Alternating Current Theory (a.c.

Electrotechnology Principles
and Practice - TOPNZ
Calculator Casio fx-82
Half Round Protractor
Ruler

Page 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 - ALTERNATING CURRENT ..................................................................................................................................... 3
CYCLE, PERIOD, FREQUENCY, RMS AND AVERAGE ....................................................................................................... 6
2 - LENZ'S LAW & INDUCTANCE ............................................................................................................................ 11
LENZS LAW ................................................................................................................................................................. 11
INDUCTANCE ................................................................................................................................................................. 13
3 - CAPACITANCE ....................................................................................................................................................... 21
4 - INDUCTORS AND CAPACITORS ON A.C. ........................................................................................................ 27
INDUCTIVE REACTANCE ................................................................................................................................................ 27
CAPACTIVE REACTANCE ............................................................................................................................................... 29
5 - IMPEDANCE ............................................................................................................................................................ 30
6 - RLC PHASOR DIAGRAMS .................................................................................................................................... 44
CURRENT PHASOR DIAGRAM PARALLEL CIRCUITS .................................................................................................... 45
VOLTAGE PHASOR DIAGRAM SERIES CIRCUITS ......................................................................................................... 46
RLC SERIES AND PARALLEL PROBLEMS ....................................................................................................................... 47
7 RESONANCE ........................................................................................................................................................... 51
SERIES RESONANT CIRCUITS ......................................................................................................................................... 54
PARALLEL RESONANCE................................................................................................................................................. 55
8 - HARMONICS.......................................................................................................................................................... 566
9 - ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ............................................................................................................................ 59
APPENDIX.................................................................................................................................................................... 600
VECTORS, PHASORS, TRIG & J-NOTATION ................................................................................................................. 60
RECTANGULAR AND POLAR CO-ORDINATES ............................................................................................................... 655
ADDING AND SUBTRACTING VECTOR QUANTITIES ..................................................................................................... 688
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION OF VECTOR QUANTITIES ............................................................................................ 69
ANSWERS .................................................................................................................................................................... 777
FORMULAE ................................................................................................................................................................. 800

Page 2

1 - Alternating Current
A phenomenon of electricity/magnetism is that when the magnetic flux coupling a
conductor changes in strength (ie. the magnet moves in close proximity to the
conductor), an EMF (electromotive force - measured in volts) is induced in that
conductor.
As the magnet moves away from the conductor the amount of induced EMF reduces.
The direction the magnet moves, and the polarity (North-South) of the magnet
determine the polarity and hence the direction of current flow induced.

AC GENERATOR
(ALTERNATOR)

DRIVEN BY EXTERNAL
FORCE
(WATERWHEEL ETC)

INSULATED
WIRE

STEEL

This results in the output from the generator being a sinusoidal (sinewave) voltage.

Page 3

As the magnetic poles of the generator's rotor pass closest to the phase winding of the
generator, the EMF and thereby the current induced in that phase will also be at a
maximum (C & G), no EMF will be induced at A, E & I. See graph on following Page:
A

N
-

N
-

N
+

N
-

N
-

N
-

Page 4

The output voltage from an a.c. generator (alternator) as illustrated on the previous Page
is sinusoidal (a sinewave). The voltage produced depends on the Flux Density of the
magnetic field produced by the magnet, the number of turns on the two coils and the
speed at which the rotor is moving.
Voltage
400

300

200

100

A0

time

-100

-300

-400

-200

N
-

As you can see - half of the time the voltage produced is positive and the other half of
the time the voltage is negative. Since Ohm's Law says that current is directly
proportional to the voltage we must be able to safely assume that the current in an a.c.
circuit flows from Phase-to-Neutral half of the time, and from Neutral-to-Phase for the
other half, See below:
VOLTAGE

CURRENT

CURRENT IS
DIRECTLY
PROPORTIONAL
TO THE
VOLTAGE

Page 5

CYCLE, PERIOD, FREQUENCY, RMS AND AVERAGE

One cycle is the output of a process that happens before the process repeats itself.
One period is the time taken for one cycle, this is also the time taken for one complete
revolution of the alternator. Period is measured in seconds (s).
The frequency of the output is the number of cycles completed in 1 second. Frequency
is measured in Hertz (Hz).
Electricity in New Zealand is produced at 50 cycles per second, the frequency of (50Hz)
and this means one complete revolution of the alternator every 20 milliseconds.
VOLTAGE

PEAK

PEAK
TO
PEAK

PERIOD

TIME

THE RMS VALUE

The electricity supplied to New Zealand homes and most other electrical installations is
230V RMS - this means that the supply voltage is equivalent to 230V d.c. (ie. it has the
same heating effect as would a constant 230V d.c.) and is therefore considered to be the
effective value or the equivalent d.c. heating value . AC voltages and currents are
always given in RMS unless stated otherwise, and the peak value of our 230V RMS
supply voltage is 325V.
The RMS (root-mean-squared) or effective value of an ac sinewave can be calculated:

V RMS

1
2

V pk

Page 6

THE AVERAGE VALUE

Since the Average value of a sinewave is "zero" (the positive area under the graph equals
the negative area under the graph) it makes little sense to discuss the average value of a
sinewave. It makes more sense to discuss the average value of half a sinewave:
VOLTAG
E

VPK = 325V

VAV = 2/ VPK

Degrees
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
TIME
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
TOTAL

Magnitude
0.00V
56.44V
111.16V
162.50V
208.91V
248.96V
281.46V
305.40V
320.06V
325.00V
320.06V
305.40V
281.46V
248.96V
208.91V
162.5V
111.16V
56.44V
3714.78V

vINSTANTANEOUS sin VPEAK

e.g.v10 sin 10 325V 56.44V
To calculate the average value of the
sinewave above we could take samples
every 10 and divide by the number of
samples to get the average:

VAV

3714.78V
206.38V
18samples

Our answer was close to the actual

answer (206.9V) calculated using:

Vav = 2/ VPEAK

Page 7

THE INSTANTANEOUS VALUE

The value of a sinewave at any given instant in time can be calculated (as it was on the
previous Page at each intervals of 10) by multiplying the peak value and the sine of the
offset angle.
VPK = 100V

v instantaneous = sin 140 100V

v = 64.3V

360
140

If the supply frequency was 100Hz, then it would take 10 milliseconds (10 ms) to
complete one entire cycle (360). In this case 5 ms would be equivalent to a cycle
(180), and likewise 20 ms would be included in 720.
If the current flowing into an 80Hz a.c resistive circuit was switched on when i=0, and
if IPK = 50A the instantaneous current flowing in that circuit 7.8 ms after switch-on is:
1sec
12.5ms
80 Hz
7.8ms

i sin
360 50 A
12.5ms

i 0.7026 50 A
period

35.13 A

Page 8

1.

