Cs are 10-7 10-8

cm2/s and 0.3 0.4 by weight of concrete,
respectively
16

 Taking the threshold chloride concentration to

be 0.4% of the weight of cement (0.07% of the
weight of concrete) the three rates of chloride
diffusion represent the three initiation time of
corrosion at 9-year, 17-year and 41-year
respectively
Chloride Content over time

0.1
0.09

Chloride content in % of concrete

0.08

0.07

0.06
0.05
0.04

0.03
x=2, Cs=0.1, Dc=10-8
x=2, Cs=0.1, Dc=2.5x10-8
x=2, Cs=0.1, Dc=5x10-8

0.02
0.01

Year

51

49

47

45

43

41

39

37

35

33

31

29

27

25

23

21

19

17

15

13

11

17

Sarja and Vesikari (1996, p.23)

provides a stochastic durability assessment model of carbonation in concrete

structures

where
c
(D) = the mean of the depth of carbonation in mm;
Kc = the carbonation rate factor in mm/year1/2; and
t = time in years

( D) = K

Kc = cenv cair a( f ck + 8)

where
cenv = the environmental coefficient;
cair = the coefficient of air content;
fck = the characteristic cubic compressive strength of concrete (MPa);
and
a, b = carbonation constants

18

 Theoretical safety index of carbonated concrete

Durability Analysis on Carbonation - conc strength sensitivity

Durability Analysis on Carbonation - concrete cover sensitivity

1
0.9

0.8

0.8

0.7

0.7
P r o b a b ility o f fa ilu r e

P r o b a b ility o f F a ilu r e

0.9

0.6

0.6

0.5

0.5

0.4

0.4

0.3

0.3
conc strength =10MPa
conc strength =20MPa
conc strength =30MPa 0.2
conc strength =40MPa

0.2
0.1

conc cover =5mm

conc cover =15mm
conc cover =25mm
conc cover =35mm
conc cover =45mm

0.1

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

Age (years)

60

65

70

75

80

85

90

95 100

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

85

Age (years)

90

95 100

19

Concrete conditions of ageing

buildings in Hong Kong
Surface chloride contents averages at
0.35% and 0.40% by weight of cement at
beams and columns respectively, which
reached the threshold;
Carbonation rates ranged from 7.8 14.5mm/year1/2 are far greater than the
standard rate (6.2mm/year1/2)

20

10

Sarja and Vesikari (1996, p.68)

Durability Risk Factors

Target / Design
Service Life

Environmental
Effects

Degradation
Mechanisms

Mechanical
Design
Parameters

Durability
Parameters

Depth of
deterioration of
concrete

Corrosion of
Reinforcement

Concrete Cover

Diameters of
Rebars

Other Factors

Strength of
Concrete

Permeability of
Concrete

Type of Cement
& Reinforcement

Curing Method

Structural
Dimensions
21

Degradation Risk Factors

Degradation factor

Process

Degradation

Mechanical
Static loading

Deformation

Deflection, cracking,
failure

Cyclic loading

Fatigue, deformation

Deflection, cracking,
failure

Impact loading

Fatigue

Vibration, deflection,
cracking, failure

Acid production

Leaching

Biological
Micro-organisms

Source: developed from Sarja and Vesikari (1996, p.102)

