Practical no.

1
AIM: - Introduction to transmission media
The transmission medium is the physical path between the transmitter and the receiver in
a data transmission system. Accordingly, the quality and characteristics of transmission
are determined by the characteristics of both the signal and the medium.
Classification
A wide variety of media are available; however they all fall into two classes:
Guided (Bounded)
Unguided
In both cases transmission takes place in the form of signals of one kind or another such
as analog, digital and light pulse.
Guided Transmission Media
By far the most common media employed for data transmission are the
guided ones. In such transmission media, the data signal is guided
along a solid medium. That is, it is confined in a specific transmission
pathway. The transmission capacity is often expressed in terms of
either data rate or bandwidth. The bandwidth refers to the range of
frequencies that the medium can accommodate. The transmission
capacity depends critically on the distance and whether the medium is
point-to-point or multipoint. Copper twisted pair (TP), coaxial cable and
optical fiber are the most widely used guided transmission media. In
what follows, we will see each one of them in detail.
Twisted pair (TP)
This is the most commonly used and the least expensive guided transmission medium. As
shown in fig 2.1, it looks like a telephone wire and consists of two insulated copper wires
arranged in a regular spiral pattern.

Basic Structure of Twisted Pair (TP)

The wire pair acts as a single communication link. In practice, a number of such pairs are
bundled together into a cable by wrapping them in a tough protective sheath as shown in
fig 2.2.

Twisted Pair (TP) cable

The twists in the wire pairs are an important part of the electrical characteristics of TP
cable. Twists reduce the cable's sensitivity to outside electromagnetic interference (EMI)
and the degree to which the cables radiate radio frequency signals. Remember that the
frequencies at which LANs operate fall into the range of radio signals. If TP cable is
insufficiently twisted, it can function as an antenna and radiate significant amounts of
radio signals that can interfere with local broadcast reception equipment. Besides, the
twisting reduces Crosstalk interference (signal leakage) between adjacent pairs in a cable.

Crosstalk occurs when signals from one line mix into another line
Hence, neighboring pairs in a bundle typically have somewhat different twist lengths to
minimize the Crosstalk interference. Twist length varies from 2 to 6 inches. Wire size for
TPs is measured in a unit called AWG (American Wire Gauge) based on its diameter, the
size being inverse to the rating. For example, a 22 AWG cable is thicker than a 24 AWG
cable. TPs of wire size 22 and 24 AWG are most commonly used for data transmission.
Each wire in a TP cable is color-coded. Orange, blue, green, brown and white colors are
very often used. The white is used for the alternate wire in each pair. Further
Classification of TP
Twisted pair (TP) can be further classified into two, namely:
Unshielded TP (UTP)
Shielded TP (STP)
Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP)
UTP is the most popular type of twisted-pair cable and is fast becoming the most popular
LAN cabling. The maximum cable length segment is 100 meters or about 328 feet. As we
have seen earlier, UTP consists of two insulated copper wires. Depending on the
particular purpose, there are UTP specifications that govern how many twists are
permitted per foot of cable. UTP cable is the most commonly used cable for existing
telephone systems and is already installed in many office buildings.

UTP cable
UTP is specified in the Electronic Industries Association and the
Telecommunications Industries Association (EIA/TIA) 568 Commercial
Building Wiring Standard. EIA/TIA 568 used UTP in creating standards
that apply to a variety of building and wiring situations and ensures
consistency of products for customers. These standards include five
categories of UTP:
UTP Classification
Category
1
Category
2

This refers to traditional UTP telephone cable which can carry voice but
not data. Most telephone cable prior to 1983 was Category 1 cable.
This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions up to 4 Mbps

(megabits per second). It consists of four twisted-pairs.

Category
3
Category
4
Category
5

This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions up to 10 Mbps. It

consists of four twisted-pairs with three twists per foot.
This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions up to 16 Mbps. It
consists of four twisted-pairs.
This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions up to 100 Mbps. It
consists of four twisted-pair of copper wire. This is the most popular in
LANs

Most telephone systems use a type of UTP. In fact, one reason why UTP is so popular is
because many buildings are prewired for twisted-pair telephone systems. As part of this
prewiring, extra UTP is often installed to meet future cabling needs. If preinstalled
twisted-pair cable is of sufficient grade to support data transmission, it can be used in a
computer network. Caution is required, however, because common telephone wire may
not have the twisting and other electrical characteristics required for clean, secure,
computer data transmission. The maximum allowable length of a UTP cable segment is
100 meters.
Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) STP uses a woven copper braid jacket that is a higherquality, more protective jacket than UTP has. STP also uses a foil wrap between and
around the wire pairs, and internal twisting of the pairs.