If one cycle is completed every 5 milliseconds what is the frequency?

2.

How long is 1 cycle if the supply frequency is 160Hz?

3.

If the a.c. voltage is measured to be 141.4V (RMS), what is the peak voltage?

4.

What is the average value of a full-wave rectified voltage if the maximum input
voltage is 22V ?

5.

What is the average value of a full-wave rectified current if the RMS value of the
input current is 60A a.c.?

Page 9

6.

What is the average value of a half-wave rectified voltage if the maximum input
voltage is 110V ?

7.

The a.c. supply voltage to a 25 resistive load is 84V (note: all a.c. values are
RMS unless otherwise stated). What is the peak-to-peak value of the current
through this resistor?

8.

How much current will be flowing through a 10 resistor 13.2 ms after

switch-on if the supply voltage is a 133Hz sinewave with a peak value of 700V ?

9.

How much current will be flowing through a 20 resistor 8 ms after switch-on if

the supply voltage is a 230V 50Hz sinewave?

Page 10

2 - Lenz's Law & Inductance

LENZS LAW
1. When current flows through a conductor a magnetic field is set up around that
conductor.

Magnetic Field

Current flow
2. When the magnetic field coupling a conductor changes in strength an emf is induced
in that conductor.

A
3. Lenz's Law says that the direction of the induced emf will be such that it
opposes any relative change in the strength of the magnetic field.

Page 11

4. This induced emf will therefore oppose any change in current (since this causes a
change in the magnetic field).
A

Magnetic field set up

around a current carrying
solenoid (coil).
The figure below illustrates how Flemings Right Hand Rule for Generators can be
applied to a solenoid through which the current is increasing in magnitude:
Conductor Motion relative
to increasing field B

Conductor Motion relative

to increasing field A

X
A

The resulting current induced in loop X will be in the opposite direction to the main
N
S
current flow.
Field Polarity with respect to A
Field Polarity with respect to B
S
N

Page 12

INDUCTANCE
The current flow induced in a solenoid loop is in the opposite direction to the main
current (the current that sets up the magnetic field) and thereby opposes the main
current flow.
This opposing current flow produces an EMF with a polarity opposite to the polarity of
the supply and is commonly described as a counter-EMF or back-EMF.
This induced current will only occur when the main current changes in value, in a steady
value d.c. circuit this would occur only at switch-on or switch-off.
The induced emf (counter emf) is directly proportional to the rate of change of current
through that solenoid. At switch-on (and switch-off) the rate of change of current
will be at its greatest and thus the opposition to a change in current flow will be at its
greatest at these times (d.c.).
As the main current flow increases closer to its maximum level the rate of change is less
and so is the opposition to this current flow.

current

Imax

main current flow

The time constant (TC) is determined
by the inductance of the coil and its
resistance. TC=L/R

time
1 TC 2 TC 3 TC 4 TC 5 TC

d.c. current flow through a solenoid at switch-on

Page 13

The ability of a solenoid to produce a counter-emf is known as its inductance and

often solenoids are known as inductors.
The inductance of a coil can be calculated from its physical properties:
L

0 r N 2 A
l

where :
L inductance measured in Henrys (H)

0 r the permeabili ty of the solenoid core

N 2 number of turns squared
A area inside the coil (m 2 )
l length of the magnetic circuit (m)

NOTE: 0 is the permeability of air (410-7 H/m)

From the equation above we can safely assume that a short coil with a steel core, lots of
turns and a large diameter, is going to be much more inductive than a long air-cored coil
with a small diameter and relatively few turns.
The symbol for an inductor:

Another way of looking at the inductance of a coil is by looking at the counter emf
induced across that coil by a changing value of current:
A coil is said to have an inductance of 1 Henry when a current through that
inductor changing at the rate of 1 Ampere per second induces a voltage of 1 Volt
across that inductor.

Page 14

10.

A 600 turn coil has an internal area of 50010-6m2 and a permeability of

90010 -6. If the length of the magnetic circuit is 0.2m, what is the inductance of
this coil?

11.

A 2,673 turn air-cored coil has an internal area of 5010-6m2 and a permeability
of 1.2610 -6. If the length of the magnetic circuit is 0.03m, what is the
inductance of this coil?

12.

While the current flowing through a coil is increasing at the rate of 10A/s, a
voltage of 5V appears across the coil. What is the inductance of this coil?

13.

A coil has an inductance of 1.2H and a resistance of 0.6. How long is 1 Time
Constant (1 TC)

Page 15

INDUCTIVE TIME CONSTANT

If the current flowing through an inductor at switch-on continued to increase at its initial
rate it would reach a maximum value after 1 time constant.

1 time constant (1 TC)

L
R

It doesnt however as the current flow increases more slowly as it nears its maximum
value. After 5TC the current is said to be at a maximum value. The opposition to current
flow at this point is only the resistance of the circuit.
The method of calculating the value of currents and voltages associated with this
increasing or decreasing function is shown below:
Vsupply

Imax = V/R

current

Inductor
Voltage
1 TC 2 TC 3 TC 4 TC 5 TC

time

d.c. current flow through an RL circuit at switch-on

INCREASE
t

i I max 1 e TC

DECREASE
v Vmax e

t
TC

Page 16

EXAMPLE:
An LR (inductive/resistive) circuit is connected to a 12V d.c. supply. How much current
will be flowing in this circuit 75 microseconds (s) after the switch is closed if the
resistor is 2k and the inductance is 300mH?
V 12V

6mA
R 2k
L 0.3H
TC
150 s
R 2k
t

TC

i I max 1 e

I max

75s

i 6mA 1 e 150s

6mA 1 0.6065

2.361mA

14.

