UNEP WCMC

World Atlas
Mark

The most

D. Spalding.

definitive

overview yet of a
living w/orld." --

BBC

Wildlife

Reefs

Corinna Ravilious. and Ednnund

and comprehensive

vital part of

of Coral

our

P.

Green

iral reefs

are the most biologically

diverse marine habitats

the world, host to an

in

extraordinary variety of plants and animals. They are

also one of the world's

most

fragile

and endangered

ecosystems. The growth of tourism, combined with

the

boom

in

popularity of scuba diving, has brought

these spectacular ecosystems to public attention

around the planet.

Coral reefs provide essential fish habitat, support

endangered and threatened species, and harbor

protected marine

mammals and

turtles.

significant source of food, provide

They are a

income and employ-

countless other benefits to humans, including supply-

ing

compounds

Yet coral reefs

for

pharmaceutical development.

around the world are rapidly being

degraded by human

activities

such as overfishing.

coastal development, and the introduction of sewage.

fertilizer,

and sediment. And because corals are highly

sensitive to

changes

in

water temperature, they are

particularly vulnerable to climate change.

The World Atlas of Coral Reefs provides the

detailed

and

definitive

first

account of the state of our

planet's coral reefs. With

its

wealth of authoritative and

up-to-date information, the finest

maps

available,

and

nn^

Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive

in

2010 with funding from

UNEP-WCIVIC, Cambridge

Iittp://www.archive.org/details/worldatlasofcora01spal

World Atlas

of Coral

Reefs

The publisher gratefully acknowledges the

generous contribution to this book provided

by the Moore Family Foundation.

Published in association with

The contents of this volume do not necessarily reflect the views

UNEP-WCMC

or policies of

by The University

UNEP-WCMC, contributory organizations,

editors or

of California Press

publishers. The designations

University of California Press

not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of

employed and the presentations do

Berkeley and Los Angeles,

UNEP-WCMC

California

concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area

University of California Press, Ltd.

or its authority, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or

London, England

boundaries, or the designation of

or contributory organizations, editors or publishers

its

name

or allegiances.

Cloth edition ISBN:

^

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0-520-23255-0

Monitoring Centre

UNEP-WCMC

Cataloging-in-Publication data

219 Huntingdon Road

is

Cambridge, CB3 ODL, UK

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Tel:

on file with the Library of Congress

Citation: Spalding M.D., Ravilious C. and Green E.P. (2001). World

Fax:

Atlas of Coral Reefs. Prepared at the

UNEP World Conservation

Monitoring Centre. University of California Press, Berkeley, USA.

Printed in China
09
No part of this book may be reproduced by any means, or
transmitted or translated into

machine language without

the written permission of the publisher.

07
6

The paper used

of

in this publication

ANSI/NISO Z39. 48-1992

meets the minimum requirements

(R 1997) (Permanence of Paper).

^S

UNEP WCMC

ICLARM

THE WORLD FtSM CGNTER

World Atlas
Mark

D. Spalding,

Corinna Ravilious, and

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS

Berkeley

Los Angeles

London

of Coral

Reefs

Edmund

P.

Green

World Atlas
Prepared

The

of

Coral Reefs

at

UNEP

World Conservation

Monitoring Centre

219 Huntingdon Road

UNEP WCMC

Cambridge CB3 DDL. UK

Website; www.unep-wcmc.org
Director:

Mark

The UNEP World Conservation Monitoring

Collins

Centre provides objective, scientifically

rigorous

Authors

products and

services

that

D.

Spalding

include ecosystem assessments, support

Connna

Ravilious

for

Mark

Edmund

implementation

of

environmental

agreements, regional and global bio-

Green

P.

diversity information, research

on threats

Research assistants

and impacts, and development

Sarah Carpenter

scenarios for the living world.

The Centre became the biodiversity

Rachel Donnelly

arm

information and assessment

Space Shuttle photographic research

Julie A,

Robinson

United Nations Environment

in

June 2000.

lUCN and

Marco Noordeloos

in

Edmund R Green and Mark

unless otherwise stated

Cartography
Corinna Ravilious

Layout

John Dunne

Color separations

Swaingrove

China

A Banson Production
27 Devonshire Road

Cambridge, CBl 2BH.

UK

bansonlBou rplanet.com

D.

Spalding

organizations

years

is

was founded

lUCN,

financial support

Photographs

in

It

in

of the

Programme
in

1979 by

1988 was transformed

joint activity of

Printed

of future

WWF and

into a

UNEP. The

and guidance

of

these

the Centre's formative

gratefully acknowledged.

Supporting institutions

Supporting institutions
The United Nations Environnnent Programme
environment.

Its

role

is

to

is

the principal United Nations body

the field of the

in

be the leading global environmental authority that sets the global environmental

agenda, that promotes the coherent implementation

the environmental dimension

of

environment.

Its

objectives include analysis of the state of the global environment and

and regional environmental trends, provision

threats,

and

to catalyze

sustainable

of

development within the United Nations system and that serves as an authoritative advocate

for the global

assessment

of global

and early warning information on environmental

of policy advice

and promote international cooperation and

action,

based on the best

scientific

and

technical capabilities available. Website; w/ww.unep.org

ICLARM-The World

Fish Center

an international, non-profit research center working

is

and promote food security through the sustainable development and use
environmentally sound management. The focus of ICLARM's work
are one of the key resources systems studied.

Database on Coral Reefs. ReefBase aims

ICLARM

shallow tropical habitats,

activities

order

in

to

A major coral

of

to alleviate poverty

resources based on

developing countries and coral reefs

ICLARM

reef project led by

ReefBase: A Global

is

provide data and information on coral reefs and associated

to facilitate better

and the status and dynamics

is in

of aquatic

understanding

of the relationship

between human

these environments. Over 110 institutions and individuals have

contributed information and expert advice to ReefBase, Websites: www.iclarm.org and wiwwreefbase.org

Scientists

l^w

in

the Earth Sciences and Image Analysis Laboratory at the Johnson Space Center

with astronaut crews and

facilitate public

studies.

access

manage

in

is

located at http://eol.jsc.nasa.gov

Strasbourg, France,

was formed

in

2000. The Aventis Foundation promotes

projects at the interface of culture, science, business and society. The Foundation

Aventisroundation

are international, interdisciplinary, and looking towards the future.

people

who

will

shape tomorrow and

activities in science, politics

and

PAOI (Professional Association

enable them

to

society.

Website:

to contribute to

One

of its

aims

to select projects that

prime aims

is to

identify the

sustainable development through their

www, aventis-foundation.org

of Diving Instructors) Project

and non-diving communities' environmental awareness,

humans and

closely

imagery, with an emphasis on using astronaut photographs for scientific

to the

The cataloged data and imagery

The Aventis Foundation, based

work

the Earth photography by astronauts on space missions. They also

to

AWARE

seeks

to

increase both the diving

encourage responsible interactions between

the aquatic environment and to emphasize the diver's role

in

preserving the aquatic realm.

Aquatic World Awareness, Responsibility and Education at www.projectaware.org

The non-profit fvlarme Aquarium Council

organizations, the

Marine

Aquarium
Council

and others

MAC

IS

to

aquarium

industry,

ensure quality and sustainability

an international network that brings together environment

in

(hobbyists), public

the collection, culture and

aquariums, government agencies

commerce

of

marine ornamentals.

doing this by developing an international system of certification and labeling that

will:

establish

standards for quality products and practices; document compliance with these standards and label the results;

and create consumer demand and confidence

Paul Holthus, Executive Director, 923
Fax:

(1

Nuuanu

for labeled

"products" from certified industry operators.

Ave, Honolulu, Hawaii 96817, USA. Tel:

(1

8081 550 8217;

808) 550 8317; E-mail: pauLholthusHaquanumcounciLorg; Website: wAvw.aquariumcouncil.org

The International Coral Reef

ICRI

is

aquarium keepers

Initiative

is

a voluntary partnership that allows representatives of over

80 countries with coral reefs to work with major donor countries and development banks, international

environmental and development agencies,

scientific associations, the private sector

and NGOs

to

decide on

LvrERjNATlUNAI-

CORALREtl

the best strategies to conserve the world's coral reef resources. ICRI

is

not a

permanent structure or

INITUTIVE

organization, but an informal network linked by a global Secretariat. Website: http://icriforum.org/

Dulverton Trust

The Dulverton Trust

was founded

is

UK grant-making

by Lord Dulverton

in

1949.

charitable trust, with an interest

in

the field of conservation.

It

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Acknowledgments
would

authors

The

support

like

thank

to

have lent

organizations that

the

many

for the Earth Sciences

and Image Analysis Laboratory

other

Johnson Space Center

to contribute to this book.

or

financial

various stages in the preparation of this

at

These include the United Nations Environment

work.

Programme Division of Early Warning and Assessment,

Dulverton Trust,
the

ICLARM, NASA,

the

the Aventis Foundation,

Marine Aquarium Coimcil and PADI.

We

would also

our gratitude to the Moore Foundation for

like to express

providing support for the production costs of this book.

excellent support as research assistants during the prepara-

The information behind these maps has

been compiled over seven years and many thanks are due
all

those

who have

Jonathan

Blyth,

to

Map Room

UNEP we

the

to

for

all

of the

staff

help over

their

are also very grateful

Dan

to

Claasen. Salif Diop, Agneta Nilsson and Arthur Dahl for

Colin Watkins has been an incredible support on this

not only with fund-raising but also

with his

and optimism; thank you Colin. Thanks

persistence, vision

also to Heather Cross,

In

Mary Cordiner and

Rogowski

Will

Mania

evenings and weekends.

the

at

Spalding and Stephen Grady have shown great patience and

tolerance of the crazy hours

- many thanks indeed

We

to

we

put in to prepare this book

both of them.

part

of the

text

photographs, but also provided his newly prepared coral

distribution data

species

lists.

and thoroughly reviewed our resulting

Thanks

to Clive

Wilkinson, Bernard Salvat

and Lauretta Burke for supplying data and general

encouragement.

Thanks

International Coral

Jerry

Kemp, Doug

Reef

the

to

many

others

Initiative for their

some valuable

in

the

kind support.

Giotto Castelli

Perrine,

Fairhurst also provided

and Colin

images

Thanks must also go

that

appear

in the

book.

Lonely Planet/Pisces Books

to

number of copies of

In addition, considerable thanks are

their

Diving and

owed

to the

who have checked

reviewers, listed below,

text.

the high-

copies of film products that were the

digital

starting point for the

of the

Johnson

at

making

These have greatly improved the

final quality

which remain

the texts. However, any errors

responsibility of the authors.
Part

In

Chapter

Stephen Grady, Lucy Conway and Sarah

I:

and

1)

David Woodruff (primarily

1-3),

Paul

Holthus

(aquarium

Marco Noordeloos spent countless hours

sorting

showing coral

reefs. In addition to this,

of Kamlesh P LuUa

it

without the

many

would not have been possible

and

trade

certification).
In Part

II:

Jeremy Woodley (Chapters 4 and

Reyes BoniUa (Mexico), Juan Manuel Diaz

Hector

Guzman (Honduras,

Hector

5),

(Colombia),

Nicaragua, Costa Rica and

Panama), Sheila Marques Pauls (Venezuela) and Clive

Petrovic (British Virgin Islands).
Part

David Obura (East Africa), Nyawira

III:

Muthiga (Kenya), Chris

Horrill,

Richmond and Jason Reubens

Quod

Martin Guard, Matthew

Jean Pascal

(Tanzania),

(Eastern Africa), Arjan Rajasuriya (South Asia),

Charles Anderson (Maldives), Charles Sheppard (Chagos

Archipelago), Alain de Grissac (northern

DeVantier (Middle Eastern

reefs),

southern Arabia),

Ormond

Rupert

Hansa Chansang (Thailand),

Red

Jeremy

HM

Sea),

Kemp

(northern

Lyndon

(Red Sea,

Red

Part

IV:

JEN Veron

Guinea), Duncan Vaughan

Islands), Darrin

(Australia),

(Fiji),

Drumm (Cook

Sea),

Ibrahim (Malaysia),

Laura David (Philippines), Vo Si Tuan (Vietnam),

In

an earlier

of

are solely the

CF

(Melanesia and Polynesia), Aaron Jenkins (Papua

at

many

over large parts

Robinson has worked long and hard on the

through thousands of images to select those clearly

efforts

quality

to

(Taiwan) and Andre Jon Uychiaoco (Southeast Asia).

images from Space Shuttle and Mir, while,

stage,

Imaging Laboratory

Digital

to the

checking the

in

additions to the

photographs.
Julie

The

Space Center gave special attention

In

who not
and supplied some

are extremely grateful to Charlie Veron,

reviewed

only

and those who helped

staff

Carpenter (Chapters

their constant support.

UNEP-WCMC.

support

Snorkelling Guides.

in

to all the

photography of Earth. Particular thanks are due

who provided

Hagen. Also

and

orbit,

members of the Earth Sciences and Image Analysis

Laboratory who have over the years supported astronaut

Mary Edwards, Simon

University Library

project,

astronauts for their continuing efforts

"placement students"

the

Cambridge, many thanks are owed

In

NASA

to

helped, including

Joanna Hugues and Chantal

the years.

due

photograph coral reef areas from

Rhind and

Annabel Lee, Ivor Wheeldon, Alastair Grenfell, Susannah

Hirsh,

to

annotations.

Both Sarah Carpenter and Rachel Donnelly provided

tion of this work.

are

at

Thanks

Dai

Robin South

New

John Gourley (Mariana

Islands) and Flinn Curren

(American Samoa).

Thanks are also due

appraisal of the text.

to

James Nybakken

for his overall

Contents

Contents
PART

Introduction

II

The Atlantic and Eastern Pacific

Essential information

92

12

Chapter 4

Northern Caribbean

US

Gulf of Mexico

95

97

PARTI

Florida and the

Understanding Coral Reefs

Bermuda

101

Bahamas

103

Turks and Caicos Islands

106

Chapter

13

The World

of

Coral Reefs

Defining coral reefs

15

Chapter 5

Patterns

of diversity

19

Western Caribbean

110

Quantifying diversity

27

Mexico

113

Organisms

29

Belize

117

of the coral reef

Honduras. Nicaragua, Guatemala

and

Chapter 2
Signs of Change
The importance
Threats

of reefs

to reefs

Responses

El

121

Salvador

Panama

125

Ab

Costa Rica and

47

Colombia and Ecuador

130

56

Cuba

135

66

Jamaica

139

Cayman

U1

Islands

Chapter 3

Reef Mapping

78

Chapter 6

Reef mapping techniques

81

Eastern Caribbean and Atlantic

Global reef mapping

89

Haiti,

U7

the Dominican Republic and

1^'

Navassa Island
Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands

The Lesser

Antilles,

Trinidad and Tobago

Venezuela and Aruba, Bonaire and Curacao

Brazil

and West Africa

153
1

58

168
1

73

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

PART

PART

III

The Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia

IV

178

The

Western Indian Ocean

180

Australia

302

Kenya and southern Somalia

183

West Australia

305

Tanzania

186

North Australia

309

191

Torres Strait and the Great Barrier Reef

310

194

The Coral Sea

319

197

High latitude reefs

320

Chapter 7

Ocean

300

Chapter 11

Mozambique and South

Africa

Madagascar
Mayotte,

Pacific

Comoros and

outlying islands

Seychelles

200

Mauritius and Reunion

205

Chapter 12

Melanesia

Central Indian Ocean

India.
Sri

325

Solomon Islands

330

215

New

334

219

Vanuatu

338

221

Fiji

342

212

Pakistan and Bangladesh

Lanka

Maldives
British Indian

Ocean Territory

323

Papua New Guinea

Chapter 8

Caledonia

226

Chapter 13
Chapter 9

Micronesia

Middle Eastern Seas

233

Northern Red Sea: Egypt,

Israel,

Jordan

235

Saudi Arabia

2/10

Central Red Sea: Sudan

2-13

Southern Red Sea: Eritrea and Yemen

lUk

Southern Arabian Region: Yemen,

northern Somalia and

Djibouti,

Oman

Northern Mariana

Guam

Micronesia

Marshall Islands

and Nauru

354
360
363

Chapter 14
251

Polynesia

369

Tuvalu and Wallls and Futuna

371

Tokelau,

Samoa and American Samoa

373

259

Tonga and Niue

377
381

Myanmar and Cambodia

261

Cook Islands

Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei Darussalam

266

French Polynesia, the Pitcairn Islands

Indonesia

272

Philippines

281

Thailand,

351

247

Chapter 10

Southeast Asia

Islands and

of thi5

Palau and the Federa ted States of

Kiribati

Arabian Gulf: United Arab Emirates,

Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, Iran

348

Commonwealth

and Cllppertor

385

Hawaii and the

392

Spratly Islands, Tung-Sha IDongsha

Qundaol Reefs and the Paracel Islands

287

Vietnam and China

289

Technical notes

401

Taiwan and Japan

293

Index

404

Introduction

Introduction

Coral reefs are one of the world's most spectacular

may

broad swathe around the globe. They are clearly

half and 2 million, perhaps more.

even from space, as patterns of dazzling colors

tracing the edges of coastlines and scattering

Up

into the oceans.

magic of coral

close, the

far

out

reefs

is

magnified. These ecosystems are packed with the highest

densities of animals to be found

Thronging with

anywhere on the

planet.

they rival even the tropical rainforests

life,

From

human

perspective coral reefs are not only a

source of wonder and fascination. They also represent a

resource for millions of people.

critical

For millennia

coastal peoples have relied on coral reefs as a source of

The wide

some ways

In

surprising.

Many

strips

of coral reefs lining their shores

of knowledge

lack

num-

be anything between

is

not

reefs are remote and, as they are far

from

this

regular shipping traffic, efforts to

map

these areas have

good charts other navigators

not been prioritized. Without

remain cautious about sailing

such areas. From an

in

ecological perspective our knowledge has been further

hampered by the

terms of diversity.

food.

coral reefs, but the total

ber inhabiting the world's reefs

visible,

in

named and described from

ecosystems. They straddle the tropics and cut a

humans

fact that

are terrestrial, air-

breathing creatures. Early scientists could only peer

down

with fascination through the intervening waters which

separated them from the reefs, or haul up dead or dying

samples for inspection. Only

diving

become

a popular

in

1950s did scuba-

the

and relatively safe

activity,

and

have also provided protection from the worst onslaughts

our scientific knowledge of the ecology of reefs has

of tropical storms. Over the centuries, these same reefs

almost entirely been amassed over the

last

50 years.

have actually provided the sand for the beaches and even

which make up the islands on which so many

the rocks

people

live. In

more recent times

coral reefs have

the treasured destination for millions

peace and

rest

some of

into

reef These same travelers are

for

most impoverished nations. Into the

This atlas presents a unique

It

provides a

of Coral Reefs
compendium of information.

summary of what we know about

graphic distribution and status of coral reefs

the

millennium. Unfortunately, even as

third

begun

to gather this

the geo-

at the start

information, the reefs themselves

have been changing. The atlas also provides information

most notably with

on the changes which have already occurred, and on the

development of new pharmaceuticals.

human impacts on
This

atlas

is

the coral reefs in every country.

primarily

an

information resource.

Putting such information together at the global level

How

we know

little

possible, even today, to pick

It is

more than

up the best navigational

charts for certain areas and find quite shocking gaps in

new

entirely

The

first

perspective.
three chapters provide a global review of the

coral reefs,

information about the location and dimensions of coral

perspective, then a

the

was gathered by Captain James Cook and others

8th century.

On some

of these "modern" charts there

remain dotted lines showing "possible" locations of

or

notes

describing

in

reefs

"position

as

reefs,

unconfirmed".

While sea monsters no longer populate our maps, many of

the gaps

where they once

sat still

This lack of knowledge

knowing where the

largely

restricted

As many

to

as

are

may have been

mapping

coral reefs.

The

then focussed towards a region-

is

The most important resource

themselves. The

work

100 000 species

perspective, and finally looking

by-region review of coral reefs.

Centre

wild extrapolations and educated

taking an ecological and geological

human

main bulk of the book

remain.

found on reefs remain

firstly

specifically at the task of

not simply confined to

reefs are. Efforts to quantify the total

numbers of species which

guesses.

is

more

is

summary, however, and provides us with an

our knowledge. For some parts of the world, the best

reefs

of

we have

have the capability to provide new resources

for the world's burgeoning populations,

the

sought

new source of income and employment

the world's

future, reefs

The World Atlas

become

on tropical shores, or adventure, diving

the world of the coral

providing a

who have

global

first

in

UNEP

in

any

atlas is the

maps

World Conservation Monitoring

commenced

its

global coral reef

mapping

1994 and has now developed the most detailed

maps of coral

reefs in existence.

These maps show

the distribution of the vast majority of the world's shallow

coral reefs. Equally important with the

maps

in this atlas

has been to place the location of coral reefs in a wider

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

The maps

context.

also significant

human

factors, including settlements, dive

centers and marine protected areas.

The

texts

provided on the maps, including information which cannot

shown on

and

tries
is

maps themselves. For

the

where there are

territories

all

coun-

reefs, basic information

provided describing the distribution of the reefs and

some

ecological features.

coral

reefs are

fiarther

Human

uses and impacts on

considered,

comparable information describing the countries,

and the human impacts on

their reefs,

of coral reefs around the world. Those traveling

regularly to coral reef areas, for leisure or for work, can use
the World Alias

before they

of Coral Reefs

visit, to

to learn about

new

areas

get a basic grounding in the ecology of

coral reefs, and to consider the issues and challenges facing

from particular locations,

reefs in particular areas. Experts

illustrate

the

has provided the very

critical

currently being threatened by

human

Indonesia,

Philippines,

countries

all

heritage

which

activities.

The most

diverse region of the world for coral reefs

the

is

centered on

is

New

Malaysia and Papua

Guinea, with between 500 and 600 species of coral

in

each

of these countries. Unfortunately these are also some of

most threatened coral

the

Reef tourism

reefs in the world.

now

is

major global industry. Visitors

Great Barrier Reef increased from

to the

1985 to over 10 million

in 1995.

numbers of scuba divers

million in

I.I

Scuba diving

most popular adventure sport

the

these.

Users of this book can learn about the location and

status

JEN Veron

information on coral biodiversity around the world.

and clearly

list

the protected areas with coral reefs, but also provide

directly

latest

including efforts to

control such impacts or protect coral reefs. Data tables

all

Corals of the World,

National statistics have been calculated for

and tables provide information which

enables a more detailed interpretation of the information

directly be

Using information from the new taxonomic work

book thus show major natural

in this

features (forests, rivers, topography and bathymetry), but

world and

in the

visit coral reefs

new database has been gathered which

probably

is

vast

every year.

gives the location

of dive centers around the world. This contains infor-

mation on over 2 000 dive centers, marked on the maps

throughout
tourism

and

is

this

now

work. They show, quite clearly, that diving

ubiquitous, and

is

located

in

91 countries

states.

or in particular subjects, can learn about other areas, and

Marine protected areas are becoming a

gain useful information about different parts of the world.

considerable amount of information held within the

pages of

this atlas

has never been published before.

widely used, not only for conservation, but also

fish catches,

The work includes

mated

a new, revised global estimate of the

of coral reefs worldwide. In Chapter

total area

it is

shallow coral reefs worldwide occupy

that

284 300 square kilometers, an area about half the

Madagascar. This

less than

is

1.2

critical tool for

They

the protection of coral reefs worldwide.

esti-

some

size of

percent of the world's

are being
to

enhance

by protecting small stocks of fish which are

now some 660

able to resupply adjacent areas. There are

marine protected areas worldwide which incorporate coral

reefs.

These include two of the world's

areas, Australia's Great Barrier

largest protected

Reef and the northwestern

Hawaiian Islands, covering entire large ecosystems.

continental shelf area, and only 0.09 percent of the total

area of the world's oceans. Coral reefs are a scarce, but

Unfortunately,

many

protected areas exist on paper

only - they are poorly managed and have

important resource.

critically

port or enforcement. Equally worrying

An

assessment of the area of coral reefs

countries

provides

in individual

an important perspective on the

ownership and responsibilities associated with

heritage. Indonesia

is

this critical

the largest coral reef country in the

world, followed by Australia and the Philippines. Also

high up the
area:

Papua

Islands,

are

list

New

Solomon

The same

many

Guinea,
Islands,

small nations in terms of land

Fiji,

the Maldives, the Marshall

Bahamas and Cuba.

statistics also point

to

or no sup-

that in

almost

every single case, protected areas are aimed solely

controlling the direct impacts of

Fishing and tourist activities

and sedimentation

humans on

may be

more remote sources of threats

at

coral reefs.

controlled, but the

to reefs, notably pollution

from the adjacent

land,

continue

unabated. Without a more concerted effort to control

all

of

impacts of humans on coral reefs even the best

the

managed marine

the important role

little

is

protected areas

There are other

stories,

may be managed

however,

in vain.

which provide

which a number of the world's very wealthy nations could

valuable examples of success. Fisheries reserves in a few

play

areas are

now

nomies of

local villages, while tourist

in

protecting

France, the

UK,

the

the

world's

USA

coral

and even

reefs.

New

Australia,

Zealand hold

jurisdiction or significant influence over coral reefs in

their

own

territories

waters and in the waters of their overseas

and associated

states.

one quarter of the world's coral

for the
It is

revitalizing the food supplies

income

and ecois

paying

wise management of a number of important areas.

vital that the

messages from these

Together these cover over

swiftly as possible to

reefs.

depend on coral

reefs.

all

sites are carried as

countries and communities

who

Introduction

Aside from such clear

statistics, the

pages of

this atlas

reveal a startling, recurring tale of degradation and loss.

urban development and intensive

deforestation,

reefs,

now producing

agriculture are

vast quantities of sediments

and pollutants which are pouring

Corals

extremely

are

sensitive

increases

to

known

temperature, exhibiting a stress response

in

considerably in recent years, and in 1998 a global mass

bleaching event occurred, with devastating mass mortalities

of corals

in

many

Recovery

areas.

now underway,

is

but there are very real concerns about the recurrence of

We

reefs

the

disease

damage from

Caribbean apparently natural

and hurricanes has been exacerbated by the

human

impacts of

and

activities,

cover and diversity

reefs have

lost

almost every country, even

in

in

is

who

and income. In many

we

are unable to

the existence of reefs before they are degraded.

much

has already gone.

further specter overshadowing the world of coral

of global climate change.

that

accepted that the global climate

human

erated rate as a result of

threats already mentioned,

it

an accelit

rising sea surface temperatures.

the

universally

at

to

many

among

now

most vulnerable ecosystems

would appear,

are

It is

changing

is

Coral reefs,

coral

apparently remote and protected locations.

shores.

millions of coastal peoples

for sustenance

have no idea how

many

activities affect not only the

areas these changes are so rapid that

document

such events with global climate change.

In

many

reefs, but also the

depend upon them

and rapidly

into the sea

proximity to

in close

The impacts of these

as coral

Records of such bleaching have increased

bleaching.

degrading coral reefs

activities.

Coming on

top of the other

seems highly probable

that the

predicted rises in sea surface temperatures over the next

In Southeast Asia burgeoning populations

coral reefs, and

and rising

placmg untenable pressures on the

living standards are

many

century

may

well cause the total demise of at least

some of

these critical, valuable and beautiful ecosystems.

are succumbing, no longer able to

provide the fish and other resources which have supported

Faint glimmers of hope

As our knowledge and our concern about coral

coastal populations for generations.

Even

the

In the past,

more remote
remote

testing nuclear

reefs

worldwide are not secure.

atolls in the Pacific

weapons and

today a number are

for

have been used for

dumping waste, and even

used for military target practice.

still

More widespread has been the impact of

many places traditional management and

fisheries.
restraint

In

has

enabled sustainable use of fish resources, but such

traditional

systems are breaking

down

in

some

areas,

so

increasing,

Overfishing

are

efforts

By

problem.

most dam-

setting aside small areas as "no-take" zones,

communities are finding

local

benefits. Fish stocks build

fi-om the

complete disappearance, even

is

of successful management efforts which can remedy the

some

remote locations.

its

reefs

problems.

the

now cropping up around the globe

Thankfully, examples are

into the surrounding area

target species towards

redress

on the fishing communities themselves.

is

while better transport and high prices are driving stocks of

in quite

to

worldwide problem, and

is

aging impact

the

wider area

is

up

that

in these

there

are

zones and

enormous
spill

over

such that the overall yield of fish

increased. Everyone benefits.

Tourism has caused considerable damage, through the

unplanned coastal development and pollution which are so
often linked to

The problems facing the world's reefs

Natural changes are a part of any ecosystem, and
at

still

the

early

dynamics of coral
the

are

However, the 20th century saw

reefs.

near exponential

we

of understanding the natural

stages

growth of human populations,

combined with even more rapid increases

it.

The sewage systems of many

directly into the waters

damage

to reefs

however,

major

is

hotels

empty

where the guests swim, and the

can be considerable. Increasing awareness,

leading to better controls on development and

efforts

to

improve sewage treatment. As such

measures develop, tourism can become

a force for good,

consumer

giving an added value to reefs in the eyes of the local

demands being placed on

the planet's limited resources,

communities, and often providing a direct income, through

and such trends are

to

century.

Humans

set

in

continue through the 21st

are thus bringing

new

pressures to bear

park fees, for the management of marine protected areas.

Most

importantly,

on the worlds coral reefs and driving more profound

the interactions

changes, more rapidly, than any natural impact has ever

terrestrial activities

done. Overfishing has

become

are few, if any, reefs in the world

This,

is

shifting the patterns

reef ecosystems.

of damaging activities

their

and between

reefs,

downstream impacts

coastal zone, are allowing for the development

which are not threatened.

planning.

We

solutions.

The challenge

as blast

and balances of

From onshore
is

and

so widespread that there

combined with such destructive practices

fishing,

many

our increasing understanding of

between humans and

much

life

in

greater suite

taking place. Often remote from

are aware of the problems,

is

to apply them.

in the

of integrated

and have the

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Essential information
Key

to all

maps

in

Chapters A

to

U,

labeled a-j

Coral reef

National marine protected area

Mangrove

National marine protected area (boundary unknown!