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11

Degradation factor

Process

Degradation

Chemical
Soft water

Leaching

Disintegration of concrete

Acid

Leaching

Disintegration of concrete

Acid

Neutralization

Steel depassivation

Acidifying gases

Neutralization

Steel depassivation

Carbon dioxide
Sulphur dioxide
Nitrogen dioxide

Carbonation

Chlorides

Penetration, destruction of
passive film

Steel depassivation, oxygen, Corrosion

water

Steel depassivation
Expansion of steel, loss of
diameter in rebars, loss
of bond

Stress / chlorides

Stress corrosion

Failure in prestressing
tendons

Sulphates

Crystal pressure

Disintegration of concrete

Silicate aggregate, alkalis

Silicate reaction

Expansion, disintegration

Carbonate reaction

Expansion, disintegration

Carbonate aggregate

Degradation factor

Process

23

Degradation

Physical
Temperature change

RH change

Expansion

Shortening, lengthening,
restricted
deformation

Shrinkage, swelling

Shortening, lengthening,
restricted
deformation

Low temperature, water Ice formation

Deicing salt, frost

Disintegration of
concrete

Heat transfer

Scaling of concrete

Floating ice

Abrasion

Cracking, scaling

Traffic

Abrasion

Rutting, wearing, tearing

Running water

Erosion

Surface damage

Turbulent water

Cavitation

Caves
24

12

Degradation factor

Process

Degradation

Use
Normal use

Wear and tear

Maintenance / upkeep

Management

Deterioration and
obsolescence
Deterioration

Abuse / vandalism

Cannot be ascertained

Human errors and uncertainties

Uncertainties of design

Cannot be ascertained

Errors of communication

Cannot be ascertained

Uncertainties of
manufacture and
execution

Cannot be ascertained

Errors in mathematical and Cannot be ascertained

statistical modelling

25

Repair Strategy
Repair strategy is dependent of the intended
building service life.
Very different repair tactics are devised for
different intended life spans.
Five different tactics are set out:

T1: hazards removal;

T2: Repair of defective elements;
T3: Repair of deteriorated elements;
T4: Rehabilitation; and
T5: Redevelopment of the whole building.

Source: Yiu (2007)

26

13

Check Intended Building Life

Minimum Life

Short Life

Medium Life

Tactic 1
(Hazard Removal)

Tactic 2
(Defects Repair)

Tactic 3
(Deteriorated Repair)

Long Life

Very Long Life

Repair Tactics

Identification of
hazards

Identification of
defects

Tactic 4
(Rehabilitation)

Tactic 5
(Redevelopment)

Diagnosis

Repair System
Determine the extents of
deterioration
Determine the cause(s) of
deterioration

Stability of elements

Financial viability

Acceptability of disruption

Repair Methods
Removal of hazards
(T1)

Patch repair of defective

elements (T2, T3)

Replacement of defective
elements (T2, T3, T4)

Replacement of deteriorated
elements (T3, T4)

Protective and Prevention

Measures (T4)
Repair Monitoring

27

Source: Yiu (2007)

Repair
Tactic Codes

Intended
Further
Building Life[1]

T1

Minimal life (<

2 years)

Hazard removal
only

oRemove hazards
oApply cosmetic repair
oFulfill statutory / minimum requirements

T2

Short life (2 10 years)

Repair of defects

oT1
oRemoval of defective elements
oRepair / make good the defects

T3

Medium life
(11-20 years)

Repair of
deteriorated
elements

oT1 + T2
oRepair / replacement of deteriorated elements
oRemove all carbonated and chloride
contaminated concrete
oMinimize the source(s) / cause(s) of
deterioration

T4

Long life (2150 years)

Rehabilitation

oT1 + T2 + T3
oUpgrade to the latest / a better standards
oApply preventive / protective measures

T5

Very long life

(> 50 years)

Redevelopment

oDemolish the building

oRebuild the building to the required standards

[1]

Tactics

Descriptions

For a 50 years old building in reinforced concrete framed structure

28

Source: Yiu (2007)

14

Case

Causes
Chloride
Concentration

Water
Ingress

Repair Methods
Carbonation

For T3 and T4
Repair

Stop
water
source

For T4 only
Prevention of
Cl- attack

Protective
coating

Legends:
(1)

H=

High chloride content, i.e. Cl- > 0.4% (by weight of cement)

(2)

L=

Low chloride content, i.e. Cl- < 0.4% (by weight of cement)

(3)

Y=

Water ingress

(4)

N=

No water ingress

(5)

F=

Fully carbonated, i.e. carbonation front > 15mm or exceeded reinforcement

(6)

M=

Mildly carbonated, i.e. carbonation front < 15mm depth and did not exceed
reinforcement

(7)

Repair options to be included in the repair methods

29

Source: Hong Kong Housing Authority (1999) MTE1-1.2 Issue 1

Item

Repair Methods

Descriptions

For achievement of a further service life of the order of 10 years (T2)