An LR circuit is connected to a 50V d.c. supply. How much current will be

flowing in this circuit 6 ms after the switch is closed if the resistor is 5 and the
inductance is 12mH?

15.

What will happen to the resistor and inductor voltages as current flow increases?

Page 17

+
R = 2

VR
SWITCH ON
at t=0

24V d.c.
L = 1H

16.

VL

Use the space provided below to plot the Resistor Voltage (VR) and Inductor
Voltage (VL) along with the circuit current (I) for this circuit:

24V

12A

22V
20V

10A

18V
16V

8A

14V
12V

6A

10V
8V

4A

6V
4V

2A

2V
0V

0s

1s

2s

3s

time

4s

Page 18

0A

Earlier we discussed Lenzs Law and another application of Lenzs Law says that a
magnetic field will oppose any change in strength of that magnetic field.
The current flowing through a coil sets up a magnetic field around that coil that will
oppose any change in the value of current flowing through that coil.
We have already carried out calculations for this occurrence at switch-on and a similar
process takes place at switch-off.
In order to maintain the same magnetic field strength the inductor will try to maintain
current flow in the same direction.
As the switch is opened an arc will establish across the switchgap, and since the
resistance of the switchgap is high (e.g. Megohms) the initial voltage across that
switchgap will be very large as it is a product of both the current and the switchgap
resistance (VSwitchgap = Imax RSwitchgap). This high voltage across the switchgap will cause
arcing, which although utilised in car ignition systems and many lighting applications,
may be destructive.
Often switches (particularly semiconductor switches) are rated for a certain value when
switching a resistive load, and a lesser value for switching and inductive load.
The high voltage spike that occurs at switch-off can destroy sensitive electronic
equipment.
current

Inductive Load Current at

Switch-On and Switch-Off
Switch-Off

Switch-On

time
5TC
NOTE:

5TC

The time constant is reduced at switch-off because the resistance has

increased due to the resistance of the switchgap.

Page 19

B
60V d.c.

DISCHARGE
RESISTOR

LOAD
RESISTOR

100

4k
50mH

17.

Use this circuit diagram

to solve the following
questions with regard to
inductive time constants:

How long will it take for the current to rise to a maximum (in milliseconds)
when the switch is in Position A.

18.

What is the maximum current going to be with the switch in Position A?

19.

How long will it take for the energy stored in the magnetic field of the inductor
to be dissipated as heat through the Load Resistor and the Discharge Resistor
when the switch is in Position B?

20.

How much voltage will initially appear across the Discharge Resistor when the
switch is first switched to Position B?

Page 20

3 - Capacitance
Capacitors and inductors exhibit both similar and opposite behaviours. Where an
inductor will store energy as a magnetic field, a capacitor too will store energy in the
form of an electric field.
Where the total inductance of inductors in series is the sum of the individual inductances
and parallel inductances are calculated in the same manner as parallel resistances, series
capacitance and parallel capacitance are calculated using the same methods applied to the
opposite configurations:
SERIES

PARALLEL

1
CTOTAL

1
1
1

...
C1 C2 C3

CTOTAL C1 C2 C3 ...

The physical factors affecting the ability of a capacitor to store an electric charge can be
best explained by the following equation:
C

0 r (n 1) A
d

where :
C capacitance measured in Farads (F)

0 r the permittivity of the dielectric (ability of the insulating material to store a charge)
(n 1) effective number of plates
A effective plate area (m 2 )
d distance between the plates (m)

NOTE: 0 is the permitivity of free space (8.85410-12F/m)

A capacitor with an extremely thin dielectric that has a high permitivity and a large
effective plate area will have a high capacitance.

Page 21

21.

A 30F capacitor is in series with a parallel network that consists of a 40F and
a 10F capacitor. What is the total capacitance of this series-parallel network?

22.

A rolled 2-plate capacitor has a relative permitivity (r) of 1500 (it is 1500
times better at storing a charge than air) and the area of each plate is 0.3m2. If
the distance between the plates is 0.5mm and the permitivity of free space is
8.85410-12, what is the capacitance of this capacitor?

23.

The area of each plate in a 20-plate air (r = 1) capacitor is 110-3m2. If the

distance between each plate is 2mm what is the capacitance of this capacitor?

Page 22

As an inductor requires time to convert electrical energy into a magnetic field (which it
converts back into electrical energy at switch-off), a capacitor requires time to store
energy in the form of an electric field.
You may have already noticed how a capacitor will charge rapidly when first connected
to a d.c. power supply but as the capacitor voltage nears the supply voltage its charging
rate slows until the capacitor is fully charged at which point no further charging takes
place and current ceases to flow.
In fact if a capacitor continued to charge at its initial rate the capacitor voltage would
equal the supply voltage after 1 time constant.

1 time constant (1 TC) RC

The same equations we used for the currents and voltages in an RL circuit can be
applied to an RC circuit:
INCREASE

DECREASE

i I max 1 e TC

v Vmax e

t
TC

When connected to a d.c. supply the initial current flow will be limited only by the
resistance of a series RC circuit. As the capacitor voltage nears the supply voltage the
current flow will reduce and finally cease when VC = VS. The voltage across the resistor
will be directly proportional to the current through that resistor (Ohms Law) so initially
VR will equal VS but after 5 time constants current will cease flowing and VR = 0.
V&I

VC

Switch-off

R
VS
C

I and VR
Switch-on

5TC

time

Page 23

B
24V d.c.

24.

DISCHARGE
RESISTOR

LOAD
RESISTOR

50

200
30F

Use this circuit diagram

to solve the following
questions with regard to
capacitive time constants:

How much current will flow the instant the switch is set to Position A?

25.

What is the initial resistor voltage going to be?