Dive center

International protected area

Population center

International protected area [boundary

International boundary

River

Bathymetry

Water body

0-200 meters

Land

200-2 000 meters

Forest

>

000 meters

Space Shuttle photographs

^^^m^^^^^HQ
I

^ ^

km

Approximate scale

NASA

ISTS062-84-70. 19941

Throughout

Approximate North arrow

this publication the

relevant information

is

archive

number

use of na indicates that no

available.

For technical notes regarding the

text,

maps and

data tables, see page A01

unknown!

Unde rstanding Coral Reefs

Parti
Understanding Coral Reefs

13

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Chapter

The World

reefs are

Coral
complex

of all

among

of

Coral Reefs

the most diverse and

ecosystems;

tfiey

are

among

changes that are now occurring on coral

responding

the most heavily utilized and economically

In

among

of their distribution,

most beautiful and fascinating.

It

Is

reefs are,

Important

how

to

lies

behind such acco-

appreciate exactly what coral

they are formed and where they are

found. Building on such a foundation

it

is

able to develop a basic understanding of

organisms that make up the complexity

also valu-

some

of the

and

for

This chapter offers a simple definition and description of coral reefs.

the

reefs,

such changes.

valuable to humankind; and they are also

order to understand what

lades

to

them

up.

It

goes on

and

of the

to

orovlde an overview

organisms that make

considers the elements determining these

It

distribution patterns, from factors of geological history

to

present day limiting processes and the very impor-

tant role of
briefly into

ocean currents. The chapter also looks

some

of the

patterns

of biodiversity

which

on coral

are observed at finer resolutions, patterns which are

reefs, and what role they play In maintaining these

ecosystems. Such knowledge provides the basis for
a wider understanding of the Interactions of humans

observed between neighboring reefs, and zonation

and

make up

reefs.

Above,

left:

It

Is

of

life

also critical for understanding the

Midway

Islands ISTS055-82-63.

Barrier Reef Below,

left:

19931.

Shallow waters of an

patterns across individual reefs. Finally, the chapter

provides an overview of the main organisms which
the patterns of

Above, right: The edge of the

atoll lagoon.

reef, with

life

on coral reefs.

spur and groove formations. Great

Below, right: The intricate branches of an Acropora coral.

The World

of

Coral Reefs

Defining coral reefs

who have seen

those

all

For

relatively simple to describe.

one, a coral reef

From

reefs are usually clearly visible,

air,

complex patterning of bright

turquoises and

colors.

marked by

These arrays of blues,

greens delimit a diverse and complex

physical structure

coming close

white of breaking surf and

dry land during the lowest

is still

more

ocean surface. The

to the

shallowest points are frequently

complexity

is

land or from the

shown by

the brilliant

may even briefly become

tides. From underwater the

clearly

shown -

reefs are typified

by the presence of large stony corals growing

profusion

in

corals are eroded by countless organisms.

a reef patterns or

or chemically dissolve the coral rock,

destroying

structure.

its

apparently destructive activities often

the reef while certain algae

fill

together with

more calcium carbonate

to

In this

the

way

a coral reef

is built.

growth of individual corals

Only

a tiny fraction

converted into upwards

a reef structure,

and so their formation

The most rapid

of reef "growth" have shown upwards accu-

mulation of reef structures reaching 9-15 meters

years in

of

is

periods

scientific definition

form a yet more

solid structure.

and water movements.

such descriptions incorporate

the interstices of

bind or overgrow such loose materials, cementing them

takes place over geological time scales.

more thorough

weakening and

and other corals may then

development of

simplistic,

some

areas, but

much

in

000

lower figures are probably

of a coral reef Coral reefs are shallow marine habitats,

defined both by a physical structure and by the organisms

found on them.
Corals themselves are very simple organisms. They are

found

in all the

worlds oceans,

described in more detail later

at all

depths. Although

in this chapter, typically

have a very small cylindrical body, topped with

which are used

tentacles

rounding waters.

large

to capture

number of

Among

these are

many

of

food from the sur-

corals have developed

the ability to live in colonies and to build

skeleton.

they

a ring

up a communal

species which lay

down

stony skeleton of calcium carbonate. These corals are

known

hermatypic or reef-building corals. They are

as

almost entirely confined to areas of warm, shallow water,

and

it

their skeletons,

is

which are

Even

critical to the

as large

essentially built of limestone,

formation of coral reefs.

in ideal conditions, these

slow growing.

Some massive

dome-shaped

corals,

structures,

which typically grow

build up a skeleton

at rates

of just a few millimeters per year. The faster

growing

tips

of branching corals

may extend

at rates

of

^:^

150 millimeters per year or more.

Over centuries or millennia

r-i

hermatypic corals are

may

"i

the active growth of these

corals (alongside other organisms such as coralline algae,

which also

lay

the building
is

down calcium carbonate

skeletons) leads to

up of vast carbonate structures. The process

not simple, and numerous additional factors

play.

come

into

Storms frequent many areas of tropical coastlines

and the waves they produce can, quite

literally,

pound

reef to rubble in a few hours. Over longer time scales,

V.

^^s^^l

Above: Individual polyps of the great star coral Montastrea cavernosa, clearly showing the cylindrical body, with a ring of
tentacles. Below: The

Sand and rubble from these

organisms, depending on factors such as depth, shelter

Although

is

great diversity of bio-eroding organisms that burrow into

zones become apparent, each dominated by different

the key elements of a

fish bite

algae on their surface. Unseen but equally important

and by an often bewildering array of species growing or

moving among them. Moving across

Some

chunks out of them, digesting the coral tissues and

large

growth of numerous corals builds up the massive physical structure of an Indian Ocean

reef.

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

more normal.

Types

In fact the majority of reef structures that

exist today are not the result

of continuous growth, but of

Corals can only grow

of reef

warm, well

in

lit

waters and require

pulses of growth interspersed with quiescent periods, or

a solid surface

even periods of erosion, when the reefs might be defined

initial

as fossil or non-living reefs. Sea levels in the oceans have

substrates

varied dramatically, particularly during the recent

skeletons provide a solid substrate for the appearance and

ages,

and many

reefs have intermittently

become dry

ice

land,

on which

to settle.

These factors

appearance of hermatypic corals

settlement

in

the

As

tropics.

corals

restrict the

shallow rocky

to

proliferate,

their

of more corals and other organisms. The

or have been flooded by waters too deep to allow corals to

upward growth of a physical reef structure can also allow

grow. Between these extremes, however, some of these

corals to continue to

fossil structures

become recolonized by

corals and reef

development recommences.

Over shorter time

actively

No

reef

is

grow

in

shallow well

Fringing reefs are perhaps the simplest structures to

understand. These develop from the simple upward growth

in a

constant state of growth.

of a calcium carbonate platform from a shelving coastline.

all

is,

reefs

in

undergo

Over years or decades,

the extent

Because growth

most rapid and prolific

is

shallow platform which

is

usually around the level of the

lowest tides. Further offshore growth

Recently observed events, including coral disease, coral

typical

bleaching, outbreaks of the coral-feeding crown-of-thorns

of important grazers such as the

long-spined sea urchin (see page 61), have

all

some

considerable losses of live coral cover to

Recovery from such events points

produced

structure of a mature

beyond which there

dropping down

Barrier reefs are usually older structures rising up

from

deeper base

at

some

distance from the shore, with

from only one particular moment

their origins as fringing reefs

Takmg such

points into consideration, a coral reef can

more rigorously defined

which has been

built

up,

as a physical structure

and continues

to

grow over

decadal time scales, as a result of the accumulation of

lagoon separating them from the coast.

Some have

on shelving coastlines, but

develop when the coastline on which they are growing

subsides or

is

flooded by rising sea levels. Under these

conditions the fringing reef continues to

grow upwards,

but deeper waters

fill

corals and

and the coastline.

In other cases barrier reefs

in

which such structures

simply developed

in

to the recognition

of a number of types of

calcium carbonate
other organisms.

develop has led

steeply shelving reef front

is a

time will be limited.

slower, but the

to the sea floor.

but also shows that any understanding of a "reef" measured

in

is

fringing reef includes a

shallow platform out to a sharply defined edge, the reef

crest,

reefs.

to a natural resilience,

laid

down by hermatypic

The manner

while there are also

many

shallow

in

water the corals quickly grow to the surface and produce

of actively growing coral cover also varies considerably.

thus be

waters, even

many

fossil reef

losses in coral cover and often considerable erosion of

starfish, or the die-off

lit

on which they are growing subsides or sea

between an

the division

During major tropical storm events,

their physical structure.

the basement

levels rise.

scales,

growing coral reef and a

areas, unclear

if

in a

lagoon between

this structure

offshore locations, but

may have

still

remain

separated from the coast by a lagoon.

other communities which,

Atolls are unique reef formations, broadly circular,

while not as obviously covered by these definitions, are

and enclosing a wide lagoon. They are typically found

reef,

clearly related

and equally important.

in

oceanic locations, away from the continental shelf

Figure 1.1: The main types of coral reef structure

Barrier

Bank or
platform

reel

reef

The World

Darwin was the

They

around isolated

reefs

usually volcanic, islands. Such islands then subside, but

the reefs continue to grow, first forming a barrier around
the sinking

but

island,

Coral Reefs

correctly understand their origin.

first to

form as fringing

initially

of

then,

as

island

the

disappears

Figure

1 .2:

The development

an

of

atoll,

based on

Darwin's original theory

volcanic island

is

colonized by corals and

surrounded by a fringing

becomes

reef.

beneath the surface, forming a single ring of coral. The

depths of coral limestone which
structures

may

accrue on these

considerable - drilling in the Marshall

are

Islands has revealed reef deposits up to 1.4 kilometers in

depth, dating back over 50 million years.

Bank

or platform reefs are simple physical structures

with a variety of origins. They are essentially reefs with

no obvious

link to a coastline, but without the clear struc-

ture of a barrier reef or atoll. In

similar origins to either of the

some

latter,

cases they

may have simply

or encircle a lagoon, in other cases they

grown up over
slightly

may have

but do not hold back

natural rises in the coastal shelf Larger or

submerged reef structures of

sometimes referred

The island

and

itself subsides, the corals

a barrier reef

is

continue

to

grow

formed.

this type are also

to as shoals.

Other types of reef and coral communities

These reef types can be clearly
However, the

illustrated (Figure

reality often reveals

which do not conform quite so

many

1.1).

other structures

easily to strict definitions.

Near-atolls are described in a few areas where there

remnant of the original high island

tiny

atoll ring.

There are also

platform reefs which

like

a considerable

may

is

center of an

in the

number of

atoll-

not have the true geological

The island

but coral maintains upward

is lost,

growth and a ring-shaped

formed.

atoll is

origin of an atoll (around a subsiding volcanic island), but

where the surface structure

atoll.

is

almost exactly that of an

There are also a number of structures which

lie

offshore in the location of a true barrier reef, but which

may

not quite

conform

to the definition or geological

Bank

origin of a barrier reef

barriers

are

commonly

described in parts of the Caribbean where small banks

at

some distance offshore and sometimes do not

Table

1.1:

lie

rise all

Estimates of global reef area calculated from the reef maps

Area (km^)

Region
Atlantic and Caribbean

Caribbean

% of world total

Figures are

rounded

7.6

20 000

7.0

600

0.6

261 200

91.9

llAOO

6.1

/,200

1.5

32 000

11.3

total of

91 700

32.3

this

115 900

40.8

Indo-Pacific

Red Sea and Gulf

of

Aden

nearest

the

100 square

place. National level statistics are provided in the

regional accounts later

Atlantic

to

kilometers, and percentage figures to one decimal

600

21

book.

in this

In

order to avoid

maps prepared
such calculations are made by

the problems associated with using

at

multiple scales,

first

simplifying the global coverage dov^^n to a

kilometer grid, each grid cell being simply marked as

Arabian Gulf and Arabian Sea

Indian

Ocean

Southeast Asia
Pacific

reef or non-reef. Reef area

1

method exaggerates the

actually

shown on the maps,

the grounds that the

Eastern Pacific
Total

600

ZBi 300

0.6

then calculated as the

is

square kilometer cells with

maps

this

only

reef.

total area

can be

show

Although

from that
justified

on

reef flat to reef

crest areas, while the true reefs extend beyond these

areas Isee also Chapter

31.

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

the

way

to the sea surface.

The long offshore reef tracts of

Cuba and elsewhere

Florida,

many

rival

true barrier reefs

regarded as true barrier

in length, but are frequently not

from the mainland

reefs because they are only separated

on the area of coral reefs

overall perspective

and

in

in the world,

allowing for regional comparisons. There are an

estimated

284 300 square kilometers of coral reefs

worldwide'. This figure represents only 0.089 percent of

by a very shallow lagoon, or because they are not located

the world's oceans

on the edge of the continental

shelf.

continental shelf area. Thus, at the global scale, coral reefs

structures, often lying within the

wider formation of

Small physical
a

barrier or atoll lagoon, are often referred to as patch reefs.

Perhaps more importantly, there are significant areas

and

less than 1.2 percent

are a rare habitat. Further analysis clearly

of the world's

shows

that the

great majority of coral reefs are found in the region

as the Indo-Pacific,

which stretches from

the

known

Red Sea

to

around the world where there are coral communities

the Central Pacific. Less than 8 percent of the world's

which perform the same ecological function as coral

reefs are

reefs,

formations where there

may be

a thin veneer of live coral,

or they

may

visible.

For clarity such structures are frequently referred to

be physical reefs, but not yet mature or clearly

as coral communities,

submerged

reefs, or sub-surface reefs.

found

Zooming

but lack a clear physical structure. These include recent

in the

Caribbean and Atlantic.

in to these

maps, new patterns emerge

at

finer resolutions. Reefs are often limited in their develop-

ment

nearshore waters of large continental land

in the

masses, although barrier structures are widespread

places.

They

in

such

are poorly developed close to large river

mouths. In contrast, they are particularly well developed

around islands and along the coastlines of drier con-

Global distribution
Charles Darwin was probably the

map of

a global

described

in

His and other efforts are

coral reefs.

Chapter

3.

Coral reefs are restricted to a

broad swathe, roughly confined

most of
far

the globe

from evenly

(Map

tinental areas.

person to prepare

first

I.I).

to the tropics,

Within

this

range they are

distributed, with large areas

remote island regions and offshore areas

and circling

far

confmed

to

order

In

distribution

make up

it

to
is

understand

these

necessary to look

the coral reef ecosystem.

patterns

at the

The

of reef

organisms which

factors impinging

on their evolution, dispersion, and survival are the same

factors

which have created the patterns

distribution that

we

in

coral

reef

see today.

from major

land masses. Further investigation shows that coral reefs

are largely absent

from the Central Atlantic and the shores

of West Africa, they are highly restricted along the western

(Pacific) shores of the Americas, and are also restricted

along the coastline of South Asia

from Pakistan

to

The reef area figures used tfiroughout this work are based on a new
and replace the early estimate provided by Spalding and Grenfell
It is likely, as mapping work continues,
that such figures will continue to be refined and improved. This may lead to
further upwards adjustment of the global total, although in some areas
1,

Bangladesh.

calculation,

Using the maps shown

in

this

publication

it

is

possible to estimate the total area of coral reefs in the

world.

Although there are clear limitations

to

such

estimates, these figures are clearly valuable for getting an

Map

1.1:

The coral reefs

of the

119971 of 255 000 square kilometers.

there

Thus

is
It

also likely to be

seems

some

unlikely that a

reduction of figures as
final" figure

maps

are improved.

would exceed 300 000 square

kilometers.

world

30

20

W:-^ ,."..-?;;%

-^>^

r-l^i'

10

10

20

30

Distribution of scleractlnian corals

The World

Patterns
of

Observations

At the global

in the distribution

level,

Coral Reefs

of diversity

on coral reefs reveal

life

of striking patterns

of

Patterns at the global scale

number

of species.

few species are ubiquitous.

Corals are clearly the most important organisms

it

comes

understanding the

to

factors

that

when

drive

the

The majority of reef-building

Some may be widespread across one or even two ocean

basins, but many others are restricted to certain oceans or

distribution of coral reefs.

particular seas.

have been the subject of continuing studies by biologists

As a larger picture is built up through

many species, certain patterns emerge. Some

looking

at

regions are

highly distinctive with large numbers of endemic species,

found nowhere

else.

The

total diversity

of species

also

is

uneven, with centers of particularly high diversity, and

with clear gradients

mirroring environmental

in diversity

When

looking

resolutions,

finer

at

emerge. Certain species appear

to

new

patterns

predominate

in

near

continental reefs, while others are found on oceanic reefs.

and the position on the continental

still,

in

shelf, or

wind or currents, appears

that relative to the prevailing

hold sway

to

determining the species composition. At the

scale of tens or hundreds of meters, patterns of zonation

are observed across individual reefs, with species adapted
to different depths,

exposure, water circulation and so on.

of individual points or quadrats,

Finally, at the scale

the pattern of

disappear

in

which species are found where seems

random

noise.

factors driving the settlement

may be

far

Even

to

here, however, the

and survival of individuals

immediate sense and over the

life

and taxonomists for many years, and a considerable

amount
the

is

now known about

factors

their distribution

which influence

Some 794

it.

sclcractinian coral are considered to be reef builders, and

Map

1.2

shows

a plot

of their distribution, highlighting

the patterns of varying diversity.

number of

fairly rapidly

latitudes, with diversity

diminishing

along latitudinal clines.

There are two distinctive regions of coral distribution,

one centered around the Wider Caribbean (the Atlantic),

the other reaching

from East Africa and the Red Sea

to the

Central Pacific (the Indo-Pacific).

Diversity

is

far lower in the Atlantic than in the Indo-

Pacific.

Coral

diversity

is

at

its

highest

around

insular

Southeast Asia.
Coral diversity and reef development are very restricted
along the western shores of the Americas and West Africa.

Although only relating

Patterns of diversity

in

to

corals,

these

reef-building scleractinian corals

^^S:

* ""'^^^^^^^^^^^^^B
50

points can

Corals, like the reefs they build, are restricted to a

narrow band of low

-^-

<50

and about
species of

100

200

300

patterns

are

reflected in most other groups found in tropical coastal

history of the individual.

1.2:

They

from chaotic, but driven by highly complex

interactions, both in the

Map

as Scleractinia.

be observed:

gradients.

Closer

known

corals fall within the group

400

500

Number

of

species

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

waters, as

shown by

the statistics in Table 1.2.

These and

other patterns are derived from a complex interaction of

historical

and contemporary

some groups,

factors. For

parallel with coral diversity patterns

may

ecological associations between them.

number of

others,

it

may be

the

However, for a

same external

which have actually driven the change.

the

reflect direct

induced climate change,

events

may

be

at least a partial

limited reef development which

explanation for the highly

is

observed, for example,

along the western shores of the Americas.

factors

number of these

factors are briefly laid out below.

The

role of currents

While temperature influences can be broadly equated with

latitude,

The influence of temperature

To

has been suggested that

it

occasional high temperatures associated with El Niiio

a large extent, both scleractinian corals

In a

ocean currents can disrupt these simple patterns.

few areas of the world, major

warm

currents flow

all

and the reefs

year round from the tropics into higher latitudes. These

they build are restricted to a latitudinal band between

have allowed the development of reefs quite beyond their

30N and 30S. This general observation

normal

to

the decreasing temperatures

increasing latitude.

temperatures

Most reef

entirely related

which generally follow

corals cannot survive in

much below 16-18C

In conditions

is

for

even

few weeks.

of extreme cold, corals can die within

limits. Notable are the Leeuwin Current in

Western Australia; the East Australian Current; the

Kuroshio Current

in Japan;

and the Gulf Stream warming

the isolated oceanic reefs of

Bermuda.

In a similar way,

cold waters prevent reef growth. Cold water upwellings

matter of hours or days, while under slightly less extreme

along the coastlines of northeastern Somalia and southern

conditions, their growth rates are reduced. There

is

some

Arabia are perhaps the clearest example,

while the

evidence that overgrowth by algae rather than the direct

extremely limited development of reefs and coral com-

munities along the western coastlines of the Americas

influence of cold water

some high

may

restrict coral

development

and West Africa may also be influenced by cold water

latitude areas.

High temperatures

are also inimical to coral growth.

upwellings.

Extreme high temperatures drive the phenomenon known

as "coral bleaching", during

which the corals expel

symbiotic algae (see Chapter

Left,

2).

Aside from human-

above: A smalt coral cay on the reef

Barrier Reef in

Fiji.

their

flat of

an

atoll,

Right: Fringing reefs, near Suva,

Fiji.

Another role of currents

to areas
is

Salomon

is in

the transport of larvae

of reef The establishment of corals

in

dependent on the transport of coral larvae

Atoll.

Chagos Archipelago.

Left,

new

areas

in

ocean

below. The Beqa

The World

of

Coral Reefs

Table 1.2: Regional patte rns of species diversity in coral reefs and related ecosystems:
the clear pattern of max mum diversity in the Indo Pacific reg on is shovim in all species groups

ndo-West

Taxonomic group

Alcyonarian corals

690+

Sponges (general

2U

Western Atlantic

Eastern Pacific

Pacific

34

719

Scleractinian corals'

Eastern Atlantic

62
6

117

Gastropods;

Cypraeidae

178

24

Conus

316

30

57

22

2 000

564

378

427

249

50

77

30

91

28

41*

Bivalves

Crustaceans:

Stomatopods
Caridean shrimps

Echinoderms

200

208

148

Fish

iOOO

650

1400

450

175

15

Seagrasses'

3A

Mangroves'

59

13

11

Butterflytish

and angelfish^

All Atlantic

Source; Paulay 119971 except:

l.Veron 120001.
2.

Allen el al 119991

3.

WCMC

^.

Spalding et all 19971.

database

- figures include

species with

currents. Unfavorable currents

zation of areas by

new

may

warm temperate

distribu ions.

prevent the coloni-

species, notably in the remote reef

regions of Brazil and the Eastern Pacific.

and the importance of

this

The mechanisms,
further con-

transport, are

only

the

Indo-Pacific.

may have prevented subsequent

disruption

Even

re-expansion

time since the end of these glaciations for any

little

The

further species radiation.

result today is clearly

shown

Changing patterns over geological time scales

Separate faunas - Atlantic and Indo-Pacific. Many of

in the far lower species diversity in the Atlantic reefs.

the global patterns in reef and coral development can be

the

explained by looking

of

at

the tectonic and climatic history

reefs. Scleractinian corals

evolved during the Triassic

(205-250 million years ago) and quickly developed a

circum-global distribution, only restricted by areas of
suitably shallow substrate.
shifted, the global

more

restricted.

As

the continents broke up

and

connection of tropical oceans became

With the closure of the Tethys Sea, the

waters of the Indian Ocean and Western Pacific were

separated
Pacific,

from those of the Atlantic and

and the coral reef communities

in

far

Eastern

each began to

Low

diversity in

the Atlantic. The closure of the

Panama divided

two. This entire region

the

For

scleractinian corals the Atlantic only holds about one tenth

number of species

as the Indo-Pacific, while similar

patterns hold for almost

between one

third

Atlantic reefs as

High

all

other species groups, with

and one tenth of the diversity on

compared

to Indo-Pacific reefs.

diversity in the Indo-Pacific.

of extinctions was not so extreme

now known

the area

as

in the

The same period

"eastern fauna",

the Indo-Pacific.

Right across

the region there are large areas of shallow coastal shelf

spanning considerable latitudinal ranges. Over these areas

there were

more

locations or refuges offering opportu-

nities for survival

of species during periods of environ-

mental adversity. Species diversity remains high across

develop distinctive characteristics.

isthmus of

as

and diversification of the coral reef fauna, and there has

been

sidered on page 23.

with

genera

seven

environmental conditions improved, continued eustatic

"western"

was then subjected

fauna into
to

massive

much of this
diversity

region, although there

moving

is

a clearer decline in

east across the Central Pacific.

The Southeast Asian center of diversity. Quite

apart

extinctions during the Pliocene/Pleistocene glaciations,

from the generally high diversity recorded across the Indo-

removing many of the species which were once commonly

Pacific, there

found on

all

coral reefs.

The Atlantic

corals

now

share

a triangle

is

an area of outstanding diversity centered on

encompassing the Philippines and central and

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

and nutrients. Where conditions are

as salinity, sediments

inappropriate they do not occur

More importantly

in

recent times, where conditions change, the corals, and the

may

reefs themselves,

die.

Sediments and sedimentation

The

growth of a coral

initial

dependent on a

is

finding the right substrate on which to

grow on

muds

fine

Where

coastlines.

or

common

sediments are a

not form. This

is

shifting

and such

sediments,

feature along

animal

larval

Corals cannot

settle.

many of the

world's

corals cannot settle and grow, reefs

at

do

of the e.xplanation for the

least part

absence of reefs close to large river mouths and along other

stretches of sediment-laden coastlines.

sediments

is

that

of turbidity -

of suspended sediments
light further

Once

in

Another influence of

areas with large

amounts

water column, the loss of

in the

reduces or prevents coral growth.

established,

amounts of sediments

can cope with

corals

settling

upon them from

limited

the waters

above, actively removing sediments which smother their

tissues

formed

and block out the

it

is

once a reef

light. Similarly,

otherwise shifting sediments. The reef structure

numbers here

is

often able to maintain a presence in areas of

lifts itself

outstrip any region

above the sediments, and provides the hard substrate on

of the world, and species counts from individual bays or

which new corals can grow. Reefs can also reduce the

eastern Indonesia. Species

species counts

islands typically

outstrip

total

entire Caribbean.

Some of

this great diversity

be linked

to the

same period of

destruction elsewhere. This

glaciations

region

is

from the

may

which caused

many

certain periods, species

may

influence of currents and waves which, in

are

this time,

Where conditions of sediments and

species. Additionally, during

and the death of reefs. There

in

populations restricted to small

refugia.

exacerbated by changing sea levels,

Their isolation,

may have allowed

the

areas,

turbidity

change

considerably this can lead to the rapid demise of corals

only have survived in

relict

some

responsible for resuspending sediments that might

otherwise smother corals.

believed to have

maintained somewhat benign conditions during

allowing the survival of

in fact

is

removing sediments which

an energetic cost to a coral

settle

upon

while the loss

it.

of light associated with increasing turbidity greatly

reduces a coral's chances of survival.

independent evolution of populations and the formation

of new species. These would have repopulated the wider

region as conditions ameliorated. Further species

may have

Salinity

Corals are wholly marine organisms, unable

accumulated here from outside the region, driven by

freshwater

patterns of ocean currents

effects of freshwater

flowing westwards from the

islands of the Pacific Ocean.

number of other

is

sometimes quite hard

historical

and contemporary

notably the low diversity observed in the

to

grow

in

to distinguish the

from the influence of the sediments,

typically also carried by streams

factors are responsible for driving regional patterns in

biodiversity,

It

and

However, the

rivers.

absence of corals from wide areas associated with major

rivers is at least in part related to the

low

salinities in

these areas.

Eastern Pacific. Brazilian and West African faunas, and

the sustained high diversity
diversity in the Arabian

in

the

Gulf These

Red Sea and low

are considered

more

fully in the regional chapters.

Nutrients

The considerable biomass and wealth of diversity observed

on coral reefs around the world has led
misconception

among

to

non-specialists that reefs

dependent on considerable inputs of nutrients. In

Patterns at finer scales

Moving

in to

study reef distribution

at finer resolutions,

are highly efficient at nutrient recycling,

oceans.

along particular coastlines

coastlines or areas of upwelling. reefs

highly apparent. Corals, and

the reefs they form, are highly sensitive to factors such

may be
fact reefs

and are wide-

spread in some of the most nutrient-poor parts of the

the discontinuous nature of coral reefs within countries or

is

common

Where

nutrient levels are higher, often close to

still

survive, but in

very high nutrient situations other opportunistic species

Damsetfish and butterflyfish around a blue coral Heliopora coerulea.

The World

Movements between
One

when

critical issue

it

comes

the establishment of patterns

is

movement

the

Reefs

in

understanding

to

species distribution

of individuals betvi/een localities.

reefs

or

when

removes

overfishing

all

adult fish from

an area.

There

a great deal that

still

is

surrounded by non-reef areas and often separated

known about

from one another by tens or hundreds

organisms. The mass spawning event

and do not move

at

on the Great Barrier Reef was

of

in

organisms are

reef

sessile,

adult animals between reefs would be so hazardous

as

to

be almost impossible, and such journeys are

From the

rarely undertaken.

almost

all

largest to the smallest,

coral reef species have a larval

which survives

for

some time

in

life

history

the plankton.

It

is

the early 1980s - here

first

remains un-

phase

this critical dispersive

Even for the most mobile groups, movements

Many
all.

of kilometers.

Coral Reefs

reefs that are destroyed by pollution or blast fishing,

general are ecological islands, typically

in

of

discovered only

was observed

it

of reef

of reef corals

that the

great majority of corals released their eggs and

sperm during
particular full

few nights associated with

events flood the nearby waters, reducing the

of

predators to

moon. Such synchronous spawning

consume

all

ability

the eggs and larvae and

these tiny animals which move, or are swept, from

so increasing the chances of individual survival.

place to place within a reef, and from reef to reef

Such mass spawning events are being discovered

and other reef species produce

Typically, corals

vast

numbers

eggs

of

many

duce between 10 000 and

reef.

These may

observed

the waters above the

in

other areas too, and

reef fish,

a million eggs.

be fertilized internally or

in

coral reef fish pro-

months

may remain

for

weeks

- larval survival in the plankton

recorded

to

Whilst

over 120 days

in

some

swimming

Many

kilometers

to

congregate at

At the

same time

as these

mass spawning

has been

have shown that patterns of connections between

reefs are not a simple reflection of surface currents,

reef fish.

may be

larvae have quite considerable

but sea surface currents,

ability,

many

events are being discovered, recent genetic studies

carried distances ranging from meters to hundreds

of kilometers.

to travel

or even

the plankton, eggs and larvae

in

other groups. Certain

spawning grounds.

Either way, larvae are formed and enter the

plankton where they

in

such as the larger groupers, have been

more

but

may

species

contem-

also reflect other factors, both

porary and historic.

may

Some work

suggests that

not always travel vast distances or be

as "interconnected" as previously thought. Certain

now

being broken

down

geo-

than any other factor, determine the long-distance

"species" are

transport of most organisms. Studies on reef fish

graphically distinct sibling species groups which

shown

distribution have

that the species with the

shortest larval phases tend to be geographically

phases are

restricted while those with long larval

often geographically widespread.