STP cable
This gives STP excellent shielding to protect the transmitted data from outside
interference. What this means is that STP is less susceptible to electrical interference and
supports higher transmission rates over longer distances than UTP. The limitation with
STP is that it is more difficult to work with and expensive than UTP
Twisted-Pair Cabling Components
Connection hardware: -Twisted-pair uses RJ-45 connectors to connect to a computer.
This is similar to the RJ-11 telephone connector. Although they look alike at first glance,
there are crucial differences between them. The RJ-45 is slightly larger, and will not fit
into the RJ-11 telephone jack. The RJ-45 houses eight cable connections, while the RJ-11
only houses four.

connector and jack

Coaxial Cable: Coaxial cable is a type of cable that is used by cable
TV and that is common for data communications. It carries signals of
higher frequency ranges (higher bandwidth) than twisted-pair cable. It
is also much less susceptible to interference (EMI) and Crosstalk and,
more resistant to attenuation than twisted pair. Attenuation is the loss
of signal strength which begins to occur as the signal travels further
along a copper cable.

Attenuation causes signals to deteriorate

Some types of coax have heavy mesh shields and center conductors to enhance these
characteristics and to extend the distances that signals can be transmitted reliably. As
shown in fig 2.8, instead of having two wires, coax has a central core conductor of solid
or stranded wire (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn,
encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two (also
usually copper).

Coaxial cable showing various layers

As you can see in this diagram, this cable is called coaxial (or coax for short) because
two conductors (the center and outer mesh) share a Common Axis. A typical coaxial
cable has the following components:
Center conductor (Core). This conductor usually consists of a fairly heavy, solid
yet flexible wire; stranded wires can also be used. If the core is solid, it is usually copper.
Solid conductors are preferred for permanent wiring, but stranded conductors make the

cable more flexible and easier to connect to equipment. The center conductor carries the
electronic signals which make up the data.
Insulation layer. Also called a dielectric layer, this layer provides electrical
insulation and keeps the inner and outer (mesh) conductors in precise coaxial
relationship. The conducting core and the wire mesh must always be separated from each
other. If they touch, the cable will experience a short, and noise or stray signals on the
mesh will flow onto the copper wire. This will destroy the data.
Outer conductor or shield. This layer shields the inner conductor from outside
electrical interference. The shield can consist of braided wires, metal foil, or a
combination of both. Because of this shield, coax is highly resistant to electrical magnetic
interference (EMI).
Jacket or sheath. A durable plastic or Teflon jacket coats the cable to prevent
damage.

1
RG-58 coaxial showing stranded wire and the solid copper cores
Applications
Coaxial cable can be used to transmit both analog and digital signals. It can be effectively
used at higher frequencies and transmission rates. Some of the areas where it can be used
are:
Television Distribution-distribution of TV signals to homes (Cable TV)
Long distance Telephone Transmission
Short Run Computer Links-high speed I/O channels
Local area Networking
However, Coax is subject to the following constraints:
Attenuation over long distances-repeaters may be required
Thermal noise specially at higher frequencies
Inter-modulation noise during multiplexed transmission
Coax can be bulky and hence difficult to work with.
More expensive than TP
Types of Coax
A wide variety of coax cable is available. You must use cable that exactly matches the
requirements of a particular type of network. Coax cables vary in a measurement known
as the impedance (measured in a unit called the ohm), which is an indication of the

cable's resistance to current flow. The specifications of a given cabling standard indicate
the required impedance of the cable. There are three types of coax, namely:
RG-58 or Thinnet (10Base2)-has got a workable length of 200 meters and impedance of
50 ohms
RG-8/11 or Thicknet (10Base5)-has got a length of 500 meters and impedance of 50
ohms
RG-59 has got a 75 ohms impedance and is often used for TV connections
Note that in the nomenclature RG-xx, the number xx indicates the thickness, the larger
the number the thinner the cable is and vice versa.
Thinnet vs. Thicknet
Thicknet is a relatively rigid coaxial cable about 0.5 inches in diameter. It is sometimes
referred to as Standard Ethernet because it was the first type of cable used with the
popular network architecture Ethernet. The copper core is thicker than a Thinnet core.

Thicknet cable has a thicker core than Thinnet

The thicker the copper core, the farther the cable can carry signals.
This means that Thicknet can carry signals farther than Thinnet.
Thicknet can carry a signal for 500 meters (about 1,640 feet).
Therefore, because of thickets ability to support data transfer over
longer distances, it is sometimes used as a backbone to connect
several smaller Thinnet-based networks. A device called a transceiver
connects the Thinnet coaxial to the larger Thicknet coaxial cable.