26.

How long will it take the capacitor voltage (VC) to equal the supply voltage (VS)?

27.

The switch is then set to Position B. What voltage will be available across the
discharge resistor after 15ms?

Page 24

SOME OTHER CALCULATIONS INVOLVING CAPACITORS:

CHARGE
Q CV
where :
Q Charge in Coulombs (C)
C Capacitance ( F )
V Voltage (V )

Where the charge stored by capacitors connected in parallel is the sum of the individual
charges the charge stored by capacitors in series is the same as and equal to the charge
stored by the entire series capacitance.
1
CTOTAL

1
1
1

10 F 20 F 30F

CTOTAL 5.455F

10F

QTOTAL CV
20F

50V d.c.

30F

5.455F 50V 273C

QC1 C1VC1
VC1

QC1
C1

VC1

273C
27.3V
10 F

ENERGY
W

1
CV 2
2

where :
W Energy in Joules (J)
C Capacitance ( F )
V Voltage (V )

Page 25

28.

A 20F capacitor (C1) is in parallel with a 40F capacitor (C2). How much
Charge is stored by each capacitor if the supply voltage is 24V?

29.

A 30F capacitor (C1) is connected in series with a 50F capacitor (C2). How
much Charge is stored by each capacitor if the supply voltage is 12V?

30.

What voltage will be apparent across each capacitor in Question 29?

31.

How much Energy will be available from each capacitor in Question 29 and 30?

Page 26

4 - Inductors and Capacitors on a.c.

Earlier we discussed Lenzs Law and how an inductor will oppose any change to its
electromagnetic field strength and thus any change in current.
When an inductor is connected to an alternating current that is constantly changing in
both direction and magnitude an inductor will oppose this current.
This electromagnetic opposition to a changing current is called "inductive reactance" and
is a product of the ability of a coil to set up a magnetic field and the rate at which the
current or applied voltage is changing (ie. its frequency).
The resulting current flow in an a.c. inductive circuit will be less than that which would
be expected from I = V/R, and any change in voltage will only be met by a
corresponding change in current lagging by up to 90.

INDUCTIVE REACTANCE
The inductive reactance of a coil can be calculated from its physical properties and the
rate of change of current (the frequency of the supply).

X L 2fL
where :
X L inductive reactance ()
f frequency (Hz)
L inductance of the coil (H - Henrys)
As all inductors are basically coils of wire the opposition to current flow will be
determined by both the inductive reactance and the resistance of that coil.

Page 27

32.

If the inductance of a coil is 300mH, what will its inductive reactance (XL) be
when connected to a:
50Hz supply; and
60Hz supply

33.

Is the relationship between inductive reactance and frequency linear or

exponential?

34.

Does the resistance of the coil affect the amount of current that will flow
through the coil?

35.

Would the inductive reactance (XL) affect the amount of current flowing through
the coil when the coil is connected to a d.c. supply?

36.

How could you determine the resistance of a coil of wire?

Page 28

CAPACTIVE REACTANCE
A capacitor can store electrical energy from the supply and later release this energy into
an electric circuit when the energy available from the supply becomes less than that
available from the capacitor.
When the voltage across the terminals of a capacitor is greater than that of the
connected supply the capacitor will cause a current to flow even though the supply
voltage may be zero volts.
The current flowing in a circuit that includes a capacitor may lead any change in voltage
by up to 90.
The time required for the continual charging/discharging of a capacitor connected to
alternating current is also dependant on the supply frequency:

XC

1
2fC

where :
X C capacitive reactance ()
f frequency (Hz)
C capacitance (F - Farads)

This graph illustrates the

exponentially decreasing
relationship between
Capacitive Reactance (XC)
and Frequency (f).

80

60

40

130Hz

120Hz

110Hz

100Hz

Frequency

90Hz

80Hz

70Hz

60Hz

50Hz

40Hz

30Hz

20Hz

20

10Hz

Capacitive Reactance (XC)

100

Page 29

5 - Impedance

"Impedance" is the opposition to current flow in an a.c. circuit.

The opposition to current flow of an RL circuit (a circuit including both resistive and
inductive components) when connected to an a.c. supply depends on both the inductive
reactance and the resistance.
Where the resistance of a d.c. circuit limits current in that circuit, the current in an a.c.
circuit is inversely proportional to the circuits impedance.

V I Z
where :
Z impedance of the circuit ()

The impedance (Z) is the algebraic sum of the resistance (R) and the inductive
reactance (XL), and capacitive reactance (XC).

Page 30

The voltage measurable across a resistor is directly proportional to the current flow
through that resistor and any change in current value will have an immediate
corresponding change in voltage.
The opposition to current flow due to inductive reactance however causes any change
in current flow through an inductor to lag any change in voltage across that
inductor by 90 (one complete cycle is 360 and at 50Hz this would mean 5ms).

90

current
voltage

current

We can also represent this relationship between current and voltage as a "phasor
diagram".
There is a comprehensive section on vectors, phasors and the mathematics associated
with these in the Appendix.

Page 31

PHASOR DIAGRAMS
A phasor diagram can be used to represent average, mean or instantaneous values of
constantly changing cyclic quantities, and their relationship to each other with regard to
time or completed cycles.
Phasors are like vectors in that they have both magnitude and direction.
Phasors differ however from vectors in that they originate from the same point known
as the "origin".
Phasors rotate anticlockwise about the origin but the angles between the Phasors remain
the same.
Because of this anticlockwise rotation It can be seen in the diagram below that the current phasor "lags" the voltage
phasor in this particular instance by 90.

90
Voltage across the
inductor (VL)

Phasor Diagram
Inductive (L) Circuit

Current through inductor lags voltage by 90

0
Current through the inductor (IL)

The current through a pure inductor is said to be "out-of-phase" with the voltage by
90 lagging.