T2a

Patch repair of
spalled concrete

Damaged concrete is removed and patched up with the

application of repair mortar systems selected from an authorized
approved list

T2b

Partially recasting of
concrete structural
elements

Demolish a part or the whole of a structural element, replace all

seriously corroded reinforcement and then cast back with the
designed grade (or better quality) concrete substrate concrete

T2c

Repair of defective
components / systems

Repair of building services installations;

Patch repair of finishes;
Patch repair of plumbing / drainage systems;
Patch repair of other defective components / systems

For achievement of a further service life of the order of 20 years (T3)

T3a

Repair / replacement
of defective
components

T2 and replacement of building services installations;

Complete replacement of finishes and re-roofing;
Complete replacement of plumbing / drainage systems;
Repair / replacement of other defective components / systems

T3b

Retain the original

properties of rc
concrete

Remove all carbonated and chloride contaminated concrete;

Replace with sound concrete;
Replace all rusty steel bars.

T3c

Minimize the
source(s) / cause(s) of
deterioration

Diagnose the cause(s) of the deteriorations;

Make good the source(s) / cause(s) of the deteriorations.

30

15

Repair Strategy (contd)

Item

Repair Methods

Descriptions

For achievement of a further service life of the order of 50 years (T4)

T4a

Upgrade of structural
elements

T3 and strengthening of concrete structural elements;

Re-alkalization of concrete;

T4b

Upgrade of services

Fire services installations;

HVAC, electricity, transportation, communication, security
plumbing and drainage systems;

Source: Yiu (2007)

Item

Preventive
Measures

31

Descriptions

For achievement of a further service life of the order of 50 years (T4)

T4c

Protective
coating

Produces a thin outer layer to protect the substrate

concrete by forming an impermeable barrier or
slowing the rate of penetration of aggressive
components from the environment

T4d

Cathodic
protection

Stop the setting up of anodes on the reinforcement

by applying a low voltage electric current or by a
sacrificial anode.

T4e

Re-alkalization

A electrochemical method preventing future

corrosion in chloride contaminated concrete.
Alkalis are transported into the concrete to
increase the pH level, so as to stop corrosion.

T4f

Chloride
extraction /
Desalination

A electrochemical method preventing future

corrosion in carbonated concrete. Chloride ions
are transported out of the concrete to increase the
pH level, so as to stop corrosion.
32

Source: Hong Kong Housing Authority (1999) MTE1-1.2 Issue 1

16

References

Al-Sulaimani, Kaleemullah, Basunbal and Rasheed, (1990) Influence of Corrosion

and Cracking on Bond Behavior and Strength of Reinforced Concrete Members, ACI
Structural Journal, Mar-Apr, p.220
Buildings Department, (2002), Building Maintenance Manual, The Government of the
Hong Kong SAR.
Buildings Department, (1998), Interim Technical Guidelines on The Inspection,
Assessment and Repair of Buildings for The Building Safety Inspection Scheme, The
Government of the Hong Kong SAR.
CEN (2000) EN 1991 Eurocode 1:Basis of design and actions on structures, CEN.
Emmons P.H. (1994) Concrete Repair & Maintenance. R.S. Means Co. Inc., Kingston,
MA.
Ferreira, M., Jalali, S. and Gjrv, O.E. (2004) Probabilistic assessment of the
durability performance of concrete structures, Engenharia Civil, 21, 39-48.
HKHA (1999) Repair to Corrosion Damaged Concrete, MTE1-1.2 Issue 1.
Norwegian Standard (1999) NS-3490 Design of structures requirements to reliability,
Oslo.
Sarja, A. and Vesikari, E. (Eds) (1996) Durability Design of Concrete Structures,
RILEM Report 14, E&FN Spon, London, UK.
Yiu, C.Y. (2007) Durability Assessment, A chapter in a Consultancy Report for
Structural Assessment of Ageing Buildings in Mongkok, REC, HKU, Hong Kong.
33

The End
For enquiries, please send email to
Edward CY YIU
Department of Real Estate and Construction
The University of Hong Kong

ecyyiu@hkucc.hku.hk

34

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