The great majority

do not survive, or may be carried

to

into

are sufficiently different from one another

tic

terms

to

suggest that there

between them, and that they

in

gene-

may be no gene flow

may at the present

time be ecologically isolated.

areas where

same movement which allows genetic flow between widely

they are unable to settle, but

separated reefs.
of

new

It

species and

it

is

this

also enables the establishment

new

reef

communities

in

areas

where they may not currently occur, or the recovery

of

populations which have been lost for any reason.

A number of

reef

of their natural

communities surviving

at the

ranges, such as those on the

tudinal limits of reef development

in

Australia, or those periodically impacted by

El

Nino conditions

entirely

in

dependent on

the Eastern Pacific,

larval recruitment

distant, reefs. This also

for

management,

edge
lati-

Western
extreme

may

be

from other,

has important implications

particularly for the recovery of

An Acropora

corai releasing clouds of egg

bundles, Western Australia Iphoto: Bette

and sperm

Willis).

23

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

may out-compete

them. These typically include algae

and sponges which may compete for space and

overgrow

corals.

and

light

can also include algae living within the

It

plankton which can

literally

block out the light and increase

which the corals cannot survive.

the turbidity to levels

Patterns across the reef

Where conditions
to

and

coastlines

form and continue

allow, coral reefs

marking out a

thrive,

out

far

across

many

barrier along

colorftil

the

and Indian

Pacific

Oceans. As individual coral reefs are examined more

closely,

new and

distinctive patterns emerge,

formed by

which make up the reef community.

the species

Moving across

a reef

from the beach

open

to the

environmental conditions vary considerably. Close

m^c^^^S^^MB^

S^"-'!

may

shore there

sea.

to the

be freshwater runoff, loose sediments of

sand or mud, and regular exposure

to the air

and sunlight

with the shifting tides. Further out conditions are shallow

and

bright, but there

may

be

circulation of the water.

little

At the outer edge of the shallow

dramatically.

down, the

the reef top.

Lower

diminishes rapidly with depth. Light and

light

wave

depth, tides, water circulation,

nutrients, temperature variation

and

action, sediments,

salinity all

have a part

determining which species are found where on

to play in
reef,

waters change

reef, the

Waves may break on

and clear zones have been recognized.

number of

these are illustrated in Figure 1.3.

Beach and

communities

intertidal

Although considered beautiful by millions of

among

beaches and other intertidal areas are

communities

many

for

species. Daily exposure to drying

and hot bright sunshine

air

is

inimical to most marine

species, while regular or occasional soaking

is

tourists,

the harshest

by saltwater

equally difficult for most terrestrial species. Beaches

themselves are places of constantly shifting sediments,

offering no solid substrate on which to establish, and only
tiny interstices

The

coastline

are at their

between the sediment particles for refuge.

is

also the point at

sediments greatly influencing

sandy beaches
scopic

life

which

terrestrial inputs

most concentrated, with runoff, pollutants and

is

life in

some

areas. Life

not abundant. There are

forms within the sand, and

on

many micro-

range of species,

notably crabs, patrol the shores for food. In rocky areas a

greater diversity of

life

occurs, notably molluscs, algae and

bryozoans, and a complex pattern of communities

may be

found associated with tide pools and their position relative

to the tidal range.

ted

plants

which

Mangroves
thrive

in

are a group of highly adapintertidal

waters.

frequently associated with reefs they are

tricted in

particularly

of the reef, northern

of highest

exposure

Red
to

Sea. Below: Coral diversity

waves, but

still in

is

in

res-

where they can grow, and only build extensive

communities

Above: Mangroves are important intertidal communities

Ahhough

somewhat

many reef areas.

in areas

where there are fine

where there

is

some freshwater

Center: The reef crest,

ttie

silts

and muds,

input.

shallowest part

highest on the reef slope, typically reaching a peak below the areas

shallow areas where loss of

light is

not a limiting factor.

The World

Figure

Basic patterns of reef zonation on a barrier reef

1.3:

Lagoons

On

Coral Reefs

of

circular structure very similar to a tiny atoll, but

shoreline drops relatively rapidly

barrier reefs the

within the lagoon of a true

growing

atoll.

towards depths of a few meters, sometimes a few tens of

Back

meters, before rising again to the shallow waters of the

main reef structure. This area of deeper water

the lagoon.

of most

Although

such deep water,

reefs

known

as

paralleled by a similar area at the center

It is

atolls.

is

in

true fringing reefs

fact

and barrier reefs

is

do not have

the division between fringing

sometimes hazy, and there may

there

is

good water

rim of the

atoll,

reef,

may be

areas

Relatively shallow, enclosed

temperature

of considerable

extremes as the waters cool

heated during the day. They

at night or

may

nutrients and sediments build up.

become

rapidly

also be areas

where

At the same time, the

calm waters of the lagoon can provide

conditions for

as the

may be an

area of intricate gardens of

or by the shallow waters of the barrier

ditions within the lagoon.

bright,

known

coral rising and falling, interspersed with sandy patches.

reef The degree of enclosure greatly influences con-

lagoons

is

and may consist of a simple slope with a surface

cover of corals, or

is

by the high

circulation in the lagoon itself this area

undisturbed by wave action. This area

lagoons vary considerably. In some cases the lagoon

restricted

(see below). If

flat

can be ideal for coral growth, with bright conditions,

back

is

up quite sharply

rise

towards the shallow waters of the reef

be shallow lagoons even on fringing reefs. Conditions in

enclosed, and the flow of water

reef

At their seaward edge, most lagoons

many

ideal

Reef
In a

mature

reef,

and coralline algae

common

is

upward growth of corals

eventually inhibited by the water

Upward growth can no longer

may be some consolidation and

surface.

occur, although

there

infilling

reef rock.

Outward growth of
and gradually

continues,

produced, the reef

species.

flat

the active,

flat.

In

of the

the reef into deeper water

wide shallow platform

is

fringing reefs the reef flat

many

extends outwards directly from the shore, but atolls and

reef lagoons, but bare sandy sediments are perhaps even

barrier reefs are also topped with reef flats. Small sandy

Seagrass communities are a

more widespread. Corals

also thrive in

feature of

many lagoon

In a

few cases they are widespread across the lagoon

but

more commonly they build up

known

as

meters to

bommies

many

areas.
floor,

large structures, often

or patch reefs, which

may be

a few

tens of meters across. Active coral growth

can lead to the development of even more complex

structures, such as the faros

of the Maldives which have a

islands or cays
lation

may form on

the reef flat

from the accumu-

of sand and coral rubble during storms. Typically,

reef flats range between a few tens of centimeters and

or 2 meters in depth, but they

may

reach

of meters wide. Physical conditions

quite harsh.

through

many hundreds

in the reef flat are

Water temperature may fluctuate considerably

24 hour period, and some parts may be exposed

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

to the air at

low

tides.

Water circulation

also quite

is

limited and oxygen levels are often rapidly depleted.

The base of

this

often covered by a

zone

usually coral rock, but

is

reefs,
it

in

in

larger areas of deep water (such areas are

sometimes known as moats).

invertebrates

live

considerable

while foraging birds

number of

permanently on the reef

Large numbers of organisms feed on the reef

tide,

to

deeper depressions, and small coral communities

develop

small

is

mix of sand and rubble patches, over

which there may be algae or seagrass. Corals continue

grow

visit

flat at

during the lowest

exposure. The shallowest waters, particularly on exposed

the

be subject to considerable wave action and

still

in the

most exposed

areas their growth forms are typically low and compact.

Wave

action

often

leads

development of deep

the

to

channels and high ridges

known

as

spur and groove

formations.

Below

of wave action diversity

influence

the

Reefs are rarely dominated by

unparalleled.

species, and both the corals and

tides.

In such places

restricted.

branching corals predominate, and

flat.

high

may

growth of corals may be

is

single

most other species groups

form highly complex mixed communities. As depths

Reef crest

The edge of the reef flat facing

energy, with almost constant

There

increase,

the ocean

wave

action,

light

rapidly filtered out by the overlying

is

an area of high

water Certain species can only grow

and occasional

so are limited to depths of only 10 or 20 meters.

is

in bright waters,

and

smaller

cir-

number of

species have adapted to darker conditions and

culation of the water, and water temperatures are generally

may begin

to

more constant than those of

arc variable, as the water clarity determines the degree of

exposure

to the air.

a rapid

is

the reef

and constant

flat.

Conditions for

coral growth are not ideal, but a few species,

by branching forms, have adapted

to

dominated

them.

reefs coralline algae are even better adapted

On some
and may

predominate. Their combined growth builds up to make

this the shallowest

low

tides. In

zone of the

more exposed

be gouged into

reefs

this reef crest

reef, often

drying out

at

deep surge channels may

and serve

Reef front or reef slope

the

diversity

and abundance of

reef crest

is

zone with the greatest

life.

Typically this reef front

or reef slope falls quite steeply towards the seabed. In

this

Reefs on more turbid continental

penetration.

50 meters and active reef accumulation may stop

at

meters or

atolls

less.

In

clear waters

the

zone conditions change quite rapidly with depth and

of oceanic

20

extensive coral growth has been observed as deep as 100

meters, although this

There

is

clearly

is

probably unusual.

enormous

variation across the world

broad zones are widespread. Even

of coral

reefs, but these

among

the less developed reefs, the natural propensity

towards these patterns of zonation

the

growth

limits to coral

margins typically have no active coral growth below about

to dissipate the

wave energy.

Beyond

light

dommate. The depth

It is

also important to

often visible.

is

remember

that

most of the

visible today are in fact ancient structures

their present-day

reefs

and much of

shape has been developed over millennia,

under quite varied conditions.

vestigial structures

In

some

marking former sea

cases there are

levels. Terraces are

often observed on reef slopes, mdicating patterns of growth

towards an earlier low sea

may show many of

reefs

level,

while entire submerged

the structures described above,

but with reef flats and lagoons

now

at

considerable depths

below the present sea surface. Similarly, raised reefs are

quite

common, with

form modern

atolls or

islands,

platform reefs raised up to

and the subsequent development of

fringing reefs around their margins.

Patterns of diversity on a coral reef are the subject of
a great range of influences,
history, including the

from the patterns produced by

massive perturbations of recent ice

ages to the present day patterns of temperature, sediments

and nutrients.

On

particular reefs

new

patterns emerge, the

result

of a great complexity of local influences, including

light,

exposure and water circulation. The

of

this

chapter examines

diversity

which makes up

overview of

all

some of
life

on the

final

the great
reef. It

section

wealth of

provides an

of the major groups which are so

critical,

not only to the development and functioning of the reef,

but also to the great value of coral reefs as a natural

resource for humanity.

A Juvenile lemon shark Negaprion

brevirostris crosses a

dominated by wide expanses of bare sand.

Caribbean lagoon at

higli tide.

Lagoon areas are often

The World

of

Coral Reefs

Quantifying diversity

Coral
(the

reef diversity

is

directly

comparable

to that

individuals

from some 220 species.

of the most diverse terrestrial habitats, the low-

beginning

land tropical rainforests. At levels of higher taxa

diversity. Further parallels

more generalized "groups" of

species), reefs greatly

to

comprehend

the

scale

We

are

only just

and depth of

this

with tropical rainforests and

other high diversity ecosystems abound.

outstrip these other mega-diversity ecosystems. Densities

With

this

wealth of species a great diversity of

of species per unit-area are also staggering. Species are

interactions has evolved between species.

often regarded as the building blocks of biodiversity, and,

lives

although reefs occupy only a small area of the planet,

which so oflen drive evolution have pushed the coexistence

there are probably

more species per

reefs than in any other ecosystem.

unit-area of coral

There are an estimated

4 000 coral reef fish species worldwide, almost

of

all

marine fish species. Nearly

been recorded

up

to

at the

500

a quarter

fish species have

Great Barrier Reef

in Australia,

and

200 species have been recorded from single samples

on individual dives.
Fish
reefs,

represent

isolation, but

of species
tion

to extremes.

the

dominant vertebrates on coral

numbers pale

into insignificance

with total species composition of reefs.

when compared
5

square meter

reef microcosm sampled in the Caribbean yielded 534

No

organism

on reefs the ecological processes

Through pressures such

as preda-

and competition, many species have become highly

specialized to live in tight niches, with highly specific diets,

cryptic

habits,

or highly evolved defense mechanisms.

Others have become masters of stealth and capture or

camouflage and escape. Co-evolution has also led

complex two-way

perhaps comparable with the birds of a rainforest,

but their

in

interactions

to

between species, including

mutualistic partnerships where both organisms benefit.

The relationship between

corals and their algal partners

is

perhaps the most important example of such a partnership,

having led

to the proliferation

and success of the reef-

building corals.

species from 27 phyla, with a further 30 percent of species

Like forests, coral reefs also show a considerable

One sample of "boring cryptofauna"

structural diversity, .'\cross the reef zones described above,

not fully identified.

(animals which burrow holes and live within the coral

but particularly

rock) from a single dead coral colony yielded 8 265

coral reef represents a highly

A dense school

of blue-lined

snapper Lulianus kasmira, Seychelles.

in

the areas of

most active coral growth, a

complex three dimensional

27

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Wave

environment.

action creates deep grooves in the

reefs.

Using a number of broad assumptions, one recent

shallow reef front, while the corals themselves, with their

attempt has suggested that there

complexity of forms, create a highly convoluted surface.

described coral reef species. The global

Even

the vast

is

the limestone at the base of the living reef surface

complex mass of holes formed by

the older patterns

number of undescribed

closer to

million.

may be some 93 000

total,

including

species, could thus be

Others have estimated that there

of coral growth, together with processes of erosion. This

may

not only provides a large area for the settlement of other

problem hindering a more detailed assessment of coral

be over 3 million reef species. Perhaps the greatest

reef organisms, but also a complex background for the

reef biodiversity

drama of

and inventory, combined with the lack of sufficiently

on the

life

at all scales for the

concealment,

One

shelter,

providing passages and holes

reef,

movement of animals, and

ambush and escape.

comparison with rainforests

final

for their

is

the lack of basic taxonomic research

qualified taxonomists to undertake the work.

and describing species

is

complex

task,

Defining

and detailed

the

observation and description of external morphological

diversity of life in both ecosystems remains remarkably

characteristics of animals and plants have traditionally

poorly known.

been key

percent

central

by

that

has been estimated that less than 10

of the organisms

described
species

It

is

scientists.

identification

found on reefs have been

But not

all

experts agree on

and definition and there

is

no

record even of the species which have been

described.

It

is

thus impossible, at present, to estimate

accurately the total

numbers of species occurring on

coral

tools.

suggested that
"species"
sibling
If

may

species,

number of recent

many of
in fact

studies, however, have

these morphologically similar

be species complexes, groups of

each highly distinct

in

genetic terms.

such examples prove to be commonplace, the final

analysis of species diversity

in the total

may

lead to massive increases

species numbers.

"'^^B
"^(^^i

^^^H

'^^^H

n^'-^MMi
^i/fnf iW

fc^^-

Left:

Expansive beds of branching Acropora

encrusting red algae and corals

in

witfi

''.'

damsetfish above, at the Great Barrier Reef. Right:

the Philippines.

barrel sponge,

The World

Organisms

the

it is

iinportant to have an overview of

main species groups which occur

there.

This final

section of the present chapter provides a background to

some of

the

main groups of organisms on

focussing on the larger or more conspicuous

number of major groups

Coral Reefs

of the coral reef

order to better understand the ecology of the coral

Inreef environment

of

coral reefs,
life

forms.

are taken in turn, each being

briefly described, with their role in the reef

ecosystem

reefs.

In contrast, algae are present throughout the reef

and are

critical,

not only as the basis of the complex

trophic pathways, but also as a structural

component

in

the building of the reefs themselves. Despite this, algae

are not highly conspicuous on the reef, either

pared to

terrestrial

when com-

ecosystems, or even to the marine eco-

systems of temperate waters. Four main groups of algae

are recognized.

receiving particular attention. Although the major headings refer to broad taxonomic groupings (such as phyla),
a

strict

taxonomic hierarchy has not been followed.

Blue-green algae (Cyanophyta or cyanobacteria)

These are the simplest forms, being prokaryotic (with

Particular groups have rather been selected based on their

simple

importance in the reef environment. For more detailed

related to bacteria.

taxonomic information readers are referred

(with cells arranged in long chains) and are widespread

at

to the sources

the end of this chapter

cell structure

little

Algae and higher plants

life

on the coral

organisms capture

and

unicellular or filamentous

this light

reef,

and photosyn-

and convert

it

to the

organic molecules which are the building blocks of

Higher plants (the more complex

life

known.

Red

other ecosystems, sunlight provides the primary

energy source for

thetic

They can be

a central nucleus)

throughout the reef, although their role and importance

remain

As with

and lacking

life.

forms, which domi-

nate on land) have an insignificant role to play in most

algae (Rhodophyta)

These include a great variety of forms and species,

ranging from unicellular to filamentous to complex forms.

A number

of species secrete calcareous skeletons and are

referred to as coralline algae.

algae, such as Porolithon, are

The encrusting

among

the

plants on the reef, playing a critical role

A shallow scene with branching Acropora corals and various damselfish, Seychelles.

coralline

most important
in

binding

29

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

some

sediments, particularly in the shallowest waters. In

places, including

many

reefs in the western Indo-Pacific.

these are the dominant benthic organisms in the shallower

parts of coral reefs and

may

play a

more important

be found

proximity to reefs. In contrast to coral

in close

reefs, the habitats associated with these species

have low

species diversity.

role in

reef building than the corals themselves.

Seagrasses
Seagrasses are actually a polyphyletic group of marine

Brown algae (Phyaeophyta)

These are more familiar

in

angiosperms (flowering plants) which are broadly

temperate rocky shore areas,

where they often form the major plant communities. There

are

no unicellular species and many form quite complex

"plants".

Although not dominant on

and Sargassum

in the

reefs, a

number of

including Lobophora, Padina.

species are widespread,

Indo-Pacific and Dictyola in the

Caribbean.

from the tropics

tributed

peak
to

dis-

to the Arctic, although there is a

in their diversity in the tropics. All species

belong

monocotyledon families Potomogetonaceae and

the

Hydrocharitaceae. Only one genus. Thatassodendron,

grow on rocky

able to

substrates and

close association with corals, although

found

is

many

is

very

in

species are

frequently associated with the soft sediments of reef

flat

and lagoon areas.

Green algae (Chlorophyta)

This

is

a large

and diverse group, including unicellular

and complex forms. As with the red algae, some produce

secondary calcification.

Among

these,

Halimeda

spread and the calcified remains of

its

is

wide-

disc-shaped

segments are often a major component of reef sand.

Caulerpa

is

another

common

genus

in

both Caribbean and

formmg complex and mtricate plant

There are some 75 species, the majority of

Mangroves
Mangroves

adjacent

to,

the intertidal zone and

IS

no fully agreed
a

list

of what does and does not consti-

mangrove. The association between mangroves

and coral reefs

is

somewhat opportunistic: although

they are sometimes observed growing on coral

main groups, there are several other

mangroves usually require

soft

rock,

sediments and sheltered

algal groups, such as the diatoms (Bacillariophyta) which,

environments.

although not important components of the benthos, form

fringing and barrier reef systems provide such areas.

dominant part of the marine phytoplankton. Another

ability

many

In

areas

the

of mangrove communities

group, the dinoflagellates (Dinophyceae) are sometimes

may reduce

considered alongside the algae, but here are considered

reefs to flourish. There

separately, below.

or

Interpretations of this definition vary, and hence there

tute

In addition to these

in,

which have developed

special adaptations in order to survive in this environment.

structures.

in coral reef areas.

and are typically

defined as trees or shrubs which normally grow

Indo-Pacific reefs,

which are found

are a similarly varied group,

fish species

levels

of

to

calm waters behind

bind

silts

siltation in offshore areas

is

also a considerable

between the two

The

and muds
and enable

movement of

habitats, but again this

would

appear to be opportunistic rather than essential. Globally

Higher plants

Two groups of
association

form

Left:

the distribution of

higher plant are often discussed

with coral

although

reefs,

distinctive habitat types

in

reality

which may, or may

in

of

deeper reef

flat

and lagoon areas.

tropics

not.

Australia and

tfie

is

quite distinct.

restricted to the tropics

and near-

(with the exception of mangroves in southern

they

Encrusting red algae can be a major structural component of

component

mangroves and reefs

While both are largely

New

Zealand], mangroves flourish in

reef crest. Right: Seagrasses are a

common

many

The World

humans who

of

Coral Reefs

areas where reefs are absent, notably the coasts of West

highly toxic to

Africa and the Bay of Bengal. Unlike reefs, they are

ciguatera have, in

absent over most of the Central and Western Pacific and

coral reef disturbance, the dead and bare surfaces perhaps

are very sparsely distributed in the arid regions of the

providing a greater surface area for this species to inhabit.

northern

oceanic

Red Sea and

some

Outbreaks of

them.

eat

cases, been linked to extensive

and on many

the Arabian Gulf,

atolls.

Sponges
Sponges are among the most primitive multicellular

Dinoflagellates (Dinoflagellata)
This

common

is

organisms (with ancestral-like organisms detected from

group of microscopic organisms

Most

generally found in the plankton.

are heterotrophic,

pre-Cambrian deposits some 650-700 million years

and yet they have

old),

high diversity and are widespread

but a few photosynthesize. They are characterized by the

across the globe. Although they do not form true bodies

possession of two flagella, and are sometimes considered

with differentiated organs, most sponges grow into well

to

be algae (Dinophyceae), but more

commonly grouped

with the Protozoa. The dinoflagellates are particularly

important in the coral reef ecosystem, as

it

is this

group

which contains the zoo.xanthellae.

structured

with a network of internal

forms,

through which sea water

is

passed, aided by the

of flagella and microvillae. Water

through specialized

cells,

drawn

is

and wastewater

canals

movement

into the
is

sponge

then flushed

the

through exhalent pores, which are usually clearly marked

plankton, although they are regularly associated with a

on the surface of the sponge. The majority of sponges are

Zooxanthellae are capable of living freely

in

broad range of coral reef organisms, living as endo-

filter

symbionts within the tissues of these organisms. As

of water every day, filtering out nutrients. Other sponges,

photosynthetic

organisms,

they

are

able

supply

to

considerable amount of the nutrition required by their

hosts, but also benefit both
their hosts

The

from the waste products of

and from the shelter provided by

their tissues.

vast majority of reef-building corals are dependent

on these organisms.

It

was long considered

that the zoo-

xanthellae inhabiting corals were from only one or two

species, but this view

is

now

strongly challenged and

the full diversity of this group

is

in

need of further

investigation.

including

perspective,

at

from

least

Gambierdiscus loxicus, which

is

many which

live

in

the nutrient-poor waters

of the reef rely on associations with blue-green algae

(cyanobacteria)
autotrophic.

and are effectively

or zooxanthellae

number of sponges

are capable of chemi-

cally dissolving (etching) into corals in a process

is

major part of bioerosion on coral

reefs.

a great variety of physical structures,

show considerable

plasticity in their

tissues.

and indeed many

growth forms. Within

lay

down

Skeletons are formed from numerous

smaller elements called

calcite,

which

Sponges have

their cellular matrix, certain specialized cells

skeletal

Another important dinoflagellate,

human

feeders and are able to process considerable volumes

spicules

made from

silica

or

while in others they are formed from spicules or

made from

collagen. With these strength-

grows on benthic algae and dead coral rock. This species

longer fibres

produces a toxin known as ciguatera which

ening skeletons sponges produce large structures, which

down by
toxin

the organisms

Left: Bright

clumps

not broken

which unwittingly ingest

can build up through

concentrations, in

is

some

of the

the

food chain

it.

This

reaching

larger predatory fish, that are

may be

encrusting, lattice-, ball-, vase-, or barrel-shaped,

or longer rope-like or branching forms.

Unlike

many

other groups

it

would appear

green alga Chlorodesmis. Right: A conspicuous tubular grey sponge, Indonesia.

that the

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

sponge faunas of the Caribbean are

of the Indo-Pacific

while sponge biomass

Caribbean

reefs.

One

equal to those

at least

terms of diversity (per unit-area),

in

many

considerably greater on

is

further difference

is

that

Caribbean

sponges are more strongly heterotrophic, which could

reflect the higher

amounts of nutrients available on these

reefs. In the Indo-Pacific autotrophic

sponges are rather

more common.
Despite having high diversity,

much of which remains

undescribed, sponges are often not highly visible or dominant in the reef benthos. In the tropical island regions

of Oceania some
described. For

000 species have currently been

many

countries the

known

species

may

number no more than 30-40. However, an estimated 500

species have been recorded at
States of Micronesia,

Atoll (Federated

many sponges produce complex

genetic diversity,

this

Chuuk

the Pacific) alone. Alongside

in

chemical compounds, often as a form of defense against

predators.

The

investigation of these chemicals for phar-

maceutical products

is

proving increasingly interesting.

Cnidarians
group of relatively simple organisms.

This

is

They

are characterized by a basic

large

two primary

cell layers,

body

structure, with

an epidermis and an endodermis,

separated in most species by a simple, supportive, jellylike matrix, the

mesoglea.

rudimentary nervous system

has developed in this group, with a nerve net but no centralized nervous system. Carnivory

some species have developed

is

close

common, although
with

associations

endosymbiont algae (see above). One feature of this group

possession

is

of specially

adapted

cells

known

when

triggered, is inverted to

release a long, whip-like thread with a barbed or pointed

tip

and often releasing highly potent toxins. These may

be used
basic

to capture

body forms:

prey or for defense. There are two

the

medusa

pelagic, while the polyp

is

is

which

single opening

some complex

The

stylasterinids are also

form

typically

branching colonies

known
and

small

as lace
fragile

darker areas and overhangs. In both

in

is

some

specialization

of polyps, with numbers of specialized stinging polyps

surrounding a single feeding polyp.

The Scyphozoa, or jellyfish,

not

dominant on

jellyfish

Cassiopea

many

areas. Like

living

within

Cubozoa, are

One

reefs.
is

is

a large group,

though

genus, the upside-down

often found resting in reef

flat

corals these have algal endosymbionts

their

body

tissues.

like the jellyfish, but

Another

class,

the

with a clearly four-

sided body wall and tentacles concentrated at the corners.

Also known as box jellyfish or sea wasps, these include

mouth and anus.

number of members of this

some highly

toxic species,

Chironex fleckeri

mixed group, and include

colonial planktonic

members such

as the

including the box jellyfish

in the waters off Australia

and the sea

wasp Cary-bdea alata from Caribbean waters.

The most important

are a fairly

fairly

milleporids and stylasterinids there

group. There are four classes.

The Hydrozoa

and

and consists

acts as both

Colonial living has arisen in a

corals

disc shaped, solitary and

typically sessile,

of an upright body with a fringe of tentacles encircling

a

or encrusting.

as

cnidocytes, which incorporate a highly complex capsule

or "nematocyst" which,

and reef slope. Growth forms are typically branching

world

is

the

class

anthozoans.

on the coral reefs of the

and these are considered

separately below.

Portuguese man-o'-war Physalia spp. There are also a

number of

sessile

groups which are

common on

down
members of

of species which lay

include

the

Stylasterina.

spp.

The former

orders

in

all

very large group of cnidarians which lack

any medusoid form and have polyps with a central

gastrovascular cavity divided into partitions by septae.

coral areas

and can

form an important part of the substrate on the reef

A sea whip Junceella. Unlike stony

These

are the fire corals, Millepora

which are widespread

These are

Milleporina and

a calcareous skeleton.

the

Anthozoans

reefs

worldwide, including colonial hydroids, but also a number

corals,

crest

sea whips have

They

are divided into two

(or Alcyonaria)
partitions

flexible

and are

skeletons

main groups, the Octocorallia

which have eight tentacles and body

all

colonial,

made predominantly

and the Zoantharia (or

of protein.

The World

which

Hexacorallia)

have

body

and

tentacles

six

Coral Reefs

more wide-

(Telestacea) and sea pens (Pennatulacea), are

spread but not of major importance on most reefs.

partitions, or multiples thereof.

Octocorals are predominantly a tropical group of

photic (sunlit) waters, although

of

some species

Many of the

are found in

Zoantharians are a diverse group of solitary and

colonial

Many

species.

live

in

close

association with

contam

symbiotic zooxanthellae. The most important of the zoan-

symbiotic zooxanthellae within their tissues. Perhaps the

tharians are the Scleractinia, which include the majority of

cooler and deeper waters.

best

known

reef species

are the gorgonians (Gorgonacea),

which are

reef-building corals and are treated separately below.

widespread on coral reefs globally. These include the sea

remainder of

whips and sea fans

of the orders within the group.

that are often

dominant

in

deeper

reefs are the soft corals (Alcyonacea),

on many Indo-Pacific

which are

common

reefs, but less significant in the

Caribbean. These do not have a clear skeletal structure,

and body structure

pressure.

known and widespread genera

include

Dendronephthya and

lobed or branching

the

The organ-pipe

The blue

contributor to

dependence

corals (Stolonifera) lay

shallow areas. Both of these

Two

Three other smaller orders are also commonly found

latter

strong

groups are restricted

other groups,

the

reefs, but

telestaceans

soft

coral

substrates.

The Coralliomorpharia

The Zoanthidea

important group within the tropics, and

in

are the disc

or

anemones, with an internal body morphology quite

similar to that of corals.

shallow areas such as reef

floors.