Page 32

Unlike the current through an inductor, the current through a resistor is "in-phase" with
the voltage so a phasor diagram for a resistive circuit would look like:

Phasor Diagram
Resistive (R) Circuit
Current through the resistor
(IR)

Voltage across the

resistor (VR)

0
Current is in-phase with voltage (no phase angle)

From these two phasor diagrams we can safely assume that the voltage across an
inductor and the voltage across a resistor will be out-of-phase with each other by 90.
The same can be said of resistance and inductive reactance - these two components are
displaced by 90.
A right-angled (90) triangle can be used to illustrate the algebraic addition of resistance
and inductive reactance to calculate the total opposition to a.c. current flow. This is
known as an impedance triangle:
IMPEDANCE
TRIANGLE
is the phase angle (in degrees)
is the impedance ()

XL

XL is the inductive reactance ()

R is the resistance ()

Page 33

37.

If the resistance of a coil is 20 and the inductive reactance is 80, what will
the impedance be?

38.

The resistance of a coil is measured using an ohmmeter and found to be 23.

When connected to a 230V a.c. supply however, the current was measured at
only 3A. Calculate:
(a)
The coil impedance
(b)
The coils inductive reactance
(c)
The phase angle
Does this current flow through the coil lead or lag the voltage?

Page 34

39.

How much current will flow through a coil of wire that has a resistance of 13
if the inductance of the coil is 120mH and the coil is connected to a 10V 50Hz
supply? Include the phase angle in your answer (eg. 10A -85)

40.

How much current will flow through a coil of wire that has a resistance of 5 if
the inductance of the coil is 300mH and the coil is connected to a 110V 60Hz
supply? Include the phase angle in your answer.

.
1)

Page 35

41.

A resistor of 50 is connected in series with an inductor. The inductor has an

inductive reactance of 200 and a resistance of 30. What is the impedance of
this series circuit?

42.

Two coils are connected in series. Coil A has a resistance of 80 and an

inductance of 32mH, Coil B has a resistance of 30 and an inductance of
95mH. This series circuit is connected to a 30V 100Hz supply. Calculate:
(a)
The impedance (including the angle) of Coil A
(b)
The impedance (including the angle) of Coil B
(c)
The vector sum of these two impedances
(d) The current and phase angle (include )

Page 36

The ability of a capacitor to store an electric charge means that a current can flow in an
RC circuit even when the supply voltage is zero volts.
The current flowing in an RC circuit will be greatest when the capacitor first begins to
charge and slows as the capacitor reaches full charge.
If the capacitor is connected to a voltage that is rapidly changing in polarity that
capacitor will operate in the region where it draws the most charging current, and
therefore will provide less opposition to the supply current than it would to a voltage
that changed less rapidly.
The resulting current flow will lead the voltage by up to 90 and be proportional to the
frequency.

current
voltage

current

90

We can also represent this relationship between current and voltage as a phasor
diagram.

Page 37

Because phasors rotate anticlockwise it can be seen in the diagram below that the current
phasor "leads" the voltage phasor in this particular instance by 90.

90
Total Current through the circuit (IT)

Phasor Diagram
Capacitive Circuit

Current through Capacitive Circuit leads voltage by up to 90

0
Supply Voltage(VS)

The current through a purely capacitive circuit is said to be "out-of-phase" with the
voltage by 90 leading. We always talk about the currents relationship with the voltage
not the other way around.

Capacitive
reactance is
opposite to
inductive
reactance
and in a
circuit
containing
both
capacitive
and
inductive
components
the reactance
of one will
counteract
the effect of
the other.

XC
ZRL

XL

ZRLC
XL - XC

R
XC
ZRC

IMPEDANCE
TRIANGLE for a
SERIES RLC
CIRCUIT

Page 38

Page 39

SERIES RLC CIRCUIT IMPEDANCES

43.

Calculate the inductive and capacitive reactances then draw to scale an

impedance triangle for a 50Hz series a.c. circuit that consists of a 382mH
inductor, an 80F capacitor and a 60 resistor. Graphically solve for Z and its
phase angle.

Page 40

44.

Calculate the inductive and capacitive reactances then draw to scale an

impedance triangle for a 60Hz series a.c. circuit that consists of a 382mH
inductor, an 80F capacitor and a 60 resistor. Graphically solve for Z and its
phase angle.

Page 41

45.

Answer all of the Questions on Chapter 7 of Electrotechnology Principles and

Practice pp.151

Page 42

45.

Contd.

Page 43

6 - RLC Phasor Diagrams

Phasor Diagrams can be used to illustrate the relationships between current and voltage
in reactive circuits.
In fact for a parallel circuit it is easier to calculate the circuits impedance from the sum
of the current phasors than it is by other means.

CURRENT PHASOR DIAGRAM PARALLEL CIRCUITS

A current phasor diagram is used to illustrate/calculate
the individual and total currents in a parallel circuit. A
current phasor diagram is not applicable to a series
circuit as all components have the same current
flowing through them.
The currents in each branch of a parallel circuit may be
of different magnitudes and have different phaseangles. The total current will be the algebraic sum of
these currents so the addition of these currents must
include their phase-angles as well as their magnitudes.

IC
IR

VSUPPLY

-phase angle

ITOTAL
IC
IL

IR

VOLTAGE PHASOR DIAGRAM SERIES CIRCUITS

A voltage phasor diagram is used to illustrate/calculate the individual and total voltages
around a series circuit. A voltage
VR
VL
phasor diagram is not applicable to a
parallel circuit as all components have
V C
the same voltage across them.
VSUPPLY

VR
VC

ITOTAL

The voltages across each component of

a series circuit may be of different
magnitudes and have different phaseangles. The algebraic sum of these
voltages must equal the supply voltage.

Page 44

CURRENT PHASOR DIAGRAM PARALLEL CIRCUITS

Calculate the reactance of each component.

Use V/R, V/XL and V/XC to calculate the current through each component.

In a parallel circuit each component has the same voltage across it so we can refer
all of current phasors to this voltage. We draw a voltage phasor (VS) at 0 electrical.
This voltage phasor does not have to be drawn to scale.

The current through a resistor is always in-phase with the voltage across that
resistor so IR must be drawn to scale and on top of VS.