Thicknet cable transceiver with detail of a vampire tap piercing the core
A transceiver designed for Thicknet Ethernet includes a connector known as a vampire
tap or a piercing tap to make the actual physical connection to Thicknet core. This
connector is pierced through the insulating layer and makes direct contact with the
conducting core. Connection from the transceiver to the network adapter card is made
using a transceiver cable (drop cable) to connect to the attachment unit interface (AUI)

port connector on the card. An AUI port connector for Thicknet is also known as a
Digital Intel Xerox (DIX) connector after the three companies that developed it and its
related standards, or as a DB-15 connector.
As a general rule, the thicker the cable, the more difficult it is to work with. Thin cable is
flexible, easy to install, and relatively inexpensive. Thick cable does not bend easily and
is, therefore, harder to install. This is a consideration when an installation calls for pulling
cable through tight spaces such as conduits and troughs. Thick cable is more expensive
than thin cable, but will carry a signal farther.
Coax Cabling Components
Connection hardware
Both Thinnet and Thicknet use connection components, known as a BNC (British Naval
Connector), to make the connections between the cable and the computers. There are
several important components in the BNC family, including the following:
The BNC cable connector
The BNC cable connector shown in fig 2.12 is either soldered or crimped to the end of a
cable.

BNC cable connector

The BNC T connector
This connector, as shown in fig 2.13, joins the network interface card in the computer to
the network cable.

BNC T connector
1

2 The BNC barrel connector

3 This connector is used to join two lengths of Thinnet cable to make one longer
length.

BNC barrel connector

1 The BNC terminator
A BNC terminator closes each end of the bus cable to absorb stray signals. Without BNC
terminators, a bus network will not function.

BNC terminator
Coaxial Considerations
Consider these coaxial capabilities when making a decision on the type of cabling to use.
Use coaxial cable if you need:
1

A medium that will transmit voice, video, and data

To transmit data longer distances than less expensive cabling can transmit

A familiar technology that offers reasonable data security

The Fiber Optic Cable:

From basic physics, we note that when light travels from one medium of to another
medium of different density, there will be a change in the speed of propagation, which
results in change of direction, a phenomenon known as refraction.

Refraction occurs when light travels from one medium to another

When light travels into a dense medium, the angle of refraction
becomes less than the angle of incidence and when light travels into a
less dense medium, the angle of refraction will be greater than the
angle of incidence. When the angle of refraction becomes just above
90 degrees the refracted ray will be totally reflected at the boundary
into the second medium and will not leave the medium. This
phenomenon is known as total internal reflection. So fiber optic fiber
uses this phenomenon to guide light pulses through it. Fiber optic cable
is composed of a number of such fibers.

Fiber-optic cable
Fiber optic cables utilize light waves to transmit data through a thin
glass or plastic fiber. The structure of a typical fiber optic cable is
shown in fig 2.17. The parts of the cable are as follows:
The light conductor: is a very fine fiber core. Glass is the most common
material, allowing signals to be transmitted for several kilometers
without being refreshed. Plastic is used in some circumstances as it is
easy to install, but plastic cables allow only short cable runs. Each
glass strand passes signals in only one direction, so a cable consists of
two strands in separate jackets. One strand transmits and one
receives.
The cladding: is a glass layer that surrounds the optical fiber core. The
optical characteristics of the cladding reflect light back to the core,
ensuring that little of the light signal is lost.
A sheath or jacket: protects the cable from damage. A single sheath
can be used to bundle multiple core/cladding fibers into a multi-fiber
cable.
The light signals on fiber optic cables are generated either by light
emitting diodes (LEDs) or by injection laser diodes (ILDs), which are
similar to LEDs but produce laser light. The purity of laser light is
desirable, increasing both data rates and transmission distance.
Signals are received by photodiodes, solid-state devices that detect
variations in light intensity. The interface devices required to operate
with fiber optic cable are more expensive than those required for