They

actinarians,

The highly colorful soft corals of the genus Dendronephthya are

"mouth" of a giant sea anemone Heteractis.

remain poorly known. The Ceriantharia or

50 species worldwide, which construct a lube buried into

distinctive

down

000 species worldwide, although they are not

down

corals (Helioporacea) are a true

laying

especially diverse on coral reefs.

tube anemones are another non-colonial group of about

calcareous skeletons, and forming large branching colonies

Left:

on

are also regularly found

reef development,

Indo-Pacific.

over

on

calcareous tubes connected with cross-plates to

red skeleton.

the

number of reef species have developed

on symbiotic zooxanthellae, while many have also deve-

forms of Lobophyton,

form massive hemispherical domes, and have a

to

loped tight symbiotic relationships with anemonefish

A number of smaller groups

in

reach considerable sizes. Although primarily carnivores

(Pomacentridae). The Actinaria are a diverse group, with

Sarcophyton and Sinularia.

parallel

anemones, which

some of which can

maintained through hydrostatic

is

the high, branching colonies of

coral reefs.

are the familiar sea

are simple non-colonial zoantharians,

The

at the level

Most species secrete spicules of calcium

carbonate. Well

spreading,

group can best be described

The Actinaria

parts of reefs. Their colonies are strengthened by a central

scleroprotein skeleton. Another spectacular group on coral

this

are

solitary

or

flats

may

are

a fairly

be abundant

and shallow lagoon

colonial

anemone-like

which do not secrete a skeleton, but often

common

in

the Indo-Pacific. Right: The central

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

incorporate sediments into their mesoglea for support

or protection.

The Antipatharia
corals.

They

are

commonly Icnown

are

and secrete

colonial,

all

as the black

horny protein-

aceous skeleton. Although well known and economically

important, they are not a major component of most reef

common

communities and are not

in

depths of less than

20 meters, with the majority of species being found below

100 meters.

Scleractinia
The

Scleractinia, or stony corals, are a very large order

within the zoantharians,

of which secrete a calcium

all

carbonate skeleton. Although widespread throughout the

world they reach their greatest extent and abundance

in

shallow tropical waters where the majority of species are

colonial and lay

down

large skeletal structures, the basic

Some 794 species of hermatypic

now been described and the great center

building blocks of reefs.

Scleractinia have

of scleractinian diversity

lies in insular

Southeast Asia, the

center of the Indo-Pacific region.

The

^\'

good

Scleractinia have an ancient lineage,

fossil record

and leave a

which can be traced back

the mid-Triassic over

to at least

200 million years ago. There

is

no

clear evidence that they evolved from a single ancestor,

however, and
fact

many of

the features of this

group may

in

have arisen independently.

The skeleton of

sions

the individual coral polyp

is

called a

with a base-plate from which a number of divi-

corallite,

known

as septa rise up. radiating in towards the

center The outer edge of the polyp

is

often defined by a

wall forming a tube-like structure enclosing the septae.

J'

'*^

New polyps are

tissues

in

colonial species by budding from

upwards from the connecting

between existing polyps. Gradually new

material
r-"'<l

formed

existing polyps, or by growth

is

laid

down over

existing material.

The

skeletal

skeletal

structure of individual polyps forms the basis for species

identification,

and

in

many

cases full identification can

only be completed with dried skeletal material.

The

larger structures built

by colonies can become

highly complex, with massive corals producing

domes

or

towers, encrusting corals, and a vast range of branching

(ramose), columnar, foliacious (sheet or leaf-like) and

tabular (plate-like) structures.
utilize this coral

morphology

Many

as a

ecological studies

means of describing

reef The dominance of different growth forms

indicative

is

often

of environmental conditions such as wave

exposure and varies across the reef profile.

It

also pro-

vides a partial measure of structural complexity. While

morphology can appear highly

distinctive,

it

can also be

highly varied within a species, influenced by these

same

external environmental parameters, and hence

often

it

is

of limited value in species identification.

Above: The elkhorn coral Acropora palmata, once a dominant coral on many Caribbean reefs, has been decimated by
disease in most areas. Center: The laminar or foliaceous coral Echinopora lamellosa. Below: The complex surface of a
brain coral Platygyra.

The World

Most species

Coral Reefs

of

are involved in a tight symbiosis with

zooxanthellae and derive the majority of their nutrients

from these algae. They are

equipped with tentacles

all

and capable of feeding independently

typically

on plankton

minute

or

some

to

organic

degree,

particles.

However, the dependence on their algal partners

and many

considerable,

species

can

be

is

considered

virtually autotrophic.

Aside from asexual reproduction during colony

Some

growth, corals undergo sexual reproduction.

species

are hermaphroditic, while others have separate sexes.

The

majority of species release eggs and sperm during a

spawning event - such events can be

harmonized

tightly

within and between species leading to spectacular mass

spawning events.

few species the

In a

egg

fertilized

is

some days

released

or

weeks

spend some days or weeks living

settling

and

Both eggs and planulae

later

in the

plankton prior to

in

new

which have been sufficiently well studied

global

(see

Map

picture

is

burrow

a group of
into

unsegmented worms which typically

sand or bore into rocks and corals and are

detrital or algal feeders.

Flatworms (Platyhelminthes)

areas.

Scleractinian corals are one of the few groups on

reefs

This

flow between

this is critical to the genetic

and the establishment of corals

reefs

Peanut worms (Sipuncula)

kept

within the polyp and free-swimming larvae or planulae are

to provide

of their distribution and abundance

The phylum Platyhelminthes

is

a large group of small,

elongated animals with highly flattened bodies.

species are parasitic, however there

is

Many

one highly active

carnivorous group, the polyclad flatworms (Polycladida)

1.2).

which are
covered

Worm-like groups
There are several large, unrelated groups

kingdom which have

soft,

worm-like appearance.

relatively
cilia

in

widespread on

reefs.

Their bodies are

and some are capable of swimming.

number of coral reef species

are highly colorful and can be

animal

confused with nudibranchs (see Molluscs, page 37). Few

elongated bodies and a general

detailed inventories have been produced and identification

Many

in the

of these, while inconspicuous,

to species

is

usually very difficult.

are important residents of the reef

Bristle

worms

Crustaceans

(Polychaeta)

These are segmented worms with a pair of paddle-like

legs

on each segment. The head bears a number of sensory

organs, which

may be

highly adapted in different species.

They include almost every feeding

habit:

carnivores,

The Crustacea, one of

on the

reefs,

the largest groups of

are not the

defined by having two pairs of antennae, and typically have

a

chitinous

exoskeleton

and jointed biramous limbs.

herbivores, omnivores, detritus feeders and filter feeders.

Beyond

Many burrow

of species with highly different body forms

inside coral or rock, chemically dissolving

or physically grinding their

filter

way

in

and then remaining

organisms

most conspicuous. They are

this definition,

the group includes a vast array

The

to

feed or to gather and digest sheets of mucus secreted

by the

coral.

worms,

sessile

of tentacles

Perhaps the most familiar are the sabellid

burrowing forms

to filter the

that

extend a feathery net

passing water. Such conspicuous

species are just the tip of the iceberg, however, and in one

study over

400 individual polychaete worms representing

103 species were extracted from a single 4.7 kilo lump of

branching coral.

Ribbon worms (Nemertea)

These are typically highly elongated and flattened worms,
free-living carnivores often feeding on polychaetes.

They

have very soft bodies, and some produce complex protective chemicals to deter predators.

Above: A flatworm on a reef

in

Pulau Redang, Malaysia. Below: The spiny lobsters Panulirus spp. are of considerable

commercial importance on reefs around the world.

class

35

36

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Maxillopoda contains the abundant copepods which are

many

usually very small, and includes

which are found

includes

the

on reefs and

planktonic species

the coral reef environment.

in

also

It

which are commonly observed

barnacles

intertidal areas.

The

class Ostracoda

is

another

highly diverse group, often showing a bivalved appearance.

These again are very small, mostly

detritivores.

feeders

filter

or

The most important and widely recognized

group on coral reefs

particular, within this, the

Decapoda and

almost constant background snapping noises heard on

many reefs. Most are detrital feeders. Some of the best

known snapping shrimps are those which share their
burrows with certain species of goby: the former maintain
a

burrow

which they both

in

while the

live,

latter

provide

warning when predators approach.

Other caridean shrimps are the hump-backed or cleaner

in

shrimps (Hippolytidae) which include more colorful com-

the Stomatopoda.

mensal and cleaner species, and the harlequin shrimps

and

the class Malacostraca,

is

with their pincers and are largely responsible for the

(Gnathophyllidae), also very colorful, which include

Decapoda
These are the shrimps, lobsters and crabs, with some
10 000 species worldwide, including

found on the reef

brief

numerous species

of the major groups

list

is

Penaeidea - these are the commercially important

prawns, often associated with inshore lagoon and mangrove areas, but not well represented on the

known group

usually found in pairs and living

"cleaning stations" where they regularly remove para-

from

sites

fish or other crustaceans.

They have

a highly

enlarged third pair of thoracic legs, with pincers on the

Caridea -

includes the familiar crayfish, which are a

this

large,

colorful

and commercially important group of

a large

group of shrimps with

includes the less

Anomura

commonly observed
(hermit

crabs,

The group

also

slipper lobsters.

squat

lobsters

and

porcelain crabs) - the hermit crabs are widespread on

reef.

Stenopodidea (boxing or coral shrimps) - a small

in

Palinura (spiny lobsters) - although not a diverse

group

species found on reefs around the world.

provided below.

but well

some

species that prey on starfish such as crown-of-thorns.

tips.

number of

reefs and nearby intertidal areas.

their habit

They

are well

known

for

of utilizing discarded mollusc shells as a form

of protection. They have an extended and soft abdomen

which

fits

well into the coiled whorls of these shells, and

they regularly exchange shells as they grow.

Most

are

scavengers or detrital feeders. Porcelain crabs are less

diverse and less obvious on the reef, but are often found

sub-groups:

Palaemonidae - on
are well represented by

reefs,

the

palaemonid shrimps

commensal species which

facultative or obligate partnerships with corals,

live in

anemones,

molluscs and echinoderms. The genus Periclimenes

ticularly widespread.

Many

is

par-

species have striking colors

which they are capable of adapting

to suit their hosts.

Alpheidae (snapping shrimps) - also known as

living in association with

anemones. They resemble true

crabs, but only have three pairs of walking legs, and have

elongated antennae.

Brachyura (true crabs) - one of

the

most diverse

crustacean groups on coral reefs, with more than 2 000

described from

species

the

tropical

and sub-tropical

pistol

waters of the Indo-Pacific. The true crabs are recognizable

shrimps, these are perhaps the

commonest crustacean

by their strong and usually broad thoracic carapace and

family on reefs. They are able to

make

their greatly

Left:

A banded

a cracking

sound

reduced abdomen which remains tucked up

coral shrimp Stenopus hispidus. These play an important role as "cleaners" on the reef. Right: The

peacocl< mantis shrimp Odontodactylus scyllarus, a powerful predator

in

the Indo-Pacific.

The World

on the underside of

their thorax. All

have four pairs of

walking legs and often a well developed pair of pincers.

of

Coral Reefs

presence of eight transverse and overlapping shell plates.

They

are grazers,

low and

and are most commonly found

in shal-

intertidal areas.

Stomatopoda
Also known as mantis shrimps, these are an ancient group

which are thought

to

have diverged among the Crustacea

Snails (Gastropoda)

The

largest

and most diverse group, the Gastropoda usually

around 400 million years ago. Over 400 species have been

have

described, the majority of which are to be found in shallow

gastropoda) include the limpets, abalones, trochus, turbans

tropical seas. All are active predators, with highly

and

visual acuity

developed

and a specially adapted second pair of thoracic

In one major group, the smashing mantis shrimps

legs.

a single coiled shell.

of which are algal grazers. Another major

nerites, all

group

is

The simplest forms (Archaeo-

the Mesogastropoda,

reef species,

including the

Many

which encompasses many

cowries,

(Gonodactylidae), these legs are strengthened into club-like

conches.

appendages, while

developed specialized diets - the helmet

in the

other group, the spearing mantis

shrimps (Lysiosquillidae), they are adapted into barbed

Both groups are able to unfold these appendages

spears.

remarkable speeds to

are algal

periwinkles and

some have

grazers, although

tun shells feed on echinoderms.

shells, tritons

The Neogastropoda

and

are a

more advanced group. Many have an elongated siphonal

Smashing mantis

canal and highly developed proboscis which can be used for

shrimps are capable of breaking open the shells of molluscs

capturing prey. In this way, the mure.x shells are capable of

at

hit their prey.

and crabs, while spearing mantis shrimps are able

softer

to

impale

boring through the shells of other molluscs and injecting

them with venom, while

bodied shrimps and fishes.

the cone shells have developed a

highly specialized radula tooth attached to a poison sac.

They

Molluscs

are able to fire this, rather like a harpoon, and

rapidly kill even highly mobile prey such as fish.

Molluscs are another highly diverse group found on the

Opisthobranch gastropods are another well known

with one estimate of more than 10 000 described

sub-group, with some shelled forms such as the bubble

reefs,

species from coral reefs.

Members of this phylum

body which can be broadly divided

visceral

mass and

a strong

muscular

all

have

shells, but also a large

foot.

Most

number of

shell-less

forms inclu-

ding the algal-grazing sea hares and the highly diverse and

into a head, a central

also have

colorful nudibranchs.

The

latter are all

carnivorous and

Some

a mantle which to varying degrees folds around the body.

many have

maintain nematocysts from their prey and use them

rasping tongue, or radula,

is

common and most

species

secrete a calcareous shell. Four groups predominate,

all

and

are present on reefs.

relatively specialized diets.

have developed, again for their

Chitons (Polyplacophora)

recognizable by their low, oval shape dominated by the

with a shell completely

its

own

protection.

Bivalves (Bivalvia)

These are

A cowrie Cypraea, dearly showing

in

defense, while others utilize the toxic chemicals their prey

These are regarded as the most ancient of the molluscs,

Left:

are able to

muscular

foot

and

nudibranch Nembrotha cristata amidst tunicates and coral.

a large

group of bilaterally symmetrical molluscs

split into

two matching halves and

the thin mantle of tissue partly covering

its shell.

Right:

38

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Bryozoans
bryozoans are

Individual

tiny

characteristic feeding device

with a highly

aniinals

known

as a lophophore, a

ring of ciliated tentacles to capture and direct food into

mouth. Most lay down a horny or calcareous

a central

skeleton, and are capable of withdrawing into this, and

sometimes closing
sessile

show
a

it

with a hard operculum. They are

and colonial. Individual "zooids"

particular specializations.

Many

number of species form erect

and are known as lace

plate

structures

and are often among the

colony

may

or plant-like

corals.

although inconspicuous, are numerous on

the world,

in a

are encrusting, but

all

first

Bryozoans,
reefs around

organisms

to

colonize newly exposed surfaces. They can play an important role in

cementing fragments and consolidating the

reef structure.

Echinoderms
The echmoderms

are a diverse

and highly conspicuous

phylum. They are divided into five groups, which appear

highly differentiated, but have a few

Unlike
joined with a hinge ligament.

burrow

Many

into soft substrates, or

reef species are found to

become incorporated

into the

The majority of bivalves

symmetrical

oysters, thorny oysters, scallops, mussels

and the giant

clams. This latter group (family Tridacnidae)

to the Indo-Pacific

and

all

is

restricted

species live in a close association

common.

and some worm-like groups), the echinoderms exhibit

pcnta-radial

Groups include

in

metrically into two halves or are simply radial (corals

reef matrix as coral or calcareous algae grow around them.

are filter feeders.

traits

most organisms, which can be divided sym-

symmetry parts.

All

their

bodies radiate into five

echinoderms also

lay

down

they have small tube feet which are important in respiration

and

in

most groups also serve

a role in

locomotion.

with zooxanthellae. The giant clam Tridacna gigas can

reach over

1.3

meters

in

length and weigh over 300 kilos.

Cephalopods (Cephalopoda)
These are the most highly modified molluscs

in

which the

head, and the eyes in particular, are highly developed,

while the foot has been modified into a number of

tentacles or arms.

One major group,

nautili, is largely restricted to

the Nautiloidea or

deep water and not found on

The other group (Coleoidea) includes

reefs.

the cuttlefish,

squids and octopuses. All are active predators, with horny

"beaks" developed around their mouth and specialized

suction cups on their arms or tentacles for holding prey

and other objects. All have chromatophores

in their skin

and are capable of extrernely rapid color changes which

they utilize for camouflage, but also as a form of com-

munication between individuals.

Most
"shell"

cuttlefish

which

is

maintain a significant calcareous

internalized,

while

some squid

also

contain vestigial traces of a chitinous shell. Both of these

groups are highly active free-swimming predators, but

neither are

numerous or diverse

in

reef environments.

Octopuses are more widespread, although many remain

hidden during the day.

Left:

A scallop Pedum spondyloideum

Right:

- this

species does not bore into the coral, but the coral has grown up around

cuttlefish Sepia sp. hovers over a solitary

mushroom

calcareous skeleton. Extending from their body surface

coral Fungia.

it.

The World

Coral Reefs

of

Feather stars (Crinoidea)

These have a very simple, small body or calyx from which

arms

five

radiate.

These branch almost immediately and

hence most feather

Each

is

are used to
are

stars

appear

to

have numerous arms.

equipped with many short pinnules and the arms

sweep the water

numbers of

for plankton.

short, dextrous cirri

Below

the calyx

which are used

locomotion and to grip the substrate. Most feather

for

stars

are nocturnal.

Starfish (Asteroidea)

The

starfish, or sea stars, are a well

have five arms, and

in

many

known group. Most

cases the body organs are

housed, or extend into, these arms. They have a mouth on

their underside

are

and anus facing upwards.

Many

species

capable of extruding their stomachs through this

opening

in

the large

order to facilitate digestion. They

numbers of tube

move using

on their underside. Starfish

feet

include detritus feeders, omnivores and predators.

of the

known

better

is

the

One

crown-of-thorns starfish

Acanlluister planci, a large and unusual looking starfish

with a large central body, numerous legs and a covering of

sharp spines.

It is

a regular predator

of scleractinian corals

which are slender, highly mobile and typically covered

(see page 60).

spines.

Brittle stars (Ophiuroidea)

These are somewhat similar

plan.

They have

a distinct central disc containing the

body

the

body

sometimes with a mucous web,

organs, with a ventral mouth, but they have a very simple

Most have only

five arms.

in

rather than their simple tube

locomotion. Most are detritus feeders, grazing

feet, for

to starfish in general

digestive system and no anus.

They use these arms,

substrate beneath them.

capture prey, while

some

are

Others utilize their arms,

to

more

sweep the water and

active predators.

The

basket stars are a sub-group with highly branched arms

used

water

to filter the

at night.

Urchins (Echinoidea)
Sea urchins are

a highly distinctive group.

They have no

arms, and the small plates of the skeleton have fused to

form a "test" which

organs, but
tissue.

is

The body

number of
feeders,

acts like a shell to protect the internal

in turn
is

spines.

covered by a thin layer of living

typically further protected

All

and have a powerful

underside.

Among

the

by a large

urchins are grazers or detrital

set

of scraping jaws on their

most familiar species on the reef

are the long-spined species of the family Diadematidae,

bearing highly elongated (typically 20 centimeters long)

dark spines. These perform a

many

reefs has
algal

critical function as grazers in

reef ecosystems and their loss on

been linked to rapid declines

some Caribbean
in coral

growth predominates (see page 61).

urchins have developed secondary bilateral

have adapted

to a

burrowing

lifestyle.

cover as

number of

symmetry and

These include the

heart urchins and the highly flattened sand dollars.

Sea cucumbers (Holothurians)

These are elongated, sometimes even worm-like, creatures
in

Left:

A group

which the calcareous skeleton

of colorful feather stars on a reef in the Philippines. Right: The central disc

brittle star in the

Caribbean.

is

highly reduced to a mass

and highly mobile arms

of a

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

of tiny spicules
end which
lies

in the

body

the other end.

at

Some

Tube

mouth

at

one

are concentrated along

feet

body and used

the bottoin of the

groups.

They have

wall.

typically ringed by tentacles, while the anus

is

in

in

some

the

more

locomotion

are detrital feeders, and

many of

conspicuous forms on reefs feed by ingesting sand and

digesting the microfauna

it

contains. Others, mainly bur-

rowing species, have long and highly branched tentacles

which they use

many
their

to collect plankton.

sea cucumbers eject a

a form of defense,

tubules from

anus when threatened. If these do not sufficiently deter

may

their predators they

also eviscerate, expelling

mtemal organs through

their

MM

As

number of sticky

edible and the predator

may

most of

These are highly

their anus.

feed on these while the animal

escapes and begins to regenerate

its

internal organs.

Tunicates
This group includes a number of planktonic salps, but most

important on the reefs are the ascideans or sea squirts.

These are

animals and typically have a tube-like

sessile

structure with a large opening, the inhalent siphon into

which water
before

slits

is

drawn, passing through narrow pores or

being exhaled through a

exhalent siphon. Food

mucus. This group

most

reefs.

found

Some

is

captured from this water onto

well represented and quite diverse on

are solitary, although even these are often

in aggregations,

zooids

individual

is

gill

smaller

slightly

while others are colonial and the

may be more

difficult to

distinguish.

Quite a number of species on the reef have developed a

tight association

with blue-green algal symbionts.

Fishes
Fish are one of the most conspicuous elements of reef

among

being diverse, highly active, and often

colorful elements of reef communities.

life,

most

the

Over 4 000 species

offish inhabit coral reefs, representing over 25 percent of

all

marine fish species. Although not restricted

to reef

environments, quite a number of groups are distinctively

associated with the reefs and a

number of these

are briefly

described below.

Groupers (Serranidae)

large

group of highly active carnivorous fishes,

typically with large

teeth.

One

mouths and more than one row of

highly distinctive sub-group are the anthiases,

small and colorful zooplankton feeders often forming

dense schools over coral heads. Most of the remainder are

large stocky fishes

which may be active or ambush-based

predators, mostly feeding on fishes and crustaceans.

giant grouper Epinephelus lanceolatus

is

The

the largest true

reef fish, recorded to over 270 centimeters long and

more

than 400 kilos in weight.

Above: A pineapple sea cucumber or prickly redfish Thelenota ananas. Center: A small group of ascideans or sea squirts
Rhopalaea. Below: Goatfish iMullidael and surgeonfish lAcanthuridael

in

the Central Indian Ocean.

The World

of

Coral Reefs

Snappers (Lutjanidae)
This

is

a family of about 100

fishes, all

medium

to large, elongate

of which are predatory. The majority feed on

with some crustaceans and other invertebrates,

fishes,

while a small number feed on plankton. They are popular

food fish

many

in

The majority

countries.

are found

on

although a few commercially important species are

reefs,

found in depths between 100 and 500 meters.

family,

related

the

also reef-associated,

(Caesionidae)

fusiliers

restricted to the Indo-Pacific.

Most of

the

are

20 species are

however they roam more widely,

often in large schools, feeding on zooplankton during

the day.

In

Grunts and sweetlips (Haemuiidae)

many ways these are very similar to the snappers, being
They

elongate, but heavy bodied.

are generally nocturnal

and largely feed on invertebrates, with some

feeders

plankton feeders. They are called grunts because of a

common

habit of grinding their pharyngeal teeth which,

amplified by their gas-filled

swim

bladder, produces a

grunting sound. The term sweetlips comes from the highly

thickened

of the Indo-Pacific genus Pleclorhinchus.

lips

Butterflyfish (Chaetodontidae)

Among

the best

disc-shaped

known of

fish,

the reef fishes, these are small

highly colorful with distinctive, almost

Most of

flag-like patterns.

the 121

recorded species are

reef-associated, and only eight are recorded outside the

They have small mouths, and many pick

tropics.

substrate, feeding

algae.

Some

sively

on

are

on

more

mixed

specialist

live coral polyps,

diet

at the

of invertebrates and

and feed largely or exclu-

while a few feed on plankton.

Angelfish (Pomacanthidae)
Closely related to the butterflyfish,
relatively

flattened bodies, though

Again

profile.

these

have

also

more rectangular

this is a highly reef-associated family,

the vast majority of the 83

known

in

with

species restricted to

shallow tropical seas. Most are also highly colorful, but

smaller species are relatively cryptic.

certain

Some

species feed on detritus and algae, others specialize on

sponges, and a few feed on plankton.

Damselfish (Pomacentridae)
These are an abundant and diverse group found on the
coral reefs of the world, with over

small,

320

species. All are

and often highly colorful. Many are schooling

species,

and feed on plankton. Some are grazers and a

number

are

known

as farmer fish as they actively guard

a patch of algal turf from other grazers.

fish

live

in

a close symbiotic

The anemone-

association with

large

sea anemones.

Above: A g/anf grouper Epinephelus lanceolatus, the largest true reef

fish.

Center:

A school

o/'

snapper Lutjanus

ehrenbergii and Gnathodentex aurolineatus. Below: Oriental sweetlips Plectorhinchus orientalis, with a small cleaner

wrasse Labroides dimidiatus.

42

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Wrasses (Labridae)
difficult to generalize

is

It

about this group, which

not

is

only one of the largest groups, but also the most diverse

terms of appearance and

in

carnivorous,

humphead
largest

but

All

lifestyle.

varies

diet

their

wrasses are

or Napoleon wrasse Cheilinus undulatus

member of

and over 190

kilos,

the

feeds primarily on molluscs and

it

smaller

members of the group

quite generally on benthic invertebrates including

large

is

Reaching 229 centimeters

the family.

Many of the

crustaceans.

The

considerably.

feed

some

and quite diverse genera such as Thalassoma and

Halichoeres.

A number

of species feed on zooplankton,

including the genera Ciirhilabrus and Paracheilimis In the

.

Indo-Pacific the cleaner wrasses Labroides spp. feed on

damaged

diseased or

fishes - they

tissues or external parasites

establish cleaner stations and

may be approached by

attention of other fish, or

fish requiring their services.

importance, and

wrasses to perform

and

gill

This role

many would-be
this service

of other
the

solicit

particular

of considerable

is

predators allow these

and even

to enter the

mouth

areas without attempting to eat them.

Parrotfish (Scaridae)
Closely related to the wrasses, parrotfish are morphologically all relatively similar: elongate robust fishes, with
a

powerful beak formed from the fusion of their teeth. The

majority

extremely colorful,

are

although these color

patterns are also observed to change dramatically over the

course of the fish's lifetime. They are a predominantly

herbivorous group, and feed by scraping or excavating
the rock surface, often ingesting significant

rock with the benthic algae they

eat.

The

species also feed in part on live coral.

bumphead

amounts of

few of the larger

largest, the

Bolhomelopon muricaltim. reach

parrotfish

120 centimeters, and have been estimated to remove

between 2.5 and

it

to

some

of reef rock per year, converting

5 tons

sand and thus acting as a major erosive force on

reefs.

Surgeonfish (Acanthuridae)
This group

is

named

the base of the

tail

for the sharp spines carried

and used

They

in defense.

towards

are another

highly reef-associated group, with relatively compressed,

oval-shaped bodies.

Of

the 72 species described only six

The majority of surgeonfish

are recorded in the Atlantic.

are algal grazers, but a number, including the unicornfish

Naso

In

spp., feed

addition

to

there are very

on plankton.

these

many

large
others.

and conspicuous groups

Some, such

as the highly

diverse blennies and gobies, and also the

soldierfish, cardinalfish

moray

eels,

and scorpionfish, include many

reef-associated species, but

may be

less

conspicuous on

the reefs. Others are regular visitors, including the sharks

Above: A long-nosed butterflyfish Forcipiger flavissimus,

its fine

mouth parts enabling

it

to

forage for invertebrate food

in

the fine structure of the reef. Center: The Indian dascyllus Dascyllus carneus, a small

damsel which gains shelter amidst

branching corals. Below: A queen parrotfish Scarus vetula resting at night

bubble. Note the powerful "beak".

in

mucus

The World

and

rays, jacks or trevallies,

of

Coral Reefs

and barracuda. Reef fish play

a vitally important role in the wider functioning of the reef

ecosystem, as has been borne out by the observed impacts

in many areas (see Chapter 2). They are
among the best studied of all species found on reefs,
and many are widely regarded as indicators in the study of

of overfishing
also

wider patterns of biodiversity on

reefs.

Reptiles
The

overall diversity of reptiles in the oceans

Most modern

reptiles

is

very low.

have kidneys which are unable

to

two main groups which are

tolerate high salinities, so the

found on or near reefs are the ancient group of marine

turtles

and the modern group of sea snakes. There are

seven species of marine

tropical

turtle, all

of which are found

and sub-tropical waters. None are

species, but several regularly

make use of reefs

of food, notably hawksbill and loggerhead

in

reef

strictly

as a source

turtles,

which

feed on invertebrates. Green turtles feed on marine plants

and algae and are often seen feeding

in

seagrass areas

near reefs. All marine turtles regularly nest on tropical

coastlines, often close to reefs.

There are some 55 species of sea snake belonging to

the family Elapidae, only found in the Indo-Pacific.

The

largest

group (sub-family Hydrophiinae) are the most

highly

adapted,

many never

leave

the

water and

all

give birth to live young. Another group, the sea kraits

(Laticaudinae)

leave the water to lay their eggs. All

still

highly adapted to their aquatic environment, with

are

flattened tails to aid

swimming, and considerable breath-

holding capabilities. Most eat

highly toxic

venom

fish,

and have developed

to ensure that their prey die quickly

before they have time to

swim

off.

Seabirds
Although not exhibiting spectacular

diversity, a

number of

seabirds are found regularly in coral reef environments.

These include predominantly pelagic seabirds which nest

on tropical oceanic islands, notably boobies (Sulidae),
tropicbirds (Phaethontidae). terns and noddies (Sternidae),
frigatebirds (Fregatidae)

and shearwaters (Procellariidae).

These often breed

in spectacular

islands, especially

where there

numbers on small

is little

human

coral

disturbance,

and no predation from introduced species such as

rats.

Although they primarily feed on offshore pelagic species

they

may

take

some nearshore

species.

Smaller numbers of waders and other seabirds are

also found

on or near

reefs.

These include sandpipers,

oystercatchers, turnstones and plovers. Egrets and herons

are also widespread, often feeding across the reef flat
at

low

tide.

Pelicans are quite

Caribbean region, and

in a

common on

reefs in the

few places flamingos have

Above: A school of jacks, the silver pompano Trachmotus

blochii.

Center:

A banded sea snake Laticauda coming ashore

a small coral cay. Below: Hawksbill turtle Eretmochelys imbricata on a Caribbean reef.

to

43

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

been recorded on coral

Birds of prey, including

reefs.

ospreys and sea eagles, are likewise occasional visitors

to the reef.

mammals

Marine
With

exception

the

widespread on coral
sirenians,

mammals

humans,

of

One important

reefs.

not

are

group, the

often found in close proximity to reefs. These

is

animals, the manatees of the Caribbean and the dugongs

of the Indo-Pacific, are large herbivores that feed

in

seagrass areas, rarely venturing over the reefs themselves.

Another group
Historically,

monk

and sea lions (pinnipeds).

seals

is

were distributed

seals

in the

Caribbean

and Hawai'i (with a third Mediterranean species). The

monk

Caribbean

monk
its

seal is

seal

Two

protection.

is

now

extmct, and the Hawaiian

declining despite extensive measures for

still

other species, the Galapagos fur seal

and the Galapagos sea

lion, are

found

Galapagos,

in the

where there are coral communities but no true

known and most

Perhaps the best

that

of the whales and dolphins (cetaceans).

species are found in tropical waters and

reefs.

diverse group

A number

is

of

may be observed

near reefs. Dolphins in particular regularly shelter in bays

and lagoons near

and occasionally feed on reef

reefs,

Humpback whales

organisms.

return annually to breed in

tropical waters,

and have a number of regular breeding

grounds close

to

Hawai'i,

coral

Great

the

reefs,

Barrier

including locations

in

Reef and the Caribbean.

Despite these associations, cetaceans are typically only

visitors to coral reefs,

and rarely dependent on them.

The human presence

Life

on the coral

reef

is

complex and

understanding of the diversity of

interactions,

Humans have

is still

many

world.

In

diversity

is

many

areas

them, are considered

Nusa Penida,

Center:

structures

are

being degraded,

and undermined. These

Indonesia.

in the

made

issues,

to redress

next chapter.

A dugong Dugong dugon siv;ms along the edge

lpt)oto:

human

diminishing, and the complex interactions of

together with the efforts which are being

flat.

to

being imposed on coral reefs around the

the reef are being reduced

back are probably scars from boat propellers

occur

areas can certainly be considered

changes almost entirely related

activities are

its

that

extremely limited.

be a part of these ecosystems. At the same time,

however,

The lines on

Our

lived in very close proximity to reefs for

millennia, and in

Above: A grey heron stalking prey on the reef

diverse.

of the complexity of

and of the structures and patterns

on coral reefs around the world

to

life,

of a coral reef.

Doug Pernne/Seapics.coml. Below: A healthy reef

off

The World

of

Coral Reefs

Selected bibliography

Allen GR, Steene R 119991. Indo-Pacific Coral Reef Field Guide.

Tropical Reef Research. Singapore.

Allen GR, Steene PC, Allen

and

A Guide

Angelfishes

to

Publishing/Tropical

Reef

Research, Singapore.

Benzie JAH 11999). Genetic structure

ghosts

dispersal past.

oi

Birkeland C led! 11997).

Chapman and

New

Hall,

organisms:

of coral reef

AmerZool39: 131 -U5.

Life and Death of Coral

Connell JH 11978). Diversity

Reefs.

ram forests and coral

in tropical

Science ]99: 1302-1310.

reefs.

221-226.
TJ,

Ogden JC, Wiebe WJ, Rosen 8R

Cushman

Medina

JH,

coral

of
E,

Functional Roles of Biodiversity:

11996). Biodiversity

reefs.

In:

OE, Schulze

Sala

Mooney HA,
E-D ledsl

A Global Perspective. John

Wiley and Sons Ltd, Chichester, UK.

Hubbell SP (1997),
relative species

ram

forests

unified

theory of biogeography and

abundance and

and coral

its

reefs. Coral

application to tropical

Reefs 16 (Supplement):

S9-S21.

Huston I^A (1985). Patterns

of

species diversity on coral reefs.

4nnffevfco(SysM6: U9-177.
Huston

MA

Biological Diversity:

(1994).

Tfie

Coexistence of

Species on Cfianging Landscapes. Cambridge University

Press, Cambridge, UK.
Jackson JBC (1991). Adaption and

diversity of reef corals.

S;oSc;ence 41(7): 475-482.

KnovKlton N. Jackson

JBC

taxonomy and niche

master of

(1994). New/

partitioning on coral reefs: jack of all trades or

some^ Trends
Lieske

E.

in

Ecology and Evolution

Myers R

Fisfies:

(19941. Collins

and

Indo-Pacific

9(1): 7-9.

Pocket Guide: Coral Reef

Harper

Caribbean.

Collins

Publishers, London, UK.

McAllister DE, Schueler FW, Roberts CM. Hawkins JP (1994).

Mapping and CIS analysis of the global distribution of coral

reef fishes on an equal area grid. In: Miller Rl (ed). Mapping

Chapman and

the Diversity of Nature.

Mather

Hall,

London, UK.

A Coral Reef Handbook: A

Guide to the Geology, Flora and Fauna of the Great Barrier
Reef. 3rd edn. Surrey Beatty and Sons Pty Ltd, Chipping
Norton, NSW. Australia.
Ogden JC (1997). Ecosystem Interactions In the tropical coastal
seascape. In: Birkeland C led). Life and Death of Coral Reefs.
P,

Bennett

(eds) (1993).

Chapman and Hall, New York, USA.

Ormond RFG, Roberts CM (1997), The biodiversity of coral reef
fishes. In: Ormond RFG, Gage JD, Angel MV ledsl. fvfarine
Biodiversity Patterns

and Processes. Cambridge

University

Press, Cambridge, UK.

Paulay G 11997). Diversity and distribution

In:

Birkeland C

and

Hall,

led). Life

New York,

and Death

of reef

organisms.

of Coral Reefs.

Chapman

USA.

Polunin NVC, Roberts

CM

leds)

119961.

Reef Fisheries.

Chapman and Hall, London, UK.

Pyle RL 11996). Exploring deep coral reefs: how much
biodiversity are we missing? Global Biodiversity 6: 3-7.

ML 11997). The global biodiversity of coral reefs:

comparison with ram forests. In: Reaka-Kudla ML, Wilson

Reaka-Kudla
a

Understanding and

Washington DC, USA.

of

Roberts CM, Ormond RFG (1987). Habitat complexity and coral

reef fish diversity and abundance on Red Sea fringing reefs.
fvlarEcol Prog SeriV. 1-8.

Academic Press, San Diego, USA.

The

F,

International

Field

CD

Society

World Mangrove Atlas.

Mangrove Ecosystems,

11997).
for

Okinawa, Japan.
Spalding MD, Grenfell

and ecosystem function

II:

Roberts CM 11997). Connectivity and management

Caribbean coral reefs. Science 278: 1454-1457.

Spalding MD, Blasco

Crossland CJ 11988). Latitudinal comparisons of coral reef

structure and function. Proc 6tti Int Coral Reef Symp 1:

Done

Biodiversity

ledsl.

Sale PF led) 11991). The Ecology of Fishes on Coral Reefs.

USA.

York,

EO

Protecting our Biological Resources. Joseph Henry Press,

11999).

Odyssey

Butterflyfishes.

DE, Wilson

AM

11

997).

New

estimates of global and

regional coral reef areas. Coral Reefs 16: 225-230.

Veron JEN 11995). Corals

and Evolution

in

Space and Time: The Biogeography

of the Scleractinia.

UNSW

Press, Sydney,

Australia.

Veron JEN 12000). Corals of the World. 3 vols. Australian

Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Australia.

A5

46

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Chapter 2
Signs of Change

Coral

reefs

are a

rare

portant resource. For

are

located

cities,

tar

and many

of reefs in the
of the

most remote areas

but critically imttie

most

part they

from major towns and

of the largest

world are located

of the planet.

expanses
in

some

Despite this

and income. These same reefs are increasingly being

seen

value for current and

heritage of

global

productivity

we

as a rare resource of incal-

at the global level

culable

future

incredible

and unparalleled

generations,

beauty,

immense

diversity. In this

explore the different ways

in

chapter

which humans have

apparent scarcity and remoteness, coral reefs are

used reefs over the millennia and particularly

probably the most familiar marine habitat to peoples

present day.

across the globe.

ture

in

In

the developed nations they fea-

ecology lessons, holiday brochures, advertising

campaigns, tropical aquaria and numerous wildlife

documentaries.

In

occur they are a

many

of the

countries

critical part of

in

which they

everyday existence,

providing coastal defense, a source of food, recreation

Left:

many

of

We

go on

to

now creating for the

we consider some of the

these uses are

of coral reefs. Finally

to

positive

dam-

reverse the decline; actions which benefit

not only the reefs themselves,

lations

the

survival

actions that are being taken to prevent further

age or

in

consider the problems which

who

rely

but also the popu-

on them.

Dar es Salaam. Tanzania. Sprawling coastal towns and cities are bringing countless pressures to bear on adjacent
Tourism to coral reefs has boomed in recent years, and is bringing critical income to many coral

reefs. Rigfit:

reef nations.

Signs

The importance
Around the worli reefs are an enormously valuable
resource. In

some

calculate simple
value, but

it

is

cases, efforts have been

economic

statistics to

made

to

values. Reefs are a source of

employment, a source of

ange

of reefs

been linked to the utilization of the rich resources which

beyond the reef

lay

flat.

Today, reef fisheries are globally significant. In

capture this

equally important to look beyond dollar

of C h

many

nations, particularly those of the Pacific islands, coral

reefs provide

one of the major sources of animal protein.

number of countries, including

the Maldives, Kiribati.

food, a source of protection and a source of leisure. In

In a

many

Tokelau and Tuvalu, an average of over 100 kilos of fish

places where there are reefs there are few other

which can replace such functions, and

natural resources
in this

sense a simple economic value pales into insig-

are

consumed per person every

year. In

At the same time, commercial fisheries

nificance against social, nutritional, cultural and other

artisanal fisheries.

measures. Perhaps the earliest services to humans ever

have been developing rapidly

provided by reefs were those of protecting coastlines and

only locally but also to export markets.

even creating new land.

Former

reefs

coastal lands, while at the present time

underlie

many

Coastal populations have similarly relied upon reefs for

food since pre-history. Today

many

coastal

communities

way, catching fish for their

own

use, but fisheries have also diversified considerably,

and

rely

on reefs

in a similar

reef fish, molluscs and crustaceans are

now

major part

most notably

witnessed other uses of reefs,

their

in

explosive popularity as places for recreation and tourism

in the last

areas, with sales not

Coral reef fisheries are typically multi-species fisheries

and, because of this and the

complex nature of the reef

environment, they are also typically multi-gear fisheries.

Only large

industrial

lines, drift nets

fishing gears are excluded (long

and most trawls)

from these,

but, apart

almost every technique has been utilized

some

at

point

or other.

Recent times have

of several commercial fisheries.

many

Fishing methods

and

an integral part of a living reef ecosystem.

is

in

many

islands,

indeed entire nations, are built on the coral rock and sand

which

each of these cases

the majority of these fish are nearshore species taken by

Gleaning, or harvesting by hand,

is

still

most widely used and effective methods

certain species. This

is

especially

one of the

for collecting

common on

the reef

flat,

where crustaceans, molluscs, sea cucumbers, sea urchins

few decades.

and a host of other species may be collected by hand.

In

Fisheries
Reefs, and particularly reef

by

have been used as an

flats,

abundant and productive source of food

earliest dated use

for millennia.

The

comes from middens (waste dumps) con-

taining shells and other remains in localities as far apart

as Australia

of reef

flat

known

is

and the Americas, showing active gathering

organisms for food. The oldest

Matenkupum

in

Papua

New

site

currently

Guinea, where fish

bones and shells gathered by humans from reef

flat

mangrove areas have been dated back some 32 000

The

initial

use of coral

reefs

doubtedly restricted to the reef

flats.

for

food was un-

Fish and shellfish

were probably captured directly by hand, or by

spears, poison or traps. There

is

little

and

years.

nets,

or no evidence of

outer reef-slope species in these early middens, and no

evidence of fish hooks. However, offshore fisheries

probably developed very

early.

The

travels of Polynesians,

ancient Egyptians and others are clearly dated back

least 3

abilities.

this

at

000-4 000 years and show considerable seafaring

It

seems

likely that coastal navigation pre-dates

by several millennia, and would undoubtedly have

Fisherman with a cast

net, Antigua.

many societies such work is traditionally undertaken

women and children, while men may fish from boats

48

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

wood and many other materials. Today they are almost

exclusively made from metal and attached to modern
monofilament lines (metal traces are also commonly used,
particularly for sharks

Hook and

lene line).

which can

line is

bite through polypropy-

used both on reef

and over

flats

the reef slope. Techniques involve stationary baited lines

and also

trolling, in

which

lines are

towed behind

a boat

and

usually attract fish with a lure rather than bait.

Driving fish into traps or nets

is still

undertaken

in a

few areas. Traditional methods involved the setting of

of the type described above, or

a trap (fixed structures

an equivalent structure

made up of

fixed nets) and then

chasing or frightening the fish into the trap using several

people, sometimes carrying leaves or other items to help
corral the fish.

Two

further destructive

methods of

dri-

ving fish into nets on the reef slope have been noted in
Southeast Asia. Miiro-ami fishing involves a line of breath-

swimming down below

holding divers

armed with poles or rocks on

net

smash

hand

Away from

is still

by

there

many

Now

artisanal communities, harvesting

the predominant

method

for collecting

commercial fisheries for trochus,

species, including the

nets

on reefs

widespread. Cast nets are

is

suspended

divers literally

(The divers are often children, and

into the nets.

is

or no concern for their welfare or safety.)

little

illegal

everywhere, some muro-ami fishing has been

replaced by a technique

known

as paaling in

which the

divers hold hoses with compressed air and drive the fish

conch, clams, lobster and sea cucumbers.

The use of

a large

The

the reef with the rocks or poles to chase the fish

upward
offshore.

lines.

towards the nets with walls of bubbles.

Poisons or stupefactants have been used as a means

often used in shallow water. These are circular nets with

many

a weighted perimeter. Typically the fisher stands in the

of catching fish for

water or walks towards a school of

particular species of plant have been found to stun or kill

over them. The weighted edges

fish,

then casts the nets

encircling and

first,

fall

trapping the fish. Fixed nets are also placed on the reef
flat

and reef slope. Although they are

means of

a highly effective

snagged on coral and

fishing, nets often get

fish. In

Fish traps range in size from small portable structures

is

now

or

bamboo

directly

on the reef

flat.

Typically

the former use baits to attract fish, while the latter rely on
fish

becoming trapped

at

low

tide,

or

may

involve actively

is

Prior to the availability of

still

widespread

masks

in

case in

some

at the targets.

a widespread

while sodium cyanide

Blast fishing

on

reefs.

most

is still

the

is

most destructive fishing method

Explosives are usually home-made, often using

fertilizers,

although dynamite

typically thrown by

the fish

the

is

sometimes used. They are

hand towards the reef and explode on

The shock wave from

the blast kills

which have gas-filled swim bladders

of species).

is

It

non-selective, and

among

all

(the majority

many of

the indi-

viduals are lost as they sink to the bottom or

caught

The

by hand.

fish are then simply collected

become

the coral.

Underwater spearing was

The

dominated by long spears which were lunged

or stabbed at the target species.

now

areas.

places. Single or multi-pronged spears are

stabbed or thrown
originally

most

to see underwater,

spearing was done from the surface, and this

effect,

most widely used chemical. These materials are

the water surface.

driving fish into the traps.

The use of spears

the

placed in tide pools, poured into the water or more directly

carried on boats through to sizeable structures built of

wood

recent times detergents and bleaches have

been found to have the same

squirted into the nooks and crannies of the reef slope.

cause breakage, and are sometimes abandoned.

stone,

more

years. In traditional societies

The use of spear guns

and highly effective means of

is

fishing.

targets

Within the great diversity of

life

on the reef there

is

similar diversity in the species that are targeted for food,

and traditions vary across the globe. Some

Spears are typically propelled by a rubber cord, and are

and

attached to the gun by a narrow line which enables the

groups, such as groupers and lobsters, are taken just about

fisher to hold on to the spear and fish after firing.

everywhere. Rabbitfish. parrotfish. snappers and emper-

Hook and

line fishing is also

Historical records of hooks

there are examples

widely used on

go back many

target,

ors are also widely taken.

In

areas where tourism

is

and

dominant, certain species are often particularly popular

turtle shell.

and highly valuable, including grouper and snapper.

centuries,

made from mother of pearl,

Sharks have increasingly become a

reefs.

tastes

and are becoming rare

in

almost

all

areas.

Sig ns of Ch

Among

and conch.

lobster

between

other groups, taste varies

and certain species are not popular,

localities

either a result of long-standing traditions or

The

reputations.

for shark

taste

many

highly localized. While

shark there are others where

Pacific

many

islanders

years, luring

for

flesh,

is

may have swum many

site.

is

very popular. Certain

cycles

Marine

turtles

almost

all

and their eggs were

last

century has seen

areas and most countries

some

in certain fish

regional variation, but in

more prevalent

is

it

The presence

has led to the

this

which are more

have complex breeding

same

the

at

Such occurrences are often linked

to the

demand

for live lish in a

number

East Asia, notably

in

Particular species

are

in

of

to

many

years.

highly productive fishing

decimate an entire population of a species over

the importance of these sites

prevent overharvesting.

One

and imposed

geted by traditional fishers in a number of Pacific islands

is

the palolo

worm, which

dwelling polychaete

worm

to the surface typically for

is

the breeding phase of a rock-

Palolo siciliensis. These

two nights

when

they

in

become

great celebration, collected in great

the center of a

numbers and eaten

either raw or cooked.

The demands of non-traditional

societies

combined

trade

In

Chinese

Hong Kong.

it

wholesale prices

for

these were US$40-100 per

such that the overall annual value

was estimated

at

US$500

kilo,

of this industry

million for

Hong Kong

alone. Market prices are considerably higher.

While smaller
aspect

to this

fish are

favored by many, another

trade has been the purchase of the

largest possible fishes, which have

symbol

in

a status

major celebrations and business dinners.

There are records

than 2 meters

US$10

become

000.

of individual fish

in

measuring more

length retailing for

more than

The impact on the natural stocks

of

these species has been considerable. With such high

values,

many

of

these species have been

all

but

decimated from the reefs around Southeast Asia,

and vessels are collecting

live fish

from locations

in

the Western Indian Ocean and into the Pacific

to

meet demands

in

Asia. Unfortunately

it

is

these

largest individuals which have the greatest repro-

ductive potential and so recovery from such drastic

overfishing

is likely to

be slow.

swarm

succession every

In 1997
was estimated that Hong Kong
some 32 000 tons of live food fish. Typical

unduiatus.

wide

restrictions to

predominantly

targeted,

rather unusual species tar-

groupers and the humphead wrasse Cheilinus

imported

Such

area of reef Traditional societies have often recognized

live fish

Recent years have seen a spectacular growth

restaurants

very recent,

to fisherfolk,

possible in the course of only one or two spawning events

phases

The
the

make

12 to 13 lunar months,

likely to carry the toxins.

reef animals

which involve regular spawning

locality.

particularly in the Pacific islands, for

is

but

avoidance of certain groups, such as jacks, barracuda and

coral

known

it is

species appears to have

Many

cases they have been

they are also extremely susceptible to overfishing and

of ciguatera, a natural toxin (see page 31),

large snappers,

many

them alongside small fishing boats and

in

areas where

but in

kilometers to reach the spawning

knowledge of these patterns

sites,

forbid or greatly restrict their hunting.

many

Scientific

aggregations

steel traces.

decimation

their

some

have traditionally hunted sharks for

once popular worldwide, but the

now

be monthly or annual, and in

example,

capturing them with nooses in the days before strong

hooks and

moon and may

cases they involve very large aggregations of fish, which

more recent

cultures do not like to eat

it

of the

a ng

Live fish in a holding

pen awaiting shipment

restaurants of East Asia.

to the

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

The aquarium trade

An estimated
quarter

worldwide keep

1.5-2.0 million people

marine aquaria, approximately

half in the

USA and

Europe. For the most part, these are

in

who maintain

2000, whereas reef fish harvested for food were

worth only US$6. Aquarium species are a high

value

source

income

of

many

in

com-

coastal

home

munities with limited resources, with the actual

aquaria. Dedicated enthusiasts are able to propa-

value to the fishers determined largely by market

hobbyists

many

gate

tropical fish stocks

species of coral and

fish,

in

but

most

aquaria are stocked from wild-caught species.

recent years the aquarium

In

attracted

some

to the

and invertebrates, and

fish

to high levels of mortality

tive

industry has

damaging techniques some-

times used to collect

associated with insensi-

Aquarium species are

typically

collectors pay an access fee to

Philippines

gathered by

local fishers using live capture techniques Isuch as

there

many

can have incomes

directly to exporters they

times the national average. By contrast,

the

in

many middlemen, and

are

collectors themselves typically earn only around

US$50 per month.

shipping and poor husbandry along the supply

chain.

many

In Fiji

the villages to collect on their reefs, but by selling

controversy. Opponents to the trade

draw attention

access.

The controversy over the benefits and

in

terms

of

environmental impact,

of

costs,

the trade

persists largely because of a lack of quantitative

slurp guns or barrier and hand nets] or chemical

data.

stupefactants such as sodium cyanide. The latter

available under the provisions of the Convention on

is

and adversely affects the overall

non-selective,

health of the specimens as well as killing nontarget organisms.

Supporters
that

it

is

potentially highly sustainable, that proper

minimal impact on the

coral reef, and that the industry

volume but very high

is

value. There

latter - a kilo of

one island country was valued

with improvements

relatively

is little

aquarium

areas.

fish

from

almost US$500

at

in

These new markets are typically highly

focussed towards single species.

become highly

the

at

number of species

local

valuable, and are

export fisheries.
is

in

and the availability

in transportation

which were only eaten

Japan,

low

disagree-

of refrigeration have greatly affected reef fisheries

many

have hence

level

now

largely taken by

Eastern Asia, particularly China and

a large market for a

number of species, including

sea cucumbers, clams and sharks.

also extremely popular in a

The

live fish trade is

few markets

page 49). Western markets have tended

conch and particular

to

in East

Asia (see

focus on lobster,

finfish.

International Trade

Appendix

II,

Endangered Species

permitted

is

this

of

Wild

convention

snecies listed

in

which are vulnerable

in

to exploitation but

not yet at risk of extinction. All species of hard coral

and giant clams are

Shipments

of corals

the Convention

listed

under Appendix

authority

the

to

must be accompanied by a CITES

Parties

population

II.

and clams involving Parties

permit issued by the national CITES

to

management

CITES are then obliged

to

of the target species, but on the reef

community. Every species

exists in relationship with other

species, whether as predator, competitor or prey, so that

removal of individuals will

low

levels,

alter

some of these

balances.

such changes are impossible to detect and

At

may

be indistinguishable from natural variation. But as fishing

pressure increases

changes

in

it

is

possible to detect impacts through

the size, density and

biomass of individuals

and the age structure of the population. From the

fishers'

perspective there can also be changes in the catch per unit of

effort as fishing levels increase,

Quite a

has been

in

Fauna and Flora ICITESI. Under

and

in

extreme conditions

may disappear completely from the reef

number of studies have attempted to look at

particular species

Productivity

Considerable effort

species, trade data are actually

regulated trade

aquarium industry maintain

of the

collection techniques have

ment about the

some

For

expended

the actual levels of yield

in

trying

to

on selected reefs and have shown

figures ranging from about 0.2 to

40 tons per square

kilo-

determine the size of fishery a reef can sustain. Obviously

meter per year. Such figures do not indicate sustainability,

any such figure

only utilization, and they are highly dependent on the

will

depend on the degree of impact

considered acceptable: the number of species which are

likely

to

such as

any

level

be utilized; and on numerous external factors

light,

temperamre and

nutrients.

In

fact

almost

of fishing will have some impact, not only on

calculations of area fished.

most heavily utilized reefs

One of
is

the best studied and

Bolinao

in the Philippines,

where some 17 000 people are "employed"

in the utili-

zation of about 68 square kilometers of coral reef

Signs

produce annual reports specifying the quantity

trade that has taken place

1997 a total

In

traded

of

listed species.

200 tons

coral

of

56 percent

was

imported

15 percent by the European Union.

Approximately half

was

of this

coral for aquaria,

live

amount

a tenfold Increase on the

in

each

with

Internationally,

USA and

by the

of

in

Change

of

of live coral

traded

the late 1980s.

No marine aquarium

fish or invertebrates

other

than clams or corals are listed under CITES. Only

very rough estimates of trade figures are available,

suggesting that 15-20 million

mately
trade

may

000 species

Individual fish species

In

from approxi-

fish

be traded per year. The

unknown, and no

is

data exist on the extent of the trade

in

Invertebrates

other than corals and clams.

Thus, while the current impacts of the aqua-

rium trade remain poorly known, the potential

this industry

is

considerable.

manage aquarium
levels.

It

fisheries at low

and sustainable

further possible to capture

is

for

quite possible to

Is

It

live

man-

aged shipping and husbandry, mortality can also be

operators

in

shown by some

the industry. Targeting mostly non-food

species, aquarium fisheries can,

in

theory at least,

provide an alternative economic activity for low

It

seems

on

Estimates from the Caribbean suggest that

substantial

4-5 tons of fish per square kilometer per year

may be

regional

may be

higher in Southeast

Asia. Such figures are calculated on the basis of a multispecies fishery.

is

much

taken,

Where only

income coastal populations and an important

source

of foreign

a small sub-set

offish species

sustainable

Aquaculture

many

coral reef countries.

In the broader coral reef environment, shrimp farming

is

probably the most widespread and high value form of

aquaculture.

It is

also, typically,

to the environment,

nearby.

By

and often

one of the most damaging

to the

human communities

contrast there are several other aquaculture

which have

economies,

management

of reefs.

The application

schemes may

an important tool for achieving

provide

this.

aquarium

trade.

provides both

The

the

coral

reef environment

cultivating these species, but in

remains

not

only

space and the ideal conditions for

many of

these industries

supply of nutrients as well as wild

critical to the

stock with which to initiate and maintain the industries.

Shrimp farming

is

more

in the tropics

typically associated with

coral reefs,

and large areas of

have been converted

to

shrimp

farms. Conversion itself often involves near complete

In addition to the fisheries already mentioned, aquaculture

in

for national

of international certification

mangrove areas than with

lower figures would be expected.

of increasing importance

exchange

as well as a stronger economic incentive for the

mangrove

is

a trade

well as a range of corals and other species for the marine

differences.

sustainable, while figures

in

CITES.

aquaculture includes pearl oysters, clams and algae, as

There may

be

shipment

for

now monitored by

from reefs will

conditions.

also

is

local ecological

likely that sustainable yields

actually vary considerably depending

which

species

using non-destructive techniques. With well

kept very low, as has already been

A branching coral ready

destruction of forests, with the digging of wide pools for

the rearing of the prawns.

The process of developing and

running such an operation can lead

to the

production of

considerable sediments and the release of large amounts

of nutrients and other chemicals utilized

in the intensive

production process, and these can be damaging to nearby

reef ecosystems. All too often poor

management means

that these

farms have a highly limited lifespan, although

rounding ecosystems and appear to provide a sustainable

the profits

may be very

and potentially high value use of coral reef

5-10) years of operation. Closure of the farms

activities

little

or no

impact on the sur-

habitats.

Such

large indeed during the

few (often
is

rarely

52

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

tied

any ecological restoration and,

to

wastelands are

left

too

all

with unproductive and

still

also being developed in

often,

These and other

highly

polluted pools in the place of former mangroves.

of pearl oysters

is

but also from the trampling of the reef

recent, occurring only since the

techniques for pearl culture were developed.

time, however, their impact

now wide-

It is

impact the natural

by the cultured organism over existing benthic species,

Middle East. However, the farming

more

parts of the Caribbean.

clearly

ecosystem function, both through the smothering effect

Pearl collection can be traced back several millennia to

the pearl divers of the

some

activities

may be more

is

flat.

At the same

limited to a small area and

than countered by the reduced impact on

spread in a number of reef regions, but most notably with

other parts of the reef as local communities turn their

the culture of blacklip pearl oysters Piitcuida margaritifera.

attention to aquaculture.

One of

the largest producers

is

French Polynesia, where

Other types of aquaculture

extensive pearl farms have been developed in the lagoons of

a

number of atolls. The

suspended

in the

which are

in reef

regions include the

rearing of trochus (a mollusc used for food but also an

filter feeders, are

important species in the mother-of-pearl industry), and a

water column. Thus far no adverse long-

small but growing interest in sponge farming. Efforts are

oysters,

term effects from these farms have been noted on the sur-

also

rounding

cucumbers (holothurians). The culture of corals and

although there have been mass mortalities,

reefs,

underway

with associated temporary eutrophication of parts of the

for the

lagoons on a few occasions.

activity,

The
is

culture of particular organisms on the reef

to

develop techniques for culturing sea

marine ornamental trade

and

is

is

fish

more challenging

often undertaken under

more controlled

conditions in large-volume aquaria adjacent to coral reefs,

flat

also increasing. Aquaculture of giant clams (several

or

the importing countries of North

America and Europe.

species of the family Tridacnidae) has been developed

in a

number of

Pacific islands and in Australia.

clams are used both

in the

Farmed

Other reef products

aquarium trade and as food,

both as a high value export and for local consumption.

Harvesting of reef resources also

Another perhaps more widespread activity

values, and mention has already been

and shallow lagoon areas

is

the

reef

in

flat

cultivation of algae.

goes beyond food

made of

the use

of aquaculture for pearl production. The aquarium trade

Seaweeds are used both as a source of food and as a

is

a relatively

new

raw material from which a group of natural gums are

importance

in

extracted

agents,

widely used for the collection of materials for jewellery

including sodium alginate, carrageenin and agar Various

and other ornaments, while the bare materials of the reef

species are exploited, including Eiicheiima and Sargassiim.

have often been used as

for

Algal farming

use

is

as

thickening or gelling

widespread

and Indian Oceans, with the

in

countries of the Pacific

it

some

areas (see page 50). Reefs are also

base for construction.

Mother-of-pearl ornamentation can be traced back to

Thebes

largest tropical exporters

being the Philippines, Indonesia and Tanzania, and

use of reefs with significant economic

in

Egypt

been foimd

is

in

in

3200 BC. and pearls themselves have

China dating back

to

2500 BC. While

their

iSftS^^
Left: Giant

number

may be

clam Tridacna gigas amidst

of countries in

sustainable.

lines of

cages of juvenile clams.

ttie Pacific. Rigt^t: Sfiells

for sale

on

tf)e

I^lariculture of

streets of

tfie

clams

Seyctielles. At

is

now taking place

low levels sucti

in

activities

Signs

exact origins remain unclear

it

is

highly likely that reefs

were being used as one source of such products. The use

of cowrie

shells as currency

spread utilization, and

come from

at

some of them would have

found across Africa and South Asia

evidence of a trade
records back to 400
as the

Money

in these shells

AD, while

to

China. There

from India

the Maldives

to

is

China from

Cowries were widely used

is

The use of

turtle

was once very popular

shell

some

cultures

of marine turtles combined with

trade in turtle products has

of

now

this trade.

Building materials

The

earliest structures to

have been

still

widely

harvested

is

today

for

and sand

flats,

particularly for building purposes.

culture techniques has greatly influenced the value and

goes back many centuries, notably

geographic spread of pearl culture. Today the pearl

Red Sea and

is

culture

is

and there

dominated by Australia (especially Western

and French Polynesia, but pearl aqua-

widespread across island locations

is

in the

Pacific

continuing small-scale natural pearl industry,

notably in India.
Corals, particularly red pink and black, are widely used

traced back to antiquity.

and

many

in

cases this use can be

While these corals are not

to coral reef regions, reefs are a

restricted

major source, particularly

was unsustainable

for black corals. This industry

in

many

countries and, like the trade in scleractinian corals (see box

on

the

aquarium trade on page

under CITES. The

these

tended
in the

products,
to

in the

in

houses along the

in

Maldives.

in the

Today reef rock

and

USA

is

50).

is

now

while Taiwan and the

dommate

strictly

regulated

again the major consumer of

Philippines

the export statistics. Within the

Hawaiian islands - there

is

have

USA

also a substantial black

The use

construction of stone buildings also

is still

widely used

in the

Maldives,

other coralline island nations where there

is

no

other natural building material. Similarly, sand and reef

rock are often dredged from reef

quences

and lagoons for

flats

the construction industry, despite the

in the jewellery industry,

from coral and

also a long tradition of

of coral rock

industry

built

removing materials from coral reefs and nearby lagoons

international trade. For pearls, the development of aqua-

Australia). Japan

controls on the

strict

greatly reduced the size

reef rock were probably walls and pens associated with

jewellery and curio industry

and coral are

in

jewellery and other decorative ornaments, but the scarcity

the capture of fish, but there

Pearls

became known

mid- 19th century.

The

managed, with

well

relatively

Change

size restriction preventing overutilization.

Islands because of the preponderance of shells

in those areas.

into the

This

harvest.

minimum

was another ancient and wide-

least

E.xamples of shell currency have been

reefs.

coral

of

immediate conse-

such actions have on the reefs and nearby

that

beaches. Apart from high levels of siltation which often

smother and

kill

the

adjacent reefs, the extraction of

sand and rock frequently leads

the

to coastal

erosion and to

massive costs associated with trying

to

maintain

or stabilize the coast, or to losses associated with the

collapse of buildings and roads into the sea. In
the reef flat

Such
loss

is

many

activity frequently leads to the partial or

of

areas

also used as a location for land reclamation.

live corals

complete

on the adjacent fringing reef On the

Egyptian coast of Hurghada the entire fringing reef has

been killed as hotels have encroached

of the main attractions of

now

by boat

travel

it.

This reef was one

this coastline, but tourists

must

which were once

to see coral reefs

thriving just a few meters from their hotel beds.

Genetic treasure house

The genetic

diversity to be found on reefs

is

unparalleled.

Furthermore, within the ecological complexity of the reef

there are countless examples of interactive evolutionary

processes that have driven genetic diversification

interesting

perspective. In such a world, the evolution of

secondary metabolites

lopment of toxins as a

compounds may be mirrored by

are

complex

common, particularly the devemeans of defense or attack. Such

is

development of other chemicals

Toxins

down

and potentially valuable paths from a human

the

evolutionary

to counter their impacts.

of particular interest

in

pharmaceutical

research, and the coral reef abounds in such substances.

Stonefish,

sea

snakes,

pufferfish contain

wall of coral rock, Maldives.

box

some of

jellyfish,

the

cone shells and

most toxic compounds

54

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

known

of the iceberg.

to date, but these are just the tip

Huge numbers of

species, but particularly the sessile or

slow-moving invertebrates such

these species. In both cases these problems can be solved

with detailed management and cooperation.

The value of coral

as sponges, bryozoans,

reefs as a standing stock of genetic

ascideans and nudibranchs. contain a vast panoply of

diversity

complex and potent chemical compounds.

potential, just beginning to be utilized. For this reason

Traditional

have used compounds

societies

from

the reefs in traditional medicine and, while perhaps the

majority of examples are

almost impossible

to value in

some, such as the use of terebellid worms

Palau,

in

in

on the planet, burgeoning with

new pharmaceuticals
environments for many dec-

Bioprospecting for potential

is still

relatively

new

gathering and screening

reefs.

new

is
is

it

an economic sense, but the

Tourism and recreation

particular species.

Now, however, considerable

value

Hawai'i and

which indicate

Coral reefs are

ades but

this

benefits could be vast.

ongoing perceived benefits from the active properties of

has been ongoing in terrestrial

many ways

and forgotten, there are

lost

of rabbitfish gall bladders

considerable, but in

is

in the

marine environment.

efforts

being put

are

into

genetic materials from coral

Anti-cancer properties are being investigated in a

number of products derived from marine

life,

including

Despite
recent

this,

among

the

most visually impressive habitats

life

and dazzling with

color.

the visual appreciation of these habitats

phenomenon. The

first

is

use of modern mask, fins and

snorkel can be traced back to the Mediterranean in the

1920s and 1930s, while the development of the

first fully

automatic aqualung and regulator did not occur until 1942.

Diving as a popular activity began to spread

and probably the

first

diving club

in

the

in the 1950s,

tropics

was

cryptophycins from blue-green algae, and other metabolites

established in Jamaica in 1957. In less than 50 years diving

from planktonic dinoflagellates. Pseudopterosins derived

has grown from being an obscure (and dangerous) sport to

from Caribbean sea-whip corals are being investigated

being one of the worlds most popular adventure

for skincare

and anti-inflammatory properties. The com-

pound manoalide. derived from

a Pacific

sponge, has

spawned more than 300 chemical analogues being

for anti-inflammatory properties. Initial tests

now

tested

on a neuro-

PADI, the world's

activities.

largest diver certification organization,

provided certification for over 800 000 divers

in

1999, and

has provided certification for over 8 million divers since

establishment. Worldwide there are

now

its

over 15 million

toxin derived from a Pacific marine snail are showing very

recreational divers, certified under the various existing dive

powerful painkilling properties. These are only published

training organizations.

examples: there are likely

to

be

many

lopment which remain undisclosed

Such

activities are not

others under deve-

to the

wider public.

without controversy. There

is

concern that host countries may lose ownership and a

share of any profits from

new pharmaceuticals

compounds developed by

the drug companies. There

also concern that collection of

species

may

Divers pay

actually

premium

or other

more unusual and

Just as the sport of diving has developed, the concept

of rapid and relatively cheap international travel and

is

rare

impact the global populations of

the

economic boom and development of many countries

around the world have led

to

tourism becoming one of the

world's most important industries. These two factors have

combined, and coral reefs are the favored destination of

amateur divers around the world.

divers,

many

millions

In addition to certified

more undertake

prices for close encounters with charismatic creatures such as this loggerhead

single dives, enjoy

turtle,

Caretta caretta.

Signs

snorkelling over reefs, or view the reefs

from glass-

bottomed boats. As a part of the present work an

new

entirely

dataset has been compiled, listing dive centers

which

an appreciation
reefs

is

likely to increase,

and with

of the world. These centers are shown on the detailed

their great beauty

showing

illustrated here,

where

it is

numbers

now few

that there are

to particular reefs can

Coastline protection

1.1

be very large

million visitors per

year going to the Great Barner Reef in Australia, but by

this

this figure

was over 10

million. In 1997, the value of

tourism to the Great Barrier Reef was estimated

US$700

over

of tourism
Peninsula

million. In a

in

much

smaller area, the

is vast,

from under 600

1988

to over 6
in

parts of the Caribbean

While

include hotels, diving and park

spending on associated

travel,

spending

direct

the

indirect

subsequent travel

to other

fees,

areas within a country, or other activities undertaken as part

of a
of

tourist

package,

may more

than double the total value

tourism to a country or region.

These barriers have a

those

strips

like colorful barriers close to tropical coastlines.

same

play in defending

critical role to

coastlines from the daily pounding of

waves

the worst ravages of storms. Despite the apparently fragile

are often even greater Calculations of the total value of

tourists to reef areas are difficult.

running

boom

000 by 1995, and 16 000

many

of the worlds reefs can be traced as narrow

and the scouring of currents and, even more important,

with numbers of tourist rooms increasing

in

Many

at

the southern parts of the Egyptian Sinai

by 1999. Visitor numbers

may

and high recreational potential.

areas of

not possible to dive on coral reefs.

indeed. In 1985 there were around

1995

this a desire to protect

economic value, but also

second section of the book, but are broadly

in the

Tourist

As such

developed so local recreation on coral

is

reefs not only because of their

the world

Change

are unable to afford expensive holidays or diving.

offer certified dive training in all the coral reef areas

maps

of

nature of the individual corals, reefs are able to

grow

in

highly wave-swept environments and gradually build up

the vast structures

which buffer and defend the

In fact the reefs not

coastline.

only protect coastlines from the worst

excesses of storm damage, but are also the source of sand

which builds up or replenishes beaches.

During the biggest storms many corals may be broken
up, but the coral rubble

and sand are often forced up

during these same storms into islands or onto beaches,

new

creating

land.

The presence of vegetation on these

also provides

small islands produces organic deposits, while the roots,

considerable employment in a range of sectors (hotels,

together with various chemical and mechanical processes,

diving, fishing), as well as presenting a strong incentive for

may

this

the sound

It

management of reef resources.

For the most part, scuba diving

is

a recreational

activity only enjoyed by the relatively wealthy,

and there

many places, a considerable dichotomy between

who enjoy coral reefs as a place for recreation and
who may be resident in coral reef areas, but are

those

unable to do likewise. In a few places considerable efforts

are being

made

to

develop a greater appreciation and under-

standing of coral reefs

Map

2.1: Dive

among

those resident people

who

permanently raised above sea

level.

This function of reefs

in

terms of

its

is

again difficult to quantify

value. Furthermore, in the short run, the

ecological degradation of a reef

function, although there

is

may

not greatly impair this

good evidence

that the

lose even

its

physical structure within years or decades.

r^.

Coral reefs

Dive centers

powers of

erosion are relatively rapid and that a dead reef will begin to

(^'[

nations,

dependent on these processes for their very existence.

centers

Some

consisting only of these small coral islands, are wholly

exists, in

those

further help to bind the substrate, creating habitable

islands,

56

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Threats

to reefs

reefs in their natural

Coral

have often been

state

considered as highly stable ecosystems with their

tight

ecological

complexity protecting a finely

result

has been considerable degradation, with loss of

ecosystem function

seem

many

in

few places reefs

areas. In a

to

have disappeared completely, and have been

balanced and highly sensitive ecosystem. Even minor

replaced

by other ecosystems of lower diversity and

changes

productivity.

to the species balance,

it

suggested, will have

is

As such changes

many important

occur, the

repercussions across the ecosystem. Other ecologists have

goods and services which the reef formerly provided

challenged this view and pointed to the

become diminished

catastrophic

some of

events

many

apparently

which are regular occurrences on

the world's reefs. There

is

evidence that certain

levels of disturbance, such as physical

damage from major

storms, or even the impacts of diseases,

may

actually be of

benefit to a reef ecosystem over the longer term. Without

the constant shifts

and changes of conditions which these

natural events produce, conditions might favor particular

species to the detriment of others, and diversity on the

reefs

might be reduced. Arguments about the true

stability

and complexity of interrelationships on coral reefs

continue for

many

years, but

have survived and even thrived

can be

it

will

remains clear that reefs

in areas

where disturbance

a regular occurrence. Unfortunately,

or are

lost.

Most human-induced impacts

categories:

pollution,

climate change. Direct physical

into four broad

fall

sedimentation,

overfishing and

damage presents

a fifth

more limited

in spatial extent,

but in

more damaging and

irreversible than

any of the others.

factor,

The

some cases

actual effects of these impacts on particular reefs

vary.

They may be complicated by

may

their interactions with

one another, or be countered by natural mitigating factors

or further

human

intervention. In a few cases, changes or

apparent degradation on the reefs cannot be directly traced

to single, or

even multiple stressors, and yet there

be a link to

human

may

still

impacts.

equally

In the following account, the effects

of these broad

true that recent decades have created levels of stress to

categories of stress are first considered.

More complex

coral reefs that are unprecedented in the recent history of

phenomena

the planet.

it

is

These human disturbances are not only intense,

but are widespread in every part of every ocean. In

areas they also

compound one

another, or are

many

further

exacerbated by natural disturbances.

The
to

true resilience of coral reefs

are then addressed independently: the crown-

of-thorns starfish, the

patterns of coral
resulting impacts
tion looks at

is

now being

tested

extreme levels over large areas of the planet, and the

summarizes

how

Diadema

diseases.

may
this

As

die-off and the global

threats

combine so the

be greatly exacerbated.

may work

a recent global

in practice,

final sec-

and further

study which attempted to

the global patterns of stress to the

worlds coral

map

reefs.

Shark fins are being gattiered from around ttie world, predominantly for export to East Asia in a trade whicf) is far
from sustainable. Right: Coral bleaching has become a widespread phenomenon. In extreme events other
species, such
as this anemone, have also been observed to bleach and die.
Left:

Signs of Change

Pollution
The major form of

Sedimentation

on coral reefs

pollution

human

enrichment, primarily linked to

nutrient

is

waste, but also to

Reef corals

are highly sensitive to the impacts of sediments.

As sediments hang suspended

column they

the water

in

agricultural runoff. Recent decades have seen burgeoning

block light from the reef below, preventing the growth or

human

even survival of corals, particularly

populations

urbanization of

areas close to reefs, and rapid

in coastal

many

Many

societies.

countries, particularly

the poorer nations, have failed to develop

sewage treatment

the sediments settle they

in

may smother

deeper waters. As

corals.

While corals

remove sediments, secreting mucus and then

are able to

systems able to cope with growing urban areas, and vast

sloughing this off into the water, such an activity uses

amounts of sewage enter coastal zones through the drainage

energy and nutrients. In the long term the smothering effects

system or are directly piped into nearshore waters. Even

of sediments weakens

away from urban

reproductive potential and leaving them less able to compete

considerable pace. Tourism

at a

development has occurred

centers, coastal

kind of development. While

it

in particular
is

has led to this

smaller scale,

actively

it

seeks out sites immediately adjacent to the coastline, and

in

many

cases there

is

again

sewage treatment.

or no

little

In

addition to sewage pollution, agricultural development in

many

countries has entailed the

nutrients in the

form of

many of which

artificial fertilizers,

The impacts of eutrophication on

Algae flourish

kill

corals or prevent

new

settlement of
in

Among

the rest of the reef

in the

increase.

More

many

each
in

is

somewhat

Papua

New

its

may

ability

from events such as hurricanes. They may also

of reef

conditions, nutrient pollution alone

reef and lead to

extreme

fisheries. In
is

sufficient to kill a

replacement by algal communities.

its

area of

lutant in
in

many remote

coral reef regions.

results

from minor

These occur
and

Straits

the

oil

pol-

pollution

or deliberate discharges of

in oil drilling areas

oil.

such as the Arabian Gulf,

such as the Straits of Malacca, the

of Hormuz, the Gulf of Aden and the approaches

Panama Canal, where

to

vessels often discharge ballast

water or clean out their tanks. Other toxic chemicals are

harvest

rates

pollution on corals are

reefs have

major

spill in

Panama

com-

is

slightly

for

It

is

possible to

human consumption,

way

for millennia. For

many

traditional cul-

between local populations and

their

adjacent coral reefs can best be seen as an ecological one,

where humans play a

role as a part

of the reef ecosystem.

Just as with other fisheries, there are limits to this

utilization.

Beyond these

and

limits fish stocks decline

catch per unit of effort begins to

regularly talk in terms of

fall.

Fisheries scientists

maximum

sustainable yields,

although exact figures are difficult to ascertain and

be highly variable over space and time.

may

more cautious

statistic, which is probably more appropriate for the

management of poorly understood coral reef fisheries, is

of

maximum economic

yield. This is defined as that

which gives the highest possible economic return

for

the effort expended. This represents a lower total catch

and the

for the simple reason that catch per unit of effort begins to

significantly

decline as fish stocks begin to be impacted and before the

than unaffected reefs,

reproductive potential of surviving corals

reduced.

shown

some of this productivity

reefs in this

that

higher mortality

toxic

themselves.

without compromising the overall functioning of the reef

yield

some cases polluted

in the tailings

ecosystem, and humans have utilized and depended on

from mining. The effects of

varied. In

may have been exacerbated by

Unsustainable fishing

released by a large range of industries, including tailings

oil

tailings

have degraded or

Reefs are highly productive ecosystems.

have occurred widely

Continuous chronic

spills

in certain localities

common

perhaps the most

areas. Spills

to

or no nutrient impacts. However, even here

little

tures the relationship

Toxic pollutants receive less attention and have been

less well studied. Oil is

Mine

difficult to determine.

Guinea are reported

destroyed significant areas of reef around Bougainville, an

result, but

reduce the reef's resilience to further changes or

affect the sustainable yield

cases the intTuences of sedimentation

and pollution are combined, and the differential impact of

subtle

not be immediately apparent. These changes

to recover

of time.

the reproductive and

growth capacity of particular species may also

may

for considerable lengths

including deforestation and poor agricultural

pounds present

in

system

recent times can be linked to coastal development,

in

and zoanthids may become more common, and plankton-

may

is

light

dredging, land reclamation, and also distant terrestrial

these impacts

eating and herbivorous fish

which

and growth, while

Increasing levels of sediment in coastal environments

community, particle-feeding organisms such as sponges

changes, such as a reduction

coral settlement

sediments are often resuspended by wave action and hence

may remain

practices. In

the water column, with the further effect of reducing light

levels for the corals below.

new

inimical to

activities,

and

filter feeders.

as sediments settle they create a surface

complex.

blooms are also sometimes observed

coral larvae. Algal

Even

structure.

situations of high nutrient loads,

in

can overgrow and

reefs are

community

Typically there are changes in the

reducing growth or

corals,

with other benthic organisms such as algae or

ennchment of the land with

enter the drainage system and are carried to coastal waters.

many

led to a decrease in total

coral cover of 50-75 percent in shallow water reefs.

maximum

sustainable yield

is

reached.

Worldwide, reef fish stocks are regularly harvested

58

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Table 2.1: Target species being decimated for specialist markets worldwide
Target species

Notes

Lobster

High value, popular

Queen conch

High value, popular for tourist and local consumption, Caribbean

Trochus and green snail

Collected

in Pacific

in

tourist centers

islands for

Have become very rare

Marine turtles

in

and

for export, particularly in the

Caribbean

meat and mother-of-pearl

some

islands

Popular food (meat and eggsl, often for local consumption

Use

now

is

highly restricted

in

most areas

Sharks

Dried fins have very high value and are exported to the Far East

Sea cucumbers or

Although there

Sharks are being decimated worldwide, including

beche-de-mer

is

some

local

in

coral reef areas

consumption, high value

in

the Far East has led to

widespread exploitation across the Indo-Pacific

Giant clam

Popular

for local

consumption and export has

many

led to local extinction in

Pacific islands

Sea urchins

Certain species again popular

Seahorses

Popularity for Chinese medicine and the aquarium trade has led to widespread

Large groupers and

These and other very large

reef fish have

areas

trade

losses

Napoleon wrasse

beyond sustainable

limits.

may

This

modern phenomenon. Changes

midden records
old cultures

in the Pacific

may have

began

major

its

not be an entirely

catch from the

fish

Caribbean as long ago

in the

when

the Caribbean

were decimated.

boomed

in

almost

methods have become more

Map

2.2:

all

few decades, has

Human

popu-

coral reef areas. Fishing

effective,

filament line and nets.

and now include

The means of access

also greatly increased, with outboard motors

the storage of catches taken at remote reefs

of catches

number of

recognized.
is

different types of overfishing have

estimated to

be

excess

in

unit

maximized. Growth overfishing

when
that

"^c -X

Coral reef

...

is

^'"''~'"
ILowl

"^'"'*s'2

3 Ihigh)

Severity of bleaching

of the

been

fishing

maximum

of effort are no longer

recognized as occurring

the average size of the target fish

is

reduced towards

of immature individuals. Recruitment overfishing

.:*.'

-r

and the export

Economic overfishing occurs when

economic yield and yields per

4 :.^.

have

and modern

to overseas markets.

The 1998 coral bleaching event

to reefs

building materials for boats. Refrigeration has also enabled

effort

society, particularly in the last

been widely removed from many reef

cheap gears such as mass-produced metal hooks and mono-

monk

decline towards eventual extinction, and

greatly increased fishing pressure on reefs.

lations have

live fish

culture also led to rapid over-

some stocks

turtle rookeries

Modern

supply the

suggest that even millennia-

as the 17th and 18th centuries,

seal

to

some areas

overexploited particular stocks.

The impact of European

exploitation of

in

in

Far East export markets

in

is

Signs

defined as occurring

reduced sufficiently

of ex

role

this stage

when

the size of the adult stock

is

to impair recruitment (the important

situ recruitment in the reef

of overfishing

environment makes

Ecosystem

difficult to identify).

many

smaller coral communities on continental shelves

recent years.

As most of

never documented the scale of

There

is

some evidence

sodium cyanide used

- when stocks of the

a detrimental impact

the food chain"

is

relatively corrimon

more popular piscivorous species have been depleted

fishing effort

moves down

One

species.

term has been coined for the most

final

heavily fished reefs of

This

is

to planktivorous or herbivorous

all, that

of Malthusian overfishing.

seen to occur where there are too

many

fishers for

may

is

of

critical

By

overfishing" has been coined to describe the focussed

removal of particular species for special markets.

examples of

Some

target species are listed in Table 2.1.

key force driving many of these fisheries

is

species are denied the shelter on which they depend.

more remote

bowl of shark

is

coral reefs around the world.

fin

some of

One of

the

soup costing over US$100, and Hong

as importing

fin in 1999, equating to

The impacts of

some 6 400

tons of shark

more than 28 million

harvesting. Destructive fishing practices have reduced the

blast fishing

many

areas.

These include

and the fish-driving methods of muro-anu

and paaling already mentioned. Trawling

practice

which can

affect reefs.

is

another

Although trawls are not

dragged over large reef structures

it

seems

a single blast

may

take

the worst affected areas

fishing has been recorded in

many

countries, including

parts of the Caribbean and East Africa,

it

is at its

worst,

and remains widespread, throughout Southeast Asia.

Climate change and bleaching

Coral reefs are highly sensitive to climatic intluences and

appear to be

likely that

among

the most sensitive of

as coral bleaching

when

ecosystems

all

to

phenomenon known

temperature changes, exhibiting the

stressed by higher than normal

sea temperatures.

Coral bleaching

sharks.

fishing are not simply those of over-

productivity of coral reefs in

some of

The

the Far East. There are records of a single

Kong was recorded

several blasts per hour are being recorded. Although blast

Extremely high values commanded by particular products

major markets

to the

which

economic.

are supporting the often illegal harvesting of even

the

may have

limiting the surface area for coral

years or decades, and

and the term "target species

live fish

and algal growth and reducing topographic complexity,

sometimes the complete destruction of reef communities.

from human populations particular species

of

importance, providing food and shelter for

countless organisms.

Recovery of the reef structure from

far

be

reefs.

Most of these destructive fishing methods lead

many

targets for fishing,

damage

flattening or pulverization of the reef substrate,

for reasons of poverty or economics, to the detriment and

Even

may never

corals.

any sustainable form of fishery, but fishing continues, often

may be

also

suggest, for example, that

to

in the capture

on

loss

this

on the wider community

environment of reef fisheries the concept of "fishing down

in

these smaller structures were

determined. Fishing with poisons

In the multi-species

Change

have been completely destroyed by large trawl gear

overfishing has been reported where fishing has impacts

structure.

of

in

is

the term used for a loss of color

reef-building corals and the subsequent visibility of

the

underlying (white)

skeleton.

Reef-building corals

are highly dependent on a symbiotic relationship with

microscopic algae (zooxanthellae, see Chapter

1)

which

live

within the coral tissues. The bleaching results from

the

ejection of the zooxanthellae by the coral polyps

and/or by the loss of chlorophyll by the zooxanthellae

This reaction of corals

themselves.

been widely

has

observed for many years: corals usually recover from

bleaching but they can die

Bleaching

is

in

extreme cases.

caused by various types of

stress,

including temperature extremes, pollution and exposure to

air

It is

temperature-related stresses, however, which have

been most widely reported, and are of particular concern

in relation to

climate change.

On

any given reef slope, the

normal range of sea temperatures throughout the year

is

narrow - usually about 4C - though the range of temperatures tolerated by reef-building corals worldwide

much wider
individual

(16-36C).

regions and

It

would appear

localities

is

that corals in

have become highly

adapted to these quite narrow temperature regimes. Studies

have shown that temperatures of only 1-2C above the

normal
are

maximum

enough

(threshold temperatures) for a few

to drive a

weeks

"mass bleaching" event (where high

proportions of corals across the reef are bleached).

The polyps of the boulder star coral Montastrea annularis, each just a few millimeters across. Those

to the

tower right are

bleached, while the remainder are mostly their original color, although even the tips of these polyps are beginning to lose
their color.

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Crown-of-thorns starfish

^^^^^^p^
^^^"'^^

^^^^^^w

^^^ S^HB

^^1

A crown-of-thorns

W^S^MH0^^^^^m
^B^^^^B^^^H

starfish

The crown-of-thorns

SffiH

^^eT'.'.

consuming a branching

starfish

Acanthaster planci

large and distinctive starfish which

is

^ME
coral.

is

found across

during these storms

the Indo-Paclfic from the Red Sea to the Eastern

Adults can grow up to about 60 centlnneters

Pacific.
in

diameter, and have up to 21 short

arms around

the edge of a wide central disc. The entire dorsal surface

is

covered

in

short, poisonous spines.

many

For

species

the early 1960s the

in

same

was observed reaching plague proportions

on a number
Australia.

The

of reefs in the

Great Barrier Reef

In

plague recorded on Green Island

Initial

numbered hundreds

Aggregation

of

thousands and

killed

percent of the coral during the period

response

The

Including

Low

numerous

locations throughout

Guam, Japan, Hawaii and

In reality.

factors

cover

A number
to the

cause

of

was

lost.

of theories

although

of
It

have been advanced as

these plagues, and as

whether

to

is

some

outbreaks occurring prior to the 1960s,

seems

(a

large

reduced

predation

It

has been

might allow

It

all

seems

likely that

any or

be combined, with

could

all of

high

behavioral aggregation

these

levels

allowing the build-up of massive popu-

Considerable debate has also taken place as

whether these plagues are natural or humaninduced, and again the answer is controversial.

unlikely that these

were as

Forest clearance and agriculture on

mainland coasts has undoubtedly

of runoff, creating

many

island

and

led to higher rates

pulses of low salinity and higher

nutrient Inputs. Observations of the Great Barrier

frequent or widespread as the plagues which have

Reef appeared

occurred since. Three general theories have gained

Increases

particular prominence:

targeting of at least one of the key predators.

Most plagues have been observed close

Islands,

of

and reduced

to

they are natural or human-Induced. There

evidence

triton

lations capable of destroying a reef.

Micronesia. With each plague up to 95 percent of

living coral

natural

triggerfish

population explosions of the starfish.

predation

In

of

pufferflsh.

been found on some infested reefs and

were observed

Including

certain

populations of these predators have

suggested that

recruitment,

Pacific,

have a small number

starfish

mollusc].

a behavioral

these events.

to

Throughout the 1960s and 1970s new plagues

the

has been observed following

and emperors, but also the giant

80

1962-64.

of adults

and the concentrated plagues may be

predators.

years crown-of-thorns starfish were

considered rare, but

favor larval survival and

destruction of coral areas by storms or other events

They feed

exclusively on live coral.

may

massive juvenile recruitment.

and have followed severe storms.

been suggested that the lower

salinities

to high
It

has

and/or

higher nutrients associated with terrestrial runoff

reality

It

In

to

fishing

seems

tally

closely

efforts,

likely that

with

significant

including the popular

In

crown-of-thorns outbreaks

could occur under entirely natural conditions, but

may now be occurring more

human activities.

frequently as a result of

Signs

of

Change

The long-spined sea urchin

1983 a mass mortality of the long-spined lor

In

Diadema antillarum was

black-spinedl sea urchin

first

observed

Panama. The cause

In

remains unclear, although there

Is

deaths

of the

evidence that

pathogen may have been Involved. The

a bacterial

disease spread rapidly

almost every reef

to

Caribbean during 1983 and 198A,

the

In

typically leading to

One

the loss of at least 93 percent of the urchins.

year later a second wave of the disease swept

through and removed many

The Impact

of the surviving urchins.

these events has been severe

of

Diadema was a critical

many reefs. Its loss led to

across the Caribbean.

grazing herbivore on

massive increases

On

filamentous and fleshy algae.

In

reefs already impacted by coral disease Isee page

621 or hurricanes, this proliferation of algae greatly

The long-spined sea urchin Diadema antillarum.

slowed or prevented coral recruitment and recovery,

while even on healthy reefs, the growth of algae

has led

many

to the deterioration of

coral colonies

been suggested that overfishing

many areas has

in

growth.

In

recovery of

Diadema

existing

It

little

or no

the

In

The sudden appearance

appearance

Panama Canal suggests

of the

that the

of this

die-off

have been exacerbated by

High levels of fishing had probably

activities.

already increased

the

dependence on

ecological

of a

natural mutation,

In

the latter

while continued overfishing

many

recovery of

herbivores to take

is

place.

Its

slowing or preventing

as there are few other

reefs

In

many

areas, pollution

and sedimentation may have also raised nutrient

levels, favoring conditions for rapid algal growth,

disease close to the

allowing

pathogen may have

dominated communities

establishment

the

for

In

many

and

new. algal-

of

areas.

Reports of coral bleaching have increased greatly

such a massive scale could lead to local disappearance of

records of mass bleaching occurring

certain species, driving a loss in diversity and changes in

since 1979, with

all

after

The number of

this

date.

(geographic divisions)

in

coral

reef provinces

correlation with El Niiio Southern Oscillation

events.

The most

significant

was associated with

the 1997-98

In certain areas,

Ocean,
to

this

(ENSO)

mass bleaching event

were reports of bleaching from

2.2).

ENSO

all

event,

to date

when

there

over the world (see

Map

most notably the Central Indian

event was followed by mass mortality, where

90 percent of

all

corals died over thousands of

square kilometers, including virtually

all

reefs

the

Maldives, the Chagos Archipelago and the Seychelles.

Although new coral growth has been observed

areas, full recovery fi-om such

years or decades. There

is

community

in these

an event will take many

some concern

that mortality

on

structure.

Although there are no clear records of mass bleaching

which mass bleaching has been

reported varies widely between years, but shows a close

up

human

this single species of herbivore prior to this event,

could also be linked to the arrival of an

first

its

impacts

pathogen from another region.

case, the

Whether

fish

have not been directly implicated

of a

ship.

herbivorous

further encouraged algal

pathogen may be the result

although

water from a

ballast

ultimate origins are natural or human-Induced, the

populations.

of this die-off.

In

has

most areas there has been

Humans
cause

of

canal, or

It

through shading by the rapidly growing algae.

species

entered the Caribbean either directly through this

events prior to 1979,

rare but recurrent
in the past.

it is

possible that such events could be

phenomena

have recovered from

that reefs

However, the extent of coral bleaching observed

during recent

ENSO events provides a clear indication of the

wider long-term impacts of rising sea surface temperatures.

Although mass bleaching

at

the present time,

is

largely driven

by

ENSO

most climate models predict

events

that the

threshold temperatures which currently drive these events

will

be reached on an annual basis

in

At both the regional and local

have adapted

to

warmer

regimes. These include

or

more

some of

30-50 years.
level, certain corals

variable

the

temperature

same species

have been observed to be highly sensitive

to

that

temperature

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Such adaptation

variations in other areas.

in the reefs

of the Arabian Gulf (Chapter

showed

vations of the 1998 event

is

clearly seen

Some

9).

obser-

local-scale survival of

Slower coral growth rates and weaker skeletal structures

may

shift the

ally

accreting

balance of

many

structures

reefs

corals in a few areas of reef flats and lagoons even in the

structures,

most hard-hit regions. These areas are

by increasing rates of sea-level

to

more extreme temperatures on

likely to be subject

reduced water circulation and exposure

and/or cold conditions

in

from the

a regular basis,

these areas.

It

to solar radiation

remains to be seen

and

this

change

from

of gradu-

that

of gradually eroding

that

to

be further compounded

will

rise.

will affect not only the coral reef

The impacts of

this

ecosystems, but also

long-term survival of island peoples and even of

the

entire nations.

whether larvae from these corals can recolonize reefs where

more

sensitive corals have died, or

whether there

indeed

is

Direct physical impacts

sufficient genetic resilience within these species to adapt

to the continuing increases in

temperatures predicted under

current models of climate change.

compound

Further concerns

The

threats described thus far are predominantly indirect in

working by degrees from subtle

their action, their impacts

the problems from rising

sea surface temperatures. Corals

may be placed under

more extreme or longer-term impacts. Humans

shifts to

more

occasionally far

are

Dynamite

destructive to coral reefs.

additional stress by the projected increases in concentra-

fishing has already been mentioned, and

tions of atmospheric carbon dioxide.

leads to the instantaneous destruction of small patches of

It

is

believed that

the presence of aragonite in surface waters will be reduced

reef Similar

by such increases, and aragonite

number of activities,

component of

the coral skeleton.

will reduce calcification rates

in

turn

weaker

may

is

an important mineral

Many

Lower concentrations

and skeletal strength, which

lead to reduced rates of reef growth and

damage

is

wrought

at

is

an activity which

various scales through a

as listed in Table 2.2.

of these activities are highly localized. But,

depending on

their location,

important. This

may be

even small impacts

particularly true of popular tourist areas.

is

There have been a number of cases now where insurance

skeletal structures.

All reef development

is

growth

the result of coral

companies have been forced

compensate extremely

to

out-pacing natural processes of erosion, from bioeroding

high sums per square meter of reef

organisms and also physical processes such as storms.

have grounded

damaged where

ships

popular recreational areas. Likewise the

in

Coral disease
The

first

reports of disease affecting scleractinian

corals did
it

was

not

appear

the early

1970s when

progressively destroy coral tissue at rates of several

millimeters per day.

quite shocking to read of rapid tissue degra-

dation occurring

there

until

was

reef-buildmg corals.

in

loss of living tissue and.

in

In all

cases

many, complete

mortality of colonies occurred. Since then increasingly

Since the 1970s a plethora of conditions have been

described as new coral diseases, and

have been

made

many claims
due

for the decline in coral reefs

to

disease. The exact causes of most of these conditions

frequent observations of coral diseases have been

remain unclear. Only two have been unquestionably

reported. Diseases have been observed on 106 species

linked to a

pathogen

5i

gorgonians

in

to

type

of coral lincluding

some

soft corals!

on reefs

in

countries around the world. Coral diseases appear

be particularly prevalent

Two patterns

of

in

the Caribbean.

disease were described

at first,

affecting

Black band disease was observed

variety

of

massive Caribbean corals,

such pathogens

plague

undoubtedly the
in

diffi-

marine

difficulty of linking

Despite the uncertainty of the causal agent,

commonly accepted

that

been a major contributor

canopy, and

of

acroporid

any

corals

it

is

white band disease has

to

Caribbean acroporid corals.

acroporid corals.

move across and

disease of

to specific conditions.

logical studies in Belize

of infected tissue

is

la

and white

and identifying pathogens

principally species of Montastrea and Diptoria,

whereas white band disease was noted on branching

These bands

aspergillosis

organisms, combined with the

millimeters to a few centimeters wide, of diseased

tissue separating healthy tissue from exposed dead

Caribbean!

Part of the problem

culty of finding

both being characterized by a distinctive band, a few

coral skeleton.

II.

the

the massive decline

For example,

documented

in

palaeo-

a disappearance

from 70 percent

replacement by species

of

of

the

coral

Agaricia,

between 1985 and 1996. While the reasons

for the

Signs

impacts of direct diver and anchor damage

may

sites

the longer term.

Land reclamation probably has

impact

significant

destroyed and

terms of the

in

one of the few

is

total

the

most

of reef

area

genuinely

activities that

leads to a change in absolute reef area. Building on coral

been widespread

reefs has

many

in

Compounded problems

popular dive

at

reduce the real economic value of those sites in

countries, including

The

different

activities

have had a major impact on

Military installations exist in a

many

coral reefs.

number of coral reef areas,

Weapons

including several remote coral islands and atolls.

testing grounds and military
in

such areas. These

dumps have

facilities

on the surrounding coral

reefs.

The

reefs of Vieques off

Puerto Rico and Fallaron de Medinilla

Mariana Islands are

for

target

surrounding

reefs.

areas of reef

flat

in the

landuse.

The

with

Many

significant

military

impacts on the

other facilities have reclaimed

dredged or

for construction, or have

blasted channels for boats. Johnston Atoll has been used as

dump

for large quantities of hazardous waste, while a

number of other remote

historically, as testing

Pacific atolls have been used,

grounds for nuclear weapons, and

in

a few, high levels of radiation remain.

sudden susceptibility
disease

is

unknown,

not occurred

in

variety

white

to

was dramatic. Such

band

a shift had

the previous U 000 years.

of

environmental

of overfishing

Sedimentation

result

may

combination of

to.xic

and nutrient pollution

from wastewaters: direct physical damage from

the construction of jetties or the impacts of boat anchors;

and

fish populations

may be impacted

in the

provision of

food for guests, staff and dependents.

Natural impacts, particularly storms, often exacerbate
these human-induced problems. In Jamaica a

much

coral reefs have lost so

appear

to

Map

2.3:

some

occurring on these reefs since

at least the

1960s (and some

authors have suggested since the previous century), the

reefs

still

maintained high coral cover

Allen swept over the island

in

until

1980, reducing

Caribbean (described on page

651

sub-regional variation.

disturbance

--U
%s^..^^:-

Coral reef

Coral diseases

activities.

The

incidence of disease

'.

i&'S

the next

from the

at Risk data

and the distribution

locations at which disease has been observed

'-

Hurricane

much of the

was some recovery over

comparison between the Reefs

Coral disease

had been

are records suggesting that chronic overfishing

human

Diseases are

the Caribbean than elsewhere, and

there also appears to be

may no

of

coral diseases reveals that less than 3 percent of the

factors

of their hosts.

it

longer be accurate to call them coral reefs. Although there

as well as the susceptibility

in

number of

coral cover that

reefs under low threat from environmentally

prevalent

threats.

of vege-

arise during the clearance

influence the distribution and virulence of coral diseases,

more

in

equally widespread

such as the development of a new

can create such

and building works;

tation

is

where human populations are growing. Even

activity,

tourist resort,

may

risk

coral to rubble. There

acroporids

of

it

single

Northern

US

regularly used by the

still

practice,

also been located

can have significant impacts

impinge on

from coastal development and changes

resulting

military

that

Sedimentation and pollution are often found together,

in all areas

activities,

stresses

produce changes over wide areas of the planet.

to

set

number of the smaller

Aside from urban or industrial

human-induced

coral reefs rarely act in isolation. Climate change appears

Egypt, the Seychelles, the Maldives, Singapore and a

Pacific atolls.

Change

of

were on

damaging

possibility therefore exists that the

may be

a suitable bio-indicator of

to coral reefs at regional levels.

63

64

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Table 2.2: Major types of direct physical

damage

to coral reefs

Activity

Notes

Ship grounding

Direct impact on relatively small areas of shallow reef

Blast fishing

Individual blasts

Weapons

Remote

testing

scale

Reef walking
Diver

atolls

may

only impact a few square meters, but can be frequent

were used

damage continues

in
in

the early testing of nuclear weapons,

military testing

grounds

Tourists and local people walking on reefs can

damage

kill

some smaller-

present day

to the

coral and flatten the reef matrix

Coral breakage or death from frequent handling, only a major problem on very

popular dive sites

Direct smothering

Solid waste,

and thicker elements

of spilled oil

can

kill

corals through direct

contact and smothering

Anchor damage

Apart from
arcs,

Reef mining

initial

may drag and anchor

impact, anchors

chains sweep over wide

smashing corals over large areas

Includes direct removal of coral, sand and aggregate for construction purposes

Dredging/construction

Dredging

of

channels and lagoons for ships' passage

common

is

in

many

reef

areas, also construction of deep water channels with the blasting of reefs, and the

construction of jetties or roads over the reef

Land reclamation

reef flats

two years, but then

61

all

in

flat

Perhaps the most complete and irreversible destruction

and shallow lagoons are

1983 the Diadema die-off (see page

killed the majority of these sea urchins in the waters

around Jamaica and much of the

rest

of the Caribbean.

infilled

and converted

been suggested

community would

that

of

wide areas

to

land

return

to

of reef,

as

coral-dominated

require a major increase in herbivory

and may be impossible

in the short to

medium

term.

Jamaica was particularly impacted by the loss of these

Reports

herbivores, as the other large herbivores - fish - had

widespread from

already been drastically reduced. Algal cover on the reefs

assessment of the scale and distribution of these losses

increased dramatically, smothering and killing

the

remainmg

state

coral cover.

It

appeared that

some of

new

stable

had been established. Hurricane Gilbert impacted

of degradation of the world's

remains impossible.

reefs

are

parts of the ocean, but a detailed

all

Many

reports are anecdotal, while

vast areas of the world's reefs are

beyond

the reach of

scientists to

produce even irregular assessments. Various

the islands in 1988 and further reduced coral cover, while

efforts

now underway

the algae regenerated rapidly. Fleshy

available information.

92 percent of surveyed "reefs"

Map

Z.it:

macroalgae covered

the early 1990s.

It

has

are

to

improve the levels of

ReefCheck

is

a global coral reef

monitoring scheme which has been using volunteer divers

Reefs at risk

-/\

*-''r-*fe^"'

^X

'JVi.VNel,

Low

Medium

High

Level of risk

=}-4

Signs

using standard procedures across

to assess reef health

hundreds of coral reefs worldwide. At the same time, the

threatened according to proximity to major ports,

Reef Monitoring Network, have led

Coral

regular

to

reporting by national experts enabling a parallel overview

Even with these systems,

based on expert opinion.

however, the possibilities of looking

stress are limited

at reefs

and assessing

the majority are only visited by experts

every few years, and

many have never been

oil

tanks

and wells, and major shipping routes.

of ReefCheck's partner organization, the Global

efforts

Change

of

and

Overexploitation
to

which

destructive fishing: the degree

were considered threatened was based on

reefs

their proximity to differing levels

Known
buffered

out

of population density.

of destructive fishing were further

incidents
as

potential

threat

wider reef

the

to

areas nearby.

Inland pollution and erosion (representing the

studied.

primary source of sedimenl mipacts, but also the important

pollutants associated with inland and agricultural areas): a

Reefs at risk
One

alternative approach

model the

threats

to

using

reefs

to

an attempt

In

to

stress

existing

combined with expert knowledge on

reef ecosystems.

is

to

datasets,

the sensitivities of

undertake such an

led

team of organizations and experts

to

modelled through the drainage basins

Usmg

Data were not available

a global

human

tial

impacts, so the model ignored both climate

change and

direct physical destruction

and concentrated

on what are currently the most widespread and potent

threats

fishing practices. For these, a

were

number of proxy

indicators

enabling the development of four main

utilized,

threat layers.

Coastal
source

of nutrient

pollution,

but

also

the
a

primary

source

of

simple proximity measure for population centers of

varying size, airports, military bases,

centers.

An

mmes

and

tourist

estimate of sewage treatment levels was also

factored into this layer.

Marine pollution

(representing a secondary source

of mostly toxic pollutants): reefs were considered

Table 2.3: Reefs at risk

Statistics

be

2.4).

It

model produced

was estimated

that, overall,

world's reefs were under

medium

regional patterns clearly illustrated in the map.

For the Pacific, which harbors the largest proportion

of the world's coral

reefs, the majority are still

reliant

with

on the reefs

many

coastal

populations

for sustenance, over

reefs are considered threatened.

The Caribbean, with

over 60 percent under threat. In

assumed

some

cases

areas this

is

which may compound, or

many

may

mitigate, the

outcome of these

threats.

the wise

management and

utilization

is

can be

a measure of the potential for degradation. In

reality there are

factor

it

that these reefs are already degraded, but in other

factors

One important
of

Ub

15

Caribbean

39

32

29

High

13

32

55

46

29

25

Southeast Asia

18

26

56

Pacific

59

31

10

Global total

42

31

27

Source: Bryant et al 119981.

its

very high dependence on the coastal tourism industry, has

Medium

Caribbean]

heavily

80 percent of the

39

lexcl.

largely

unthreatened. But in Southeast Asia, the center of coral

Low

Ocean

to

high threat. The global figure hides a number of important

Middle East

Indian

nearby

were combined. After a

Proport ons of reef area at different levels of risk (%l

Atlantic

to

input.

genera ed from the global analysis

Region

to

Map

(see

reef diversity,

development (representing

sedimentation): reefs were considered to be threatened by

a

map

layers

consultations, the refined

some 58 percent of the

sedimentation and unsustainable

pollution,

measure of

an earlier version of the reef maps presented

this atlas, these threat

number of expert

major poten-

depending on intensity of

reefs, the distance

in

to give a

was

This was

rainfall.

mouths, which was then buffered

threat at river

construct a global model of the different threats to reefs.

to analyze all the

"relative erosion potential"

developed based on land cover, slope and

objective global assessment, in 1998 the World Resources

Institute

model of

detailed surface

mapping reef

reefs.

65

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Responses

Humans need coral

to

They

are of critical value

The

communities and countries around the world,

outlined.

reefs.

not only in economic terms, but also in terms of

protein supplied to millions of people,

terms of jobs,

of coastal protection and of recreational value.

The value of

reefs

is

functioning as ecosystems.
their

It

maintains

this alone that

is

worth for coastal tourism and the protection of

coastlines,

and as a store of vast genetic

diversity.

which gives

also this continued functioning

It

is

reefs their

The ultimate causes of these

failure to react to
to

them, can

in

threats,

or the

most cases be related back

two broad problems: a lack of understanding about

reefs

dependent on their continued

of threats to reefs has already been

array

The

and a lack of ownership or responsibility for them.

lack of understanding works at

scientific

existing

all levels,

from a poor

knowledge, to the inadequate transmission of

knowledge

(scientific or traditional) to decision

makers and a broader public. Detailed knowledge about

reefs

is

actually rapidly improving.

how

We now know

a great

productivity and enables the harvesting of reef resources

deal about

by humans.

sequences of actions such as blast fishing or pumping raw

In terrestrial

ecosystems our concept of "harvesting"

or otherwise utilizing "natural" ecosystems

associated

with

massive modification.

is

typically

But the sea

presents a major contrast, as our harvesting of almost

the ocean's resources

is

natural ecosystems as they are. If this harvesting

to

mining, sustainability

all

dependent on the maintenance of

is lost,

and with

it

is

turned

food, jobs and

entire economies.

4 sail-powered dhow, a common

sewage

into coastal waters.

large

number of monitoring

programs have been established, using both

trained amateurs to

how

this

changes over

economic studies on human communities

adjacent to reefs are also widespread, and

clear,

though

still

manage and

and

scientists

amass large amounts of information

about the status of coral reefs, and

time. Social and

to

fishing vessel in East Africa.

coral reefs function, and about the con-

we have

rapidly evolving, understanding of

how

sustainably utilize reefs into the future.

Signs

With

existing knowledge, powerful facts have

this

emerged.

broad swathe of "experts'", including social

scientists, ecologists,

parts of the

lawyers and economists, hold various

same message. Coral

reefs are an incredibly

valuable resource, they can be utilized sustainably, and

the real problems facing reefs on the groimd there

management
tecting a

There are no examples whatsoever which show

must be

interventions to reconcile the issues of pro-

common

The remainder of

resource.

number of

looks at a

management

the

this chapter

many

In

Many

countries active reef

of the lessons

now being

management

learned have,

is

not new.

known and put

degradation by remote actions such as deforestation, poor

adjacent to reefs for centuries or millennia, and

and pollution, never pays. The social and

economic consequences are bad

and

in the short term,

terrible in the longer term.

mitted to a global public

many of

would be

the problems

protecting

are a
reefs,

makers,

slow, and too often the

alone the wider public, are unaware of these

let

valuable facts. There remains an urgent need for education

ensure that the lessons being learned by

in all quarters to

on

the experts are rapidly passed

interest in, or

from
and

to all people

who have an

an impact upon, the future of coral reefs -

government members

fishers to schoolchildren to

The problem of

and responsi-

a lack of ownership

Lying offshore,

bility for coral reefs is a greater challenge.

and

resource, available to anyone. Unfortunately, as

boomed and

populations have

traditional understanding

of coral reef utilization has been rapidly

common

lost

in

many

As

number of

the

and fishing methods become more

increases

on reefs become unsustainable.

Open access and common ownership becomes

try to

much

grab as

free-

as possible before

anyone else does.

and

Measures

society.

and the partitioning

activities,

more complex systems across

measures,

Such

entire coastal zones.

applied

effectively

and

community

with

reversing declines and providing a considerable support

to

communities. In most places, however, the

coastal

enormous, and

still

it

remains

to

be seen

be brought back from the brink

will

amidst the spiralling challenges of population growth

and climate change.

Traditional
Humans have used
As

that there are

at a

community

few concerted

level also typi-

efforts

by those

this

has

management

reefs as a source of food for millennia.

become more

intensive so systems of control

have developed, including cultural controls, taboos, patterns of reef ownership, closed seasons

and

be found

exist, are to

Perhaps the
effective

restrictions

on

some of which

types of fishing gear. The best examples,

still

The lack of ownership

means

human

of the reefs themselves, establishing protected areas or

for fishers to reduce their

others will not do the same.

efficient, so the pressures

cally

to protect coral

trying to exploit a shared

no incentive

is

people

to

negotiations with a

access has led to a "tragedy of the

commons": too many people

for-all, as

For most

day.

include controls on fishing activities or fishing methods,

wider controls on human

how much more

fishers

Complex

continued contribution to

common

if all

present

enable their continued existence

to

challenges are

catch

the

to

new management regimes have

major part of designing systems

reefs in almost every country of the world are seen as a

resource. There

reefs

support, are already being seen to have spectacular results,

city dwellers.

areas, so this

some

broad multiplicity of reef users and adjacent communities

managers and decision

is

coral

be developed from scratch.

immediately diminished, but the transmission of knowledge

societies

traditional

in

of these continue to be the most effective means of

countries, however,

could be clearly and accurately trans-

If these facts

practice

into

been

in fact,

the contrary. Non-sustainable use of coral reefs, or blind

agriculture

now

interventions

being widely put into practice.

such utilization can bring immediate economic and social

benefits.

Change

of

in the Pacific islands.

most widespread and often highly

form of reef management

is

customary tenure,

using the reefs to control external factors impinging on

where

"their" resources. In terrestrial ecosystems

property of particular communities. The consequences of

that

another individual,

allowed to

company

dump raw sewage

or

it

preventing the growth of new grass. This

is

lie

invisible to the wider public,

with sediments,
precisely what

human

is

common

below the water surface,

little

and other resources, are the

such ownership are considerable, especially

traditional communities.

entirely in the interest

Within these

Under

in cohesive,

ownership

restricted

it

is

of the reef's owners not to overfish.

areas

of customary

tenure

many

additional rules, traditions and customs have arisen

which

many

cases

provide considerable

further

controls.

In

done.

certain areas are closed to fishing for given periods, or

to address the

even permanently. The placing of taboos on certain reefs

or nothing

There are thus a number of key responses

reefs.

unthinkable

because they are

reefs, but

resource, and because they

problems facing

is

or industrial waste onto a

neighbor's grazing land, or to smother

happening to coral

it

community should be

reefs, or the reef fish

is

Study and research into ecological

is still

common

in

some

countries, closing

them

to use for

and management techniques

periods of months or even years. Other traditions have

must continue. At the same time the transference of existing

prevented permanent use of certain resources or eating of

knowledge must be a

certain species.

functions,

interactions

priority. Finally, to deal directly

with

67

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Table

2. A:

Restrictions

in

means

regular use worldwide as a

of controlling levels of fishing

on coral reefs
Legal measure

Notes and examples

Licensing

Placing

some degree

of control

over the numbers of fishers or vessels entering a

fishery by requiring possession of a license, and perhaps further restricting the

granting of such licenses, for example, to local community

Gear restrictions

amounts

Limiting the types or

the

numbers

of fishing

may

gear which

members

be used; restricting

or design of fish traps; restricting or prohibiting the use of

particular lines, nets or trace; prohibiting the use of scuba

equipment

lobster

in

fisheries

Complete prohibition on the capture

Species protection

of particular

species or species groups, often

rare species such as clams, lobsters, butterflyfish. sharks

Catch restrictions

Total

numbers caught may be

restricted on a daily basis, or per fisher tvjinimum

such as lobster

size limits are often set for species

ensure they reach breeding

to

size before capture

Seasonal restrictions

Closing particular fisheries for certain periods of the year

Area restrictions

The closure

An

understanding of the

of particular

reef environment

important for traditional management as

it is

form of management, and such knowledge

for

many

known. While such knowledge

ation of species

it

species offish

spawning

species of fish are well

is

useful for the exploit-

has also often led to restrictions. In

certam villages on Palau

at their

were protected on

as

in traditional

societies can be considerable. For example, the

cycles and locations of

is

any other

it

was forbidden

spawning

their first

sites,

to catch certain

while other species

day of spawning, but could be

caught subsequently. Turtles were often only allowed to be

designated areas to certain

activities,

or to

all fishing

metal hooks, monofilament lines and lightweight nets,

were among the

first

introductions, rapidly changing the

effectiveness of fishing techniques. Subsequently there

has been a more gradual erosion of cultural and traditional

many

values, in
efforts to

some

places supported by colonization or by

embrace Western

areas,

even

the

in

and government. In

lifestyles

remote Pacific

islands,

all

however elsewhere they

management have been lost,

remain, and in a number of

now

increasing efforts to recognize

methods of

traditional

countries there are

customary marine tenure within national constitutions.

caught after they had already laid one or more batches of

Where

eggs, and similarly only a certain proportion of the eggs

reawakening of the potential for reef management

could be harvested. Certain easily caught species could

village

not be harvested during fair weather conditions, ensuring

of more Western styles of reef management, including

a supply

when

it

was not possible

to use boats

during

when fishing was poor.

many societies further restrictions have provided

storms, or
In

different rights to particular social groups. In

Yap

this

is

level.

taking place there

together with certain

Women

members of "lower"

and

tide pools; a

and children,
classes were

wider group of individuals

could use various techniques including hook and line and

traps;

certain

techniques required involvement of the

wider community; while there were also methods, such as

net

fishing from canoes and trolling behind the reef,

which were

restricted to prestigious

members of

The influence of Western culture has

many

traditional societies.

New

at

legally gazetted protected areas or coastal

zone manage-

ment systems, may be inappropriate or even impossible.

in the

only allowed to use simple fishing gears, and could only

fish in rivers

to varying degrees, a

Under such systems the implementation

Legal controls

Caroline Islands, Micronesia, traditional societies once

operated on a complex hierarchy.

is,

society.

radically altered

fishing gears, including

The use of

the

individual actions

legal

system as a means

which are known

widespread. To be effective,

to

legal

to

damage

control
reefs

is

measures require

enforcement. While this can be done through intensive

policing,

many

many of

the world's reefs are too remote,

activities.

Increasing awareness of this problem has led

some countries

to

legislate

more

generally,

developing more detailed control measures

level

and

countries too poor to carry out such expensive

in

collaboration

with

local

at

while

the local

communities.

Such

approaches enable important education of these com-

Signs

munities and often lead to a sense of ownership, both of

the

common

resources and of the regulations, which are

own benefit.
among those most commonly
measures. As an extreme example,

perceived more clearly to be for their

Fishing activities are
controlled by legal

now

blast fishing is

known
used
in

in

some

every country where

illegal in

it

number of

countries, and a

these are listed

Table 2.4.

widespread so

number of measures may be taken

as spearfishing or anchoring boats

controls

particularly

are

to

coral

reef areas.

of increasing importance,

also

Many new developments now

of environmental

in

under development for tourism.

areas

in

become

with regulations prohibiting such actions

restrict activities,

Pollution

snorkelling

require the undertaking

impact assessments prior

to

getting

new

buildings, including measures such as

proximity to the sea and sewage treatment.

Most of

the legislation designed directly to deal with

coral reef protection

adjacent threats, but

is

focussed toward the immediate or

many of

from quite remote

reefs are actually derived

Here

the problems facing coral

too, however, legislation

activities.

another

may be

is

is

hunting grounds dating back

in buffer

zones close

to rivers

a clear example, often enacted to prevent soil erosion,

but also having positive consequences for coral reefs at

many

centuries are

were probably some of the reefs of

earliest protected areas

where

the Pacific,

local

placed restrictions or

communities or community chiefs

total

bans on fishing. The growth

of legally declared marine protected areas outside such

systems

traditional

in

is,

phenomenon, with only

comparison, a more recent

few

sites

declared by the end of

the 19th century.

Strict definitions

of marine protected areas vary.

One

of the most widely used, and one of the broadest,

provided by

lUCN-The World

states that a

marine protected area

is

Conservation Union, which

or subtidal terrain, together with

is

"any area of intertidal

its

overlying water and

associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural features,

which has been reserved by law or other

definition includes sites such as

one such example, while

for con-

scattered across Europe and Asia. In the marine realm, the

also

various efforts to control agricultural

on steep slopes or

examples of setting aside areas

servation are predominantly terrestrial. Sacred forests and

may

or forestry practices. The prevention of clear felling of

forests

earliest

to protect part or all

to control

in the

Marine protected areas and no-take zones

The

may

be directly linked to coral reef protection, but

legal

the designation of

considered separately

can be utilized which

have wider applications. Policy or legislation

sewage and other pollution

is

is

following section.

permission to build, and there are growing numbers of

laws governing

most widespread

the

for protecting coral reefs

protected areas, and this

royal

As tourism grows and diving and

One of

distance away.

mechanisms

is

Other fishing controls are also widely

to occur.

some

Change

of

if

effective

means

of the enclosed environment". Such a

mangrove

they do not incorporate open sea, but

the inclusion of sites

it

forests,

even

also leads to

which are predominantly

terrestrial,

simply because they include small areas of intertidal land.

The maps throughout

this atlas

show

the locations of all

marine protected areas, but the associated data tables

the text

list

These

in

only those with coral reefs.

sites

have been established for

number of

Market research has shown that clivers, many of whom spend thousands of dollars on dive vacations as well as on diving
and photographic equipment, are enthusiastic supporters of entrance fees which are used for the maintenance of marine
protected areas.

69

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

and cover a broad range of management

purposes,

regimes, from

strict

protection for the total preservation of

natural ecosystem processes, to the

active

management of

measured and

seascape with multiple

inter-

human

reefs

is

often higher than anywhere else and so, while

control of fishing activities

failed

and been ignored

urgently needed,

is

particularly difficult to apply.

Many

as poverty

it

is

also

protected areas have

and the basic need

for

uses, through to a fisheries protection role within a wider

food or income have driven people to continue utilizing

system of fisheries management.

these sites for fishing.

Overall, the majority of existing coral reef protected

areas have been established with nature conservation as

primary motive. Scientists and non-governmental

their

(NGOs) have been key

organizations

designation of such

sites,

in driving for the

while commitments

at national

Against this background, recent initiatives have

focussed very heavily on community involvement.

aside where strict rules of no-take are applied, with full

community cooperation. The

results

Apo

and international levels have strongly encouraged govern-

remarkable. In sites such as

ments to

and the Hoi Chan Marine Reserve

act to set aside areas for biodiversity conservation.