The current through a pure inductor lags any change in applied voltage by 90 so IL
must be drawn to scale and lagging VS by 90.

The current through a capacitor leads any change in applied voltage by 90 so IC

must be drawn to scale and leading VS by 90.

The total current is the algebraic sum of the currents in each branch so the addition
of current phasors IR, IL and IC will give you the total current (IT). IT can be
measured and its actual value can be calculated by using the same scale you have
used for the other current phasors.

The phase-angle () is the angle between the supply voltage and the total current,
and can be measured using a protractor. Larger diagrams result in greater accuracy.

The impedance of a parallel circuit is simply Z=VS/IT

IC

IT

IR

IL

IR

IC

VSUPPLY

-phase angle

VS

ITOTAL

IT

IC

IL

IR

Page 45

VOLTAGE PHASOR DIAGRAM SERIES CIRCUITS

Calculate the reactance of each component.

Use an impedance triangle to calculate ZTOTAL

Calculate IT from VS/ ZTOTAL and since each component in a series circuit has the
same current flowing through it draw this as a reference at 0 (not to scale)

The voltage across a resistor is always in-phase with the current through that
resistor so VR must be drawn to scale and on top of IT.

The current through a pure inductor lags any change in applied voltage by 90 so
VL must be drawn to scale and leading IT by 90.

The current through a capacitor leads any change in applied voltage by 90 so VC

must be drawn to scale and lagging IT by 90.

The algebraic sum of the voltage drops around a circuit equals the supply voltage so
the addition of voltage phasors VR, VL and VC will equal the supply voltage VS. This
phasor can be measured and its actual value can be calculated by using the same
scale you have used for the other voltage phasors.

The phase-angle () is the angle between the supply voltage and the total current,
and can be measured using a protractor. Larger diagrams result in greater accuracy.
VL

VR

VR

IT

V C

V
SUPPLY
VL

VS

-phase angle

VR

IT

ITOTAL

VC

VC

Page 46

RLC SERIES AND PARALLEL PROBLEMS

46.

A series RLC circuit consists of a 9 Resistor, a 28mH Inductor, a

100F Capacitor and a 150V 100Hz supply. Draw/ label the phasor diagram for
this circuit and measure the phase angle. How does the phase angle for this
circuit compare to that of an impedance triangle for the same circuit?

Page 47

47.

A current of 2A 50Hz flows through each component of a series RLC circuit.

The circuit consists of a 100 Resistor, a 240mH Inductor and a
24F Capacitor. Draw/ label the phasor diagram for this circuit and measure
the supply voltage and the phase angle. Is the current leading or lagging? How
does the phase angle for this circuit compare to that of an impedance triangle
for the same circuit?

Page 48

48.

A parallel RLC circuit is connected to a 110V 60Hz supply. The 3 components

are a 220 Resistor, a 160mH Inductor and a 19F Capacitor. Draw the current
phasor diagram to calculate the total current and the Power Factor (see
Electrotechnology Principles..) of this circuit. Then calculate the impedance.

Page 49

49.

A parallel RLC circuit is connected to a 230V 50Hz supply. The 3 components

are a 100 Resistor, a 50mH Inductor and a 50F Capacitor. Draw the current
phasor diagram to calculate the total current and the Power Factor of this
circuit. Then calculate the impedance.

Page 50

7 Resonance
For every RLC circuit there will be a certain frequency where the inductive reactance will
equal the capacitive reactance.

60

REACTANCE (XL & XC)

L = 10mH

XL

XC
C = 30F

SUPPLY FREQUENCY

f0

1kHz

0Hz

Inductive Reactance and Capacitive Reactance vs. Frequency

Resonance occurs where XL = XC

f0

2 LC
where :
f 0 resonant frequency (Hz)

Page 51

50.

What is the resonant frequency of a series circuit has:

R = 20, L = 10mH, and C = 30F? Check your answer on Page 50.

51.

Using VS = 230V, graph the current through the series resonant circuit in Q.50.
Indicate the resonant frequency on the graph.

CURRENT (I)

12A

SUPPLY FREQUENCY

1kHz

0A

Current vs. Frequency (Series Resonance)

Page 52

20
200V

65mH
27F

52.

Indicate the total current and the voltages that will be present across each
component at resonance for the RLC circuit shown above:

53.

The Quality Factor (Q) of a resonant circuit is also known as the voltage
magnification factor and is given by the ratio: VL/VR or VC/VR or XL/R or XC/R.
What is the Quality of the resonant circuit above:

Page 53

SERIES RESONANT CIRCUITS

The only opposition to current flow in a series resonant circuit is the resistance of that
circuit. If the only resistance is that provided by the wire used for the inductor the
current flowing at the resonant frequency may be very high indeed. Large currents
produce a great deal of heat and may cause damage or burnout of associated
components.
The Q-Factor or Voltage Magnification associated with a series resonant circuit
gives you an indication of what percentage of the supply voltage is present across the
reactive components at resonance. Obviously from the previous Page you will be aware
that the voltage across the reactive components may be many times greater than the
supply voltage. These high voltages can breakdown insulation and cause arcing and risk
of electric shock.

APPLICATIONS
Series Resonant circuits are used as acceptor circuits in that they will allow larger
currents to flow at certain frequencies but less current flow at other frequencies. These
circuits can be used in tuning applications (varying the capacitance on a radio tuner will
change the resonant frequency to that of the radio station). Another application of a
resonant circuit is one that is used to filter out unwanted harmonics by diverting them
to earth harmonics are discussed in Section 8.

Antenna
Speaker
Tuner
Detector
Amplifier

Page 54

PARALLEL RESONANCE
Parallel Resonant Circuits are used for blocking certain frequencies and are often known
as rejector circuits. These rejector circuits may be used in tuning circuits or for
blocking harmonic frequencies.

100V a.c.

54.