copper cable. The higher cost is the result of several factors, including
cost of the components and tighter design characteristics because
fiber optic cables generally are operated at high data rates. The cost of
fiber optic cable installation, however, is trending downward.
Fiber optic cables have many desirable characteristics. Because the
fibers are small in diameter, a cable of a given size can contain more
fibers than copper wire pairs. Because fiber optic cables use light
pulses instead of electrical signals, they offer very high bandwidth.
Bandwidths of 100 megabits (million bits per second) are
commonplace, and bandwidths in the gigabit (billion bit) per second
range are available.
Because the signal in a fiber optic cable consists of light pulses, the
signal cannot be affected by electromagnetic interference. Nor can the
cables radiate radio frequency noise. Optical fibers are, therefore,
suitable for use in the noisiest and most sensitive environments.
Because these cables radiate no electromagnetic energy, it is
impossible to intercept the data signal with electronic eavesdropping
equipment. Fiber optic transmissions are extremely secure.
Installation of fiber optic cable requires greater skill than is necessary
to install most copper cables. Cables must not be bent too sharply, and
connectors must be installed by skilled technicians using special tools.
However, new connector technologies have simplified installation and
reduced cost.
Here are some advantages of fiber optic cable:
Very high bandwidth.
Immunity to EMI; fiber optic cables can be used in environments that
make wire cables
unusable.
No radio frequency emissions; signals on fiber optic cables cannot
interfere with nearby electronic devices and cannot be detected by
conventional electronic eavesdropping techniques.
Unguided Transmission Media
Unguided transmission media is data signals that flow through the air.
They are not guided or bound to a channel to follow. The type of wave
propagation classifies them. RF Propagation
There are three types of RF (radio frequency) propagation:
Ground Wave
Ionospheric
Line of Sight (LOS)
Ground wave propagation follows the curvature of the Earth. Ground waves have
carrier frequencies up to 2 MHz. AM radio is an example of ground wave propagation.

Ionospheric propagation bounces off of the Earth's Ionospheric layer in the upper
atmosphere. It is sometimes called double hop propagation. It operates in the frequency
range of 30 - 85 MHz. Because it depends on the Earth's ionosphere, it changes with the
weather and time of day. The signal bounces off of the ionosphere and back to earth. Ham
radios operate in this range.

Line of sight propagation transmits exactly in the line of sight. The receive station
must be in the view of the transmit station. It is sometimes called space waves or
troposphere propagation. It is limited by the curvature of the Earth for ground-based
stations (100 km, from horizon to horizon). Reflected waves can cause problems.
Examples of line of sight propagation are: FM radio, microwave and satellite.

Radio Frequencies
The frequency spectrum operates from 0 Hz (DC) to gamma rays (1019 Hz).
Name
Gamma Rays

Frequency
(Hertz)
1019+

Examples

X-Rays
Ultra-Violet Light
Visible Light
Infrared Light
EHF - Extremely High Frequencies
SHF - Super High Frequencies
UHF - Ultra High Frequencies

1017
7.5 x 1015
4.3 x 1014
3 x 1011
30 GHz
(Giga =
109)
3 GHz

VHF - Very High Frequencies

300 MHz
(Mega =
106)
30 MHz

HF - High Frequencies

3 MHz2

MF - Medium Frequencies
LF - Low Frequencies

300 kHz
(kilo =
103)
30 kHz

VLF - Very Low Frequencies

3 kHz

VF - Voice Frequencies

300 Hz

ELF - Extremely Low Frequencies

30 Hz

Radar
Satellite &
Microwaves
UHF TV (Ch. 1483)
FM & TV (Ch2 13)
Short Wave
Radio
AM Radio
Navigation
Submarine
Communication
s
Audio
Power
Transmission

Radio frequencies are in the range of 300 kHz to 10 GHz. We are seeing an emerging
technology called wireless LANs. Some use radio frequencies to connect the
workstations together, some use infrared technology.
Microwave
Microwave transmission is line of sight transmission. The transmit station must be in
visible contact with the receive station. This sets a limit on the distance between stations
depending on the local geography. Typically the line of sight due to the Earth's curvature
is only 50 km to the horizon! Repeater stations must be placed so the data signal can hop,
skip and jump across the country.

Microwaves operate at high operating frequencies of 3 to 10 GHz. This allows them to

carry large quantities of data due to their large bandwidth.
Advantages:
a. They require no right of way acquisition between towers.
b. They can carry high quantities of information due to their high operating frequencies.
c. Low cost land purchase: each tower occupies only a small area.
d. High frequency/short wavelength signals require small antennae.
Disadvantages:
a. Attenuation by solid objects: birds, rain, snow and fog.
b. Reflected from flat surfaces like water and metal.
c. Diffracted (split) around solid objects.
d. Refracted by atmosphere, thus causing beam to be projected away from receiver.
Satellite
Satellites are transponders (units that receive on one frequency and retransmit on another)
that are set in geostationary orbits directly over the equator. These geostationary orbits
are 36,000 km from the Earth's surface. At this point, the gravitational pull of the Earth
and the centrifugal force of Earth's rotation are balanced and cancel each other out.
Centrifugal force is the rotational force placed on the satellite that wants to fling it out
into space.

The uplink is the transmitter of data to the satellite. The downlink is the receiver of data.
Uplinks and downlinks are also called Earth stations because they are located on the
Earth. The footprint is the "shadow" that the satellite can transmit to, the shadow being
the area that can receive the satellite's transmitted signal.