In reality, sites

which are established without broader

A num-

ber of small areas within fishing grounds have been set

reserves have

grown

been quite

have

Island in the Philippines

in Belize, fish

stocks in

rapidly in number, while individuals

consideration of local communities, and without clearly

of particular species have also reached considerable

accounting for the various costs and benefits involved

This abundance leads to a significant net export of fish

in their

establishment, are invariably met with opposition,

tected around the

many of the sites listed as proworld are poorly managed or ineffective.

or simply ignored.

great

"Paper parks" are a very

real

problem worldwide. These

are sites with a legal status, but are

unmarked and often

forgotten on the ground.

facing parks will continue or increase. With the exception

of remote

sites

from the reserve area, and yields immediately adjacent

to the reserve

fish) have

(where the fishers, of course, now choose

boomed. The

social

and some privately protected areas, any

are incontrovertible. Within only a year or

two of the

closure of an area to fishing, the total yields from the

around the world have

plateau of higher and
or ten years. Further

risen,

many

other sites

and continue towards a

more sustaimble

yields after five

economic benefits have been gained

such management requires endorsement and support from

from tourism

adjacent communities, while this in turn usually requires

high fish abundance makes for very popular dive

recognition of clear economic benefits. Thus, although

biodiversity protection

may be

the driving force behind

to

and economic arguments

wider fishing grounds around these and

Without adequate management many of the threats

sizes.

in

number of

these no-take zones.

and carefully managed tourism has

little

The
sites,

or no impact on

their continuing function as fish reserves.

the protection of sites, the inost successful attempts at

developing

have considered other issues, most notably

it

recreational and fisheries values.

Protected areas and tourism

In

many

areas around the world the economic and social

values associated with tourist arrivals are beginning to

Protected areas and fisheries

Overfishing

where

Map

it

is

problem on reefs worldwide.

compete with, or even outweigh, the value of

In the areas

occurs, the dependence of local communities on

2.5:

The global

distribution of

fisheries.

Reef-based tourism

is

attracting

divers per year, and these tourists will often select their

marine protected areas containing coral reefs

'V-..

Coral reef

reefs for

millions of

Marine protected area containing coral reef

Signs

location and pay

more

observe undamaged reefs. The

to

been

value of tourism has

some

for

critical

sites

in

providing direct income for management and enforcement

activities.

For example, user fees

Saba and Bonaire

in the

marine parks on

Netherlands Antilles provided

in the

60-70 percent of the annual park running costs

with

much of

in

by the 6 300 divers and

management

the

Even where such

from dive tourism

is

direct benefits

companies and national economies

clearly

enhanced

in

many

Fish biomass

increased yields

reporting

from the adjacent fishing

priority areas.

1999,

cannot be calculated, however, the income provided to

individual hotels, dive

made

visiting yachts have

authority self-financing.

has tripled in the marine reserve areas, and fishers are

International designations

the remainder being provided by sales of

souvenirs and yacht fees.

600

Change

of

countries

While the
at

vast majority of protected areas are established

recognition

national

through a number of global and

The

regional agreements and conventions.

by the presence of protected areas.

number of

the national or even local level, a large

important sites around the world are receiving inter-

best

known

and most widely applied of these are the Convention

Multiple-use protected areas

on Wetlands of International Importance especially as

Small protected areas are relatively simple to designate

Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention), the Convention

address the complex

Concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural

and manage, but

in

many

problems facing coral

areas

reefs.

fail to

Most

reefs are utilized by a

broad range of "stakeholders", often with widely differing

Heritage (World Heritage Convention), and the

Man and

or conflicting requirements. Another approach to coral

reef

management has been

the designation of typically

the Biosphere

focussed towards waterfowl protection,

Originally

Ramsar Convention has been highly

the

successful, with

thousands of

out for different uses.

encouragement of the inclusion of marine

coral reef protected area in the world,

known
it

and

the largest
the best

is

multiple-use protected area. Designated in 1979

covers

some 344 800 square

majority of the park area

of

is

kilometers.

open

is

fact the

In

to a considerable range

states are

percent of the park

closed to

about 5 percent (but 12

trawling and, included

in

percent of the reefs)

closed to

is

is

this,

all

fishing. In fact the

system of zoning also has restrictions on

all

access in

"preservation zones" and "scientific research zones", and

to the

The

the integrated

management of

reef system in the world.

It

a holistic approach to reef

size of this park ensures

the largest interconnected

It

has benefited from

how

the

same

be applied

in

and management process.

Management Area
in

in St.

sites to a

sites

depth of 6 meters

have thus

far

been desig-

nated which include coral reefs.

The World Heritage Convention focusses towards

identification

universal value", including both cultural and natural sites.

Acceptance on the World Heritage List

is

to sites after a rigorous selection process.

18 sites have been declared

UNESCO's Man and

only awarded

Thus

which include coral

the Biosphere

far

Programme

is

not

auspices of the United Nations Educational. Scientific

scale,

the

Soufriere

Marine

Lucia provides an example of

principles of zoning and multiple use

sustainable
diversity

program biosphere

It

was

as

utilization,

conservation.

In the majority

are

monitoring and bio-

research,

They

demonstrations of

which include coral

their environment.

encompass management towards

serve an

also

human

environment. To date some 17

may

developing countries. This area covers

humans and

objectives tying together

Sites therefore typically

this

important

interaction with

sites

reefs.

of cases these international designations

applied to sites which are already protected under

national legislation. International recognition remains very

important for a number of reasons.

and legally established in 1994. Zones set aside particular

"layer" of legal protection, which can further restrict

areas for recreation, yacht anchoring, marine reserves

aging

(with no fishing, but diving and/or diving permitted with

allow, or ignore,

and also fishing priority areas (typically adjacent

marine reserves). Since 1999 the armual fees paid

the

have been declared

developed following a long period of public consultation,

to the

some

reefs.

program under the

a strict convention, but a scientific

role

kilometers of the western coastline of the island.

a ticket)

the

and protection of areas of "outstanding and

reserves are designated to encourage a broad range of

considerable progress in recent years

At a much smaller

Some 20

and Cultural Organization. Under

a clearly

through the encouragement of wide public participation

the planning

level.

management, with

having a powerful and independent management authority,

made

Member

provides a clear example of

planned subdivision of reef zones.

but has also

sites.

required to identify and conserve sites con-

convention includes

below sea

other fisheries restrictions including areas of periodic or

seasonal fisheries closures.

sites

sidered to be of international importance, which according

including trawling and most other fishing

activities,

methods. About 21

and active

designated worldwide,

very large areas, within which zones or sectors are marked

The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park

UNESCO

(MAB) Programme.

for the

activities,

It

provides an additional

dam-

or attempts by national governments to

damaging

activities. It

can provide support

management and maintenance of

sites,

allowing the

networking of managers, the sharing of ideas, and often

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Figure 2.1: The development of a global network of coral reef protected areas s nee 1930
The cumulative

000-

[-600

number

(U

protected areas plotted

"3)

900- o
o

o
o

800-

Total area

No.

over the cumulative area

-500 Z

^fl

protected. These area

statistics are the total

^1

700-

area of these sites, only a

small proportion of which

^^^^K -400

600-

400- _

in

-300

The

actually coral reef.

Australia

tvt/o

sites,

1997

in

(Great Barrier Reef)

and

300- -

is

declaration of

^^-

500- -

total

of coral reef

Havt/ai'i

in

2000

(Northvi/estern Hawaiian

-200

Islands) greatly affected

the total area of

jA

200- 100- -

NB

,^^^1
1

19 30

40

35

45

50

55

60

65
Year

75

70

protected coral reefs.

-100

Data are only included

where the
1

80

85

90

95

100 additional sites not

further logistical or financial support for specific activities.

also

provides recognition and prestige,

the profile of important

sites

countries, but also serving to

often

and habitats

draw international

raising

particular

in

area and

known. There are about

2000

included

It

total

date of designation are

Middle East, with the exception of the northern Red Sea,

but also the Pacific islands. In the
establishing

more protected areas

existence of traditional

interest.

in this figure.

latter,

the urgency of

lower because of the

is

management systems,

the overall lack of intense

human

as well as

pressures on

many of

these reefs.

Worldwide protection
Until the lydUs there

was only

very small

number of

partial solution

and maps show

now

protected coral reefs, but from about this time onwards

These

there has been a dramatic increase in numbers, as illus-

considerable network of protected areas containing coral

trated in Figure 2.1.

At the close of 2000 there were over

660 marine protected areas which included coral

These range

size

from

tiny

marine reserves

world's largest protected areas.

is

of

The

total area

more than 900 000 square kilometers, but

this area lies in only

two

sites, the

to

reefs.

two of the

of these

sites

three quarters

Great Barrier Reef

Marine Park and the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Coral

Reef Ecosystem Reserve. Unfortunately, these area

ures

cannot be equated with the reef area

fig-

statistics

reefs,

statistics

and the number of

growing
in

fast.

sites

there

that

is

within this network

is

Coral reefs thus appear to be well protected

comparison with other ecosystems, although there are

problems with such an assessment.

many of

First

and foremost,

these parks are ineffective. In countless cases

worldwide, perhaps even the majority of

sites,

these pro-

tected areas are weakly enforced or completely ignored.

Many

others are

weak

number of sites which

in

legal terms.

These include a

are essentially terrestrial parks, but

presented in the previous chapter as the great majority

with a marine component. While their boundary includes

of these

marine areas, the legislation contains few or no provisions

boundary
is

sites include large areas

details for

many

sites in

of non-coral. Without
any global database,

it

not yet possible to accurately calculate the proportion of

the world's coral reefs

total is likely to

which are protected. However,

be quite high

if Australia

and the

USA

this

are

included, but significantly lower otherwise.

Looking
sites

(Map

areas in

at a

2.5)

all

it

map of
is

number of regions stand

having relatively few. This would include

of marine resources, and fishing and other

While

direct

comparisons between

out as

much of

the

terrestrial

tected areas and their marine counterparts are easily

there are important differences.

the global distribution of these

clear that, while there are protected

regions, a

for protection

activities continue unabated.

many

Most important

terrestrial sites are effectively

surroundings, and are to

pro-

made,
is

that

fenced off from their

some degree

self-sustaining.

By

contrast the fluid environment of the coral reef cannot be

ring- fenced.

Most

coral reefs are part of a large and tightly

Signs of Change

interconnected coral reef realm.

that individual reefs

may

Two

points arise: firstly

actually be dependent

on other

"upstream" for the provision of larval recruits and

reefs

of diversity; and secondly that legal

the maintenance

protection of particular reefs provides

protection

little

for coral

often

In a

few cases marine protected areas are of sufficient

some

similarly small

potential to be self-sustaining, while a

number of

sites include

both coral reefs

and sufficient areas of the adjacent land

nificant

Even

to

provide sig-

from sedimentation and pollution.

protection

Australia's Great Barrier

Reef

is

affected by ter-

occurring beyond the park boundaries.

restrial activities

Protected areas, particularly in the marine environment,

cannot be considered sufficient

part of the solution, but are

in

themselves. They are

common

activity,

been the

has

industry,

where teams of

activities,

volunteer divers go out to remove solid waste such as

fishing lines and nets from coral reefs.

Military use: despite the

reefs by a

originating elsewhere.

Another increasingly

undertaking of reef clean-up

from external threats such as pollution and sedimentation

size to have

reefs.

supported by the dive

there

number of

also evidence,

is

impacts.

Many

on

and

land,

damage caused

to

coral

military facilities mentioned above,

from a few areas, of more positive

of these areas are closed

to fishing in

to other activities

nearby waters. The presence of

a military force further acts as a considerable deterrent

to illegal fishing activities

The

large

US

which abound

in

most areas.

base on Diego Garcia in the Central Indian

Ocean, combined with British personnel on

this island,

undoubtedly has some deterrent effect for the large areas

of coral reefs

in the

Chagos Archipelago.

most effective when placed

within the context of a broader suite of coastal policy

The

role of

consumers

legal

measures

activities), but also

programs

Such approaches by the dive industry may be motivated

on awareness raising and education. The concepts of

by direct conservation concern, or by consumer demand.

and planning measures, including wider

(for

example on land-based

zone management are increasingly

coastal

integrated

"Consumers", the paying users of the

reef,

may become an

countries around the world, but before

increasingly powerful tool, providing an economic incen-

considering these, a brief overview of other systems or

tive for coral reef conservation. Hotels, as well as dive

being embraced

in

regimes which provide protection to coral reefs

is

laid out.

Other approaches
In addition to the conventional designation

some

areas with

legal status, a

of protected

number of other

coral reefs

around the world receive some degree of protection from

other regimes or factors.

Private ownership: private protected areas are rare in

the

marine environment, as few countries allow for private

ownership of marine resources, but there are

of privately owned coastal

sites,

number

including entire islands,

which provide some degree of de facio protection of

their

adjacent marine resources.

Private

and

NGO

initiatives: these

have led

to the

adoption of codes of practice, or even the recognition

of voluntary reserves

in a

number of

areas.

Recognizing

the importance of the coral reef resources to their

business,

zations

it

is

now

setting

relatively

restrictions

activities (such as

common

own

to see dive organi-

on their own customers"

banning fishing, or fish feeding, and

ensuring adequate buoyancy control so that divers do not

touch the

reef).

A number

become involved

in

of dive schools and

monitoring coral

reefs,

NGOs

have

with the most

notable scheme being ReefCheck, an international initiative

which

is

using volunteer divers to monitor hundreds of

reefs worldwide.

per se

it is

While

this

does not provide protection

a very powerful tool for reef assessment, raises

awareness of conservation issues, and gives a clear message to other national agencies about the public concern

fairy tern Gygis alba

returning to roost on Cousine Island, a privately

owned reserve

in

the Seyctiettes.

74

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Certification
One
a

which

tool

nneans

Is

used as

increasingly being

promote sustainable

to

the world's resources

utilization

of

that of certification, or

is

schemes
coral

remains

uncontrolled

derived international standards

species).

process,

industries

have the right

organizations

accredited

or

certification

place a certificate or label on their

to

(with

products informing consumers that the product

and sustainabillty

was produced, gathered

ornamental species, most

tainable fashion, with

or harvested

a sus-

in

or no impact on the

little

reefs.

for

coral

International

market-driven

achieve

to

an

as

established

organization

hard

of

Aquarium Council

1998, the Marine

In

was

IMACl

exception

the

in

trade

this

documented, and largely

relatively poorly

"ecolabeling". Utilizing reliable and independently

in

aquarium hobbyists

nations and

reef

North America and Europe. To date

the collection

quality

marine

of

which come from coral

of

MAC

To achieve these aims,

has been

environment. Consumers are equally encouraged

developing standards for products and practices

come

(ecosystem management, collection, handling and

to select

these products, confident that they

from sustainable and well managed sources.

many cases consumer concern about

vironment and sustainabillty

consumers are prepared,

is

en-

the

and many

high,

necessary,

If

In

pay

to

with

fisheries,

marketed

in

this

In

WWF,

field

nations.

One

the

the conservation organization.

with an Interest

MSC

In

1996

in

partner-

The focus

fisheries.

In

of

has been towards food fisheries, but no

certification

such as the

are

sustainable.

environment

is

that of the

has a very high value, but

the coral

aquarium
relatively

trade,

reef

which

low volume of

between developing

trade, predominantly operating

The

consumer

Interest

rigorous and

sustainabillty.
fish or fish

If

or individual fishers in Southeast Asia have found

lucrative

and sustainable incomes by taking

to coral reefs,

and

in a

more

tourist boats

products, and/or

use without the need

ensure

the certification does

where

significant influence
for

tourist

goals.

beaches are provided awards

and have been seen

on consumer choice. Other

marking hotels according

to their

some

regions.

are being considered in

Even away from

its

to

have a

initiatives

environmental impact

the reefs themselves,

have an impact. The aquarium trade

is

consumers can
major industry

bringing coral reef species from coral reefs around the

for legal designations.

may

include certification

schemes or other systems which allow

tourists to select their

Future directions with this

If

to

not select certified

the ecolabeling program will not achieve

few areas local communities have

set certain areas aside for tourist

will

not actually contribute significantly to sustainabillty,

for environmental quality,

some communities

standards

consumers do

parts of the world

practices accordingly. At another level,

that

these schemes

and acceptance, combined

and healthy reefs and may adjust

environmental

factors

failure of

reliable

schools, recognize tourists" interest in a clean environment

their

have considerable

critical

determine the success or

are

In

MSC and MAC

potential for helping to ensure that reef fisheries

with
fishery

full

same year

later the

systems established by indepen-

Certification

MSC

standards.

system

dent international multi-stakeholder organizations

coral reef food fishery has yet been certified to

One other major

early

industry and the public, prior to release of a

the Marine

is

ship with Unilever, a major multinational corporation

in

be run raising awareness amongst hobbyists,

Stewardship Council IMSCI, established

by

be tested

to

and

certification

for

schemes were

importers and retailers. Parallel programs were to

many Western

leading organization

consumer demand

labeling. Pilot

perhaps the most

to

notable being the certified "dolphin-friendly" tuna

being

creating

a limited

These ideas have been applied

of

to certify

2001, linking collection and export operations with

higher costs for these products.

number

husbandry], but also establishing a system

and label compliance with these standards, and

world to consumers, mostly in the

the present time this trade

is

USA

and Europe. At

poorly monitored, but efforts

scheme

means of support-

destinations and hotels in advance, and to avoid those areas

to

or hotels which are major polluters or are making no efforts

ing the sustainable development of this industry are

towards conservation. Schemes have been adopted

underway (see box).

in

some

develop

a certification

as a

now

Signs

Mariculture and fisheries

overall fish stocks, just attracting species

enhancement
The use of mariculture
marine organisms)

is

reefs to areas

(the farming, or aquaculture,

growing

in

many

of

reef areas. Clearly, by

providing an alternative source of income and employment

mariculture can reduce the numbers

in coastal areas,

fish

reef technology

is

many non-reef areas, and may prove

and sustainable in some environments.

quite widely

to

in

be valuable

who

on the reefs themselves, and replace some of the

demand

Reef recovery and restoration

for reef-caught protein. Mariculture is also occa-

schemes where species

sionally used in replenishment

have been greatly diminished

that

abundance are restored

in

to

As

degraded so

are

reefs

Increasingly

such as giant clams and trochus to reefs where they have

degradation or

been largely or completely exterminated by overfishing.

found

Another form of reducing fishing pressure has been

the establishment of artificial reefs. These are artificial
structures

complex

which

are placed onto the seabed

habitat attracting fish,

fishers.

They

utilizing materials

often purpose-built

are

from car

structures, typically boats,

relatively shallow waters.

been highly controversial

may be

been expressed

pre-existing
in

The deployment of these has

in

many

adrift,

properly cleaned and leak

moulded

which are taken out and sunk

coral reef areas. There

have been failures in the design of some

have come

structures,

tyres, to boulders, to

concrete shapes, but alternatively

(car tyres

and serve as

and hence being popular

oil).

or boats
Also,

that these structures

artificial reefs

have not been

some concerns have

may

not be increasing

Enjoying a dive on a tiealtliy reef in the Indian Ocean.

it

critical

is

management regimes which may promote

certain areas. This has been successful for returning species

with

away from the

where they are more readily caught. Despite

this controversy, artificial

used

Change

of

to

is

it

to

establish

their recovery.

possible to pinpoint the causes of a reef's

and management measures can be

loss,

reduce or remove these causal factors and to

reverse the conditions. These

may

include changes to the

fishing regime, or to adjacent activities on agricultural

land or in industrial or urban areas.

Such restoration techniques may be enhanced by

more

active processes of restocking, although the value

of such approaches, when compared to allowing natural

recovery processes,

is

sometimes questionable.

A number

of suggestions have been made regarding "planting out" of

artificially

reared corals, transplanting coral fragments

from other areas, or enhancing coral growth rates with

various processes. These

may

well prove successful in a

few cases, but the high cost of such

they are rarely,

if ever, a

areas of reef ecosystems.

activities

means

that

viable process for restoring wide

76

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Integrating

considerable

measures

controls to local agencies, further engendering the sense

of measures are thus available for

raft

of ownership which can overcome the problems of com-

the protection of coral reefs, including fisheries controls,

mon

protected areas, and other schemes ranging from diver

is

clean-ups, to consumer or market driven controls on reef

coordination of disparate groups of people, and involving

utilization. All

of these measures are heavily dependent on

Education needs

to

be aimed

at all levels,

politicians and senior managers, artisanal

fishers, recreational users

including

and commercial

of the reefs, tourists and aqua-

Provision

of information and

remain a further

priority.

expanding systems

warning of change. Equally important are studies on

whose

and further research

or sedimentation.

pollution

affect reefs through

The problems of global

climate change represent an even larger challenge, which

needs to be met with global education

in

order to

make

This includes establishing or

world, in order to establish a clearer base line, and provide

a

different

may

resolution.

ongoing research

monitor coral reefs around the

to

rium hobbyists, but also the vast numbers of people

lifestyles or businesses

integrated measures

but also challenging, requiring considerable

complex negotiation and processes of conflict

awareness raising and on education, and the establishment

of training programs for managers and other authorities.

The development of such

access.

critical,

management systems and

fisheries techniques,

into aquaculture

and reef restoration

techniques. Such studies have already enabled the deve-

lopment of new and innovative management regimes,

greatly improving the lives of

many

reef users around the

people aware of the massive changes required to reverse

world.

greenhouse gas emissions.

oceanography may further our understanding of natural

More

detailed studies into ecology, genetics and

There remains, however, a considerable weakness

in

processes and the connections and interactions between

any of these or other measures, when they are taken

in

reefs,

isolation. Protected areas, if they

have the support of the

community, can be highly effective

local

They

reefs.

damage

to

will fail to serve their purpose, however, if

same

tourists are allowed to destroy the

anchor damage, or pollution from hotels, or

reefs through
if a forestry

mining permit inland allows massive sedimentation

or
to

pour onto the reefs downstream.

The concept of

In

essence

integrated coastal

this

in

management has

many

countries.

involves developing a policy, not for

locations,

but

for

the

entire

coastal

zone,

including inland watersheds, and also offshore waters.

Such

policies, if

developed

in full consultation,

and with

active participation of local stakeholders, can be a highly

effective

means

livelihoods

of

to protect not
all

those

not

widely

appreciated,

is

management of

coral reefs

approach. There

is still

economic or

is

that

is

still

sustainable

always the most sensible

social value,

and there

is

little

low

or no con-

nection between land-based activities and the impacts on

only coral reefs, but the

living

in

the

coastal

zone.

Coral reefs are extremely valuable

nomic terms. They

Examples from
zones,

to

well

the

establishment of effective no-take

also devolution of

to

the

establishment of small-scale aquaculture, show, again and

again, that reefs can be well

management

pays.

benefits from wise

Even

managed and

that

in the relatively short

management

good

term the

are rapidly observed, in

both economic and social terms. With the application of

such measures the value of reefs

is

and eco-

managed tourism development,

tainable across generations.

required, but often there

in social

are also highly sensitive ecosystems.

Typically the drafting of legal measures to implement

is

A snorketler holds up nets wtiich have become tangled in shallow coral and abandoned. Right: A
cucumber Demand for these has led to their over-harvesting from reefs across the Indo-Pacific.
Left:

active,

a perception that reefs are of

policy

is

design of nature

management systems.

the coral reefs.

been widely accepted and promoted

particular

in the

critical

Perhaps the most important message, which

in controlling

overfishing problems and preventing direct

which may prove

reserves and wider protection and

permanent one, sus-

dried sea

Signs

of

Change

Selected bibliography

Barber CV, Pratt VR 11997). Sullied Seas: Strategies for

Combating Cyanide Fishing in Souttieast Asia and Beyond.
World Resources Institute and International Marinelife
Alliance. Washington DC, USA.
Birkeland C ledl 119971. Life and Death of Coral Reefs.

Chapman and
Brown BE

Hall,

New York,

Management: South

Asia.

University of Newcastle. Newcastle upon Tyne. UK.

D,

Programme, Washington DC, USA.

Cesar HSJ led) 120001. Collected Essays on the Economics of
Coral Reefs. CORDIO, Kalmar University, Kalmar, Sweden.
Chadwick-Furman NE 119941. Reef coral diversity and global
change. Global Change Biology 2: 559-568.
Done TJ (19921. Phase-shifts in coral reef communities and
their ecological significance. Hydrobiologia2A7: 121-132.

Ginsburg

RN

Proceedings of the Colloquium on

ledl 119941.

Global Aspects of Coral Reefs: Health. Hazards and History,

1993.

School

Rosenstiel

Marine

of

and

Atmospheric

Sciences, University of Miami, Miami, USA.

Green EP, Hendry H

monitoring trade

119991.

in corals'!"

Green EP, Bruckner

AW

CITES an

Is

effective tool for

Coral Reefs 18: AOS-iO?.

The significance

120001.

of

coral

disease epizootiology for coral reef conservation. Biological

Conservation 96\3]: 3A7-361.

Hatziolos ME, Hooten AJ. Fodor

(edsl (19981. Coral Reefs:

Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management.

The World Bank. Washington DC. USA

Hawkins JP, Roberts CM, Clark V 120001. The threatened status
of restricted range coral reef fish species. Animal Cons 3:
81-88.
11999). Climate change, coral bleaching

Hoegh-Guldberg
and the future

of

the world's coral reefs.

Mar Freshwater

Res 50: 839-866.

Hughes TP (19941. Catastrophes, phase-shifts, and large-scale
degradation

of a

Caribbean coral

reef.

Science 265: 1547-1551.

Jackson JBC (19971. Reefs since Columbus. Coral Reefs 16

ISupplementI: S23-S32,

Jennings

S,

Kaiser

MJ

11998).

The

effects of fishing on

marine

ecosystems. Adv Mar Biol 34: 201 -352.

NVC (1996). Impacts of fishing on tropical

Ambio 25: 44-49.
Kleypas JA, Buddemeier RW, Archer D, Gattuso J-P, Langdon
C, Opdyke BN 11999). Geochemical consequences of

Jennings

S,

Polunin

reef ecosystems.

increased atmospheric carbon dioxide on coral reefs.

Sc/ence 284: 118-120.

McManus JW

11997). Tropical

Asia. Proc 8th Int Coral

Polunin NVC, Roberts

Chapman and
Roberts

CM

Hall,

Reef Symp

CM

(eds)

V.

129-134,

11996).

Reef Fisheries.

London, UK.

11997).

Caribbean coral

marine fisheries and the future

review with emphasis on Southeast

of coral reefs: a brief

reefs.

Connectivity

and

management

of

Science 278: 1454-1457.

Russ GR, Alcala AC 11996). Do marine reserves export adult

fish biomass? Evidence from Apo Island, central Philippines.

Mar

Ecol Prog Ser]32: 1-9.

E leds) 12000).

Manne and

Coastal

lUCN-The World Conservation Union, Washington DC, USA.

Human Impacts on Coral Reefs: Facts and
Recommendations. Antenne Museum EPHE, French

Salvat B (ed) 11987).

Sapp

J (1999).

What

University Press,

Burke L, McManus J, Spalding M 119981. Reefs at

Risk: A Map-based Indicator of Threats to the World's Coral
Reefs. World Resources Institute, International Center for
Living Aquatic Resources Management, World Conservation
Monitoring Centre and United Nations Environment

Bryant

Siirila

Protected Areas: A Guide for Planners and Managers.

Polynesia.

USA.

119971. Integrated Coastal

Salm RV, Clark JR,

53: Status

USA.

11997).

International

Center for Living Aquatic Resources

Management. Manila,
Wilkinson

Natural'' Coral Reef Crisis. Oxford

York,

ICLARM Conference Proceedings.

and Management of Tropical Coastal Fisheries in

Silvestre GT, Pauly

Asia.

is

New

CR

Philippines.

led) 12000). Status of Coral

Reefs of the World:

2000. Australian Institute of Marine Science, Cape Ferguson,

Australia,

78

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Chapter 3
Reef Mapping
:^-<S. .-r,.^^

trtfto

Soundings in fathoms.

long as humans and coral reefs have existed

AS

in close proximity, a

has
coastal

knowledge of reef distribution

been important. The

environments were

navigators

earliest

particular need

in

in

of such

BC. Navigation

in these areas

was not

solely undertaken

by the Egyptians. The Babylonian and Sumerian empires

traded across the Arabian Gulf and with

kingdoms such

Dilmun

as

many

present-day

in

island

Bahrain.

information: reefs were a terrible hazard to be avoided, but

Herodotus

also a source of food, while shelter in their calm lagoons

navigated the entire coast of Africa under orders from

was important during rough weather. This chapter

Pharaoh Necho

traces

and subsequently of reef mapping, including the development of the

reviews the

global

maps of

coral reefs.

It

then

both

hydrographic techniques and remote

A final

section looks at the current state of global

including
sensing.

first

contemporary methods of reef mapping,

reef mapping, centered on the present work.

II

Phoenician

that

the

in

the

Egypt,

friezes

of Queen

in

coral

reef regions.

describe

considerable distance by boat along the

famous expedition

Kandavu

Island,

In

on the walls of the mortuary temple

Hatshepsut clearly

to the

Fiji,

world,

Red

Sea, can be traced back over 4 000 years, to

Following on from

more

this, the

Greeks and Romans developed

detailed maps, including of the seas around the

Arabian Peninsula.

Historical background
among coral reefs may be almost as old as
itself. Many early cultures achieved con-

siderable feats of navigation

ancient

Babylonian stone tablets and Egyptian papyrus maps.

In

navigation

circum-

incorporating the coastlines of the Arabian Gulf and

the

Pacific,

the

timing of movements and the

directions taken by Pacific islanders are

Navigation

sailors

around 600 BC.

The production of maps

development of knowledge on reef distribution,

the early

reports

voyage of

Red

Sea. This

Land of Punt took place

in

1496

although

may have reached Hawai'i from

settled

by

still

under debate,

has been suggested that Polynesian navigators

400 AD. Almost every

this date.

the

Marquesas Islands by

tropical Pacific island

had thus been