4F

40mH

How much current flows in the circuit above at:

a) 39.8Hz
b) 398Hz
c) 3980Hz

Page 55

8 - Harmonics
Electric motor variable speed (VSD) controllers and soft starters control power by
electronic switching.
Switch-mode power supplies (SMPs) are popular in electronic
devices such as computers because of their lightweight,
reduced temperature rise and greater operating efficiencies
compared to transformers used to do the same job.
Soft starters (on start-up), VSDs and SMPs all generate
harmonic currents because they all chop into the voltage
waveform and discard the portion that is not used.
This unused portion of the a.c. waveform sets up a
lack of symmetry in the a.c. supply, and induces
harmonic currents at a frequency that is a multiple
of the supply frequency
(e.g. Third Harmonic frequency = 150Hz).
This induced harmonic current can affect the current and voltage waveforms in not only
the electrical installation the VSDs etc. are installed in, but also in the supply network.
Harmonics can cause heating through magnetic polarisation in transformer cores,
additional heating in motors, interference with communications networks and remote
signalling circuits, overload power factor correction equipment and interference in the
correct operation of consumer appliances. These harmonics will cause more than the
expected current to flow in the Neutral conductor, which may mean that the Neutral will
not cope with this additional current.
The maximum allowable amount of total harmonic distortion at the point of common
coupling (that is, before your point of supply) must not exceed 5%, as specified in
NZECP 36.
Harmonic filters are available, some of which are resonant at the harmonic frequency
and bleed that harmonic current to earth.

Page 56

Page 57

Fundamental
Waveform (eg. 230V
50Hz)

Resultant Waveform
Fundamental + 2nd
Harmonic

2nd Harmonic
(eg. 115V 100Hz)

Page 58

Draw the Resultant Waveform

Fundamental + 3rd Harmonic

Fundamental Waveform
(eg. 230V 50Hz)

3rd Harmonic
(eg. 77V 150Hz)

9 - Additional Information
SELF INDUCTION
Self Induction describes the ability of a conductor to induce an EMF in itself when the
current through that conductor changes in magnitude.
(L Inductance measured in Henrys).

MUTUAL INDUCTION
Mutual Induction describes the ability of a changing magnetic field around one
conductor having the ability to induce an EMF in another conductor.
(M Mutual Inductance measured in Henrys).

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF CAPACITORS

Capacitors are used with inductive loads to reduce the phase angle between current and
voltage. This reduction in phase angle is known as power factor correction and results
in a reduction of required conductor CSA for inductive loads.
The ability of a capacitor to store a voltage and discharge that voltage when the supply
voltage reduces makes them ideal for smoothing lumpy d.c. power supplies.
Capacitors are also used in Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) suppression, arcing
reduction and high frequency coupling.

CAPACITOR DISCHARGING REQUIREMENTS

Capacitors can store electrical energy indefinitely and are for that reason presents a
danger of electric shock. Systems must be in place to discharge storage capacitors that
are capable of storing a charge of dangerous value when not in use. Always use caution
when working with capacitors or long runs of cable that have been insulation resistance
tested or in proximity to High Voltages.

Page 59

Appendix
VECTORS, PHASORS, TRIG & J-NOTATION
Some examples of vector quantities are:

Velocity;

Force;

and, Acceleration.

Page 60

SOLVING VECTORS GRAPHICALLY

Vectors are added nose to tail.
Example:
If a golf ball had a velocity of 180kmph North, and there was a tail cross-wind
blowing toward the North-West of 20kmph - would the velocity of the ball be?
The vectors must all be drawn to
the same scale, and the angles can
be plotted using a protractor.

20 kmph NW
(wind)
Velocity due to golfer is 180kmph N

20 kmph NW
180kmph N

NW
4.2

N
The velocity of the ball is now 195 kmph 4.2 W

This graphical method of vector addition is known as a parallelogram method. There are
more examples of vector addition in Electrotechnology Principles and Practice.

Page 61

A1.

A2.

A light aeroplane has a velocity of 200kmph West, the wind is blowing toward
the South at 55kmph. Solve for the aeroplanes position after 1 hour, using the
parallelogram method.

The guy with the ball exerts a force of

2kN toward the try line. The man
tackling him applies a force of 1.3kN
in a direction 40 away from that in
which the ball carrier is headed.
What is the resultant force on the ball?

Page 62

PHASORS
A phasor is much like a vector in that it has a magnitude and direction. A phasor
however is actually a frozen representation of a rotating vector. Check this out:
A single conductor rotating through a magnetic field
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

The magnitude of the EMF induced in the conductor rotating through the magnetic field

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Due to its rotational nature, all points on a sinewave can be represented as phasors:

90

B
A
45

180
C

45

90 180

270

360

225
270

Page 63

A3.

Complete the phasor diagram below - indicating the phasors A, B and C, and
their angles:

A
B
time

A4.

In which direction do phasors rotate?

Phasors rotate .............................................

Page 64

RECTANGULAR AND POLAR CO-ORDINATES

Any vector or phasor has a length (magnitude) and direction.
100km East is a "polar co-ordinate".

Magnitude =100km

East

When carrying out electrical calculations instead of North being at 0 East is at 0,

South is at -90 and North is at 90 (see below).

90

-90

Page 65

90

10V
A phasor has magnitude and direction
and can thus be described using polar
co-ordinates.
The phasor on the left can be
described mathematically as:

10V 53.13

53.13
0

This same phasor can also be described by its "rectangular co-ordinates":

10V

8V

53.13

real axis

real axis

imaginary axis

imaginary axis

+j

6V

-j
The addition of these two rectangular components (6 and 8) would also describe the
point at the end of our 10V phasor. Using "j-notation" this point can be described as:

6 j8
10V53.13 6 j8

Page 66

Solve the following phasors into their rectangular co-ordinates:

C
A

B
Convert these values to their polar co-ordinates using your calculator and check your
answers using a protractor and ruler.
Phasor

Rectangular co-ordinates

7+j3

Polar co-ordinates

7.28 -74.05

Page 67

ADDING AND SUBTRACTING VECTOR QUANTITIES

Adding vectors (or phasors) is simply a matter of adding these quantities nose-to-tail
taking into account their respective phase angles. This can be done graphically as
illustrated below, or mathematically.

A'
B

RESULTANT

Addition and Subtraction

of vector quantities must
be carried out using
Rectangular
Co-ordinates
A 6 j 2 6.3218.4

B 1 j 4 4.1276
Resultant 7 j 6 9.2240.6

The result of adding vectors A and B is another vector with a magnitude of 9.22 at an
angle of 40.6. This can be calculated by adding the real components and the imaginary
(j) components together separately.
NOTE: Adding the polar magnitudes would not give you the right answer.
Subtracting a vector quantity graphically is the same as adding the vector with its
direction reversed. The result of A-B is shown below:

A 6 j 2
B 1 j 4

Point of origin

-B

A B 6 j 2 (1 j 4)
Resultant 5 j 2 5.39 21.8

RESULTANT

Page 68

MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION OF VECTOR QUANTITIES

When carrying out multiplication and division functions involving vector or phasor
quantities these operations must be carried out in Polar.

MULTIPLICATION in Polar requires the multiplying of the magnitudes and the

addition of their angles:

2 A22

Multiplication and
Division of vector
quantities must be carried
out using
Polar Co-ordinates

3045
60V67

DIVISION in Polar requires dividing the magnitudes and subtracting the angles:
100V0
2060
5 A 60

Page 69

A5.

Add 6 + j 8 and 13 + j 5

(All answers in POLAR)

A6.

Add 6 - j 8 and 13 + j 5

A7.

Add 6 - j 8 and -13 + j 5

A8.

Subtract 6 + j 8 from 13 + j 5

A9.

Multiply 2030 by 1050

Page 70

A10.

Multiply 2030 by 10-50

(All answers in POLAR)

A11.

Divide 2030 by 1050

A12.

Divide 2030 by 10-50

A13.

Multiply 6 + j 8 by 13 + j 5

139.3 74.17

A14.

Add 2030 and 13 + j 5

Page 71

A15.

Solve for the resultant of the component forces below - by first converting them
to rectangular components and adding them.
Then check your answer by adding the component forces graphically (i.e. the
resultant of parallelogram for A and B is added to component C, and the
resultant of that is added to component D.

Force Magnitude Angle

A

20N

5N

60

8N

280

12N

-40

Page 72

A16.

Typically we use the RMS values in our phasor diagrams

An RLC parallel circuit has:
- a resistive current (IR) (in-phase with the voltage) of 6A;
- an inductive current (IL) of 23A that lags the voltage by 90; and
- a capacitive current (IC) of 8A that leads the voltage by 90.
What is the value of the current supplied to this circuit? Does it lead or lag the
voltage, and if so, by how much?
Phasors, like vectors, can be added nose-to-tail. Your phasor values will have
to be to the same scale, and the correct angles depicted using a protractor.
SOLVE THIS GRAPHICALLY BELOW:

Page 73

A17.

An RLC parallel circuit has:

- a resistive current (IR) (in-phase with the voltage) of 6A;
- an inductive current (IL) of 23A that lags the voltage by 90; and
- a capacitive current (IC) of 8A that leads the voltage by 90.
What is the value of the current supplied to this circuit? Does it lead or lag the
voltage, and if so, by how much? Solve using j-notation and check your
answer with the previous Page.

Page 74

A18.

An RLC parallel circuit has:

- IR = 4A;
- IL = 10A -64 (resistance of the coil means the phase angle is less than 90)
- IC = 8A 90.
What is the value of the current supplied to this circuit? Does it lead or lag the
voltage, and if so, by how much?
SOLVE THIS GRAPHICALLY BELOW:

Page 75

A19.

An RLC parallel circuit has:

- IR = 4A;
- IL = 10A -64 (resistance of the coil means the phase angle is less than 90)
- IC = 8A 90.
What is the value of the current supplied to this circuit? Does it lead or lag the
voltage, and if so, by how much?
Solve using j-notation and check your answer with the previous Page.

Page 76

ANSWERS
1.

200Hz

3.

200V

5.

54A d.c.

7.

9.5A

9.

9.56A

11.

15mH

13.

2 sec

15.

Resistor voltage will increase to VSUPPLY after 5TC, Inductor voltage will reduce

17.

2.5ms

19.

61s

21.

18.75F

23.

84pF

25.

24V

27.

2.6V

29.

225C

31.

WC1 = 844J, WC2 = 506J

33.

linear

35.

No

Page 77

37.

82.46

39.

251mA -70.97

41.

215.4 68.2

43.

100 53.13

45.

Answers are in Electrotechnology Principles and Practice pp.543

47.

230V 30, current is leading, Impedance triangle phase angle is the same but ,
p.f = 0.87 leading

49.

11.27A -78.2, p.f = 0.2 lagging, z = 20.4

51.

f0 = 291Hz

53.

2.5

Page 78

A1.

207km 105W (-15 W)

A2.

3.1kN 15.6

A3.

Magnitudes are the same but A13, B-170, C-45

A4.

anticlockwise

A5.

19 + j13 23.02 34.38

A6.

19 - j3 19.24 -8.97

A7.

-7 j3 7.62 -156.8

A8.

7 j3 7.62 -23.2

A9.

200 80

A10.

200 -20

A11.

2 -20

A12.

2 80

A13.

139.3 74.17

A14.

33.83 26.32

A15.

34.94N -18.8

A17.

16.16A -68.2, lags by 68.2

A19.

8.44A -6.72

Page 79

FORMULAE

MMF S.

1
f0
2

XC

P V .I .cos

1
f0
2

1
2fC

0 r

1
R2
2
LC L

0 r N 2a

SHCH 2O 4180

B.a

0 8.854 1012 F / m

0 r A(n 1)
d

0 4 107 H / m

E B.l.v.sin

P 3.VLine.I Line. cos

R1 1 .t1

R2 1 .t2

U m I .N

X L 2fL

1
LC

Cu 1.72 108 m

0 r a

Ba
20

S O

CA

T O

R R0 1 0 .t

Z R ( X L XC )
2

.l
a

W 1 C.V 2
2

I .N .l
a

v V (1 e TC )
Q CV

accl .Gravity 9.81m / s / s

Page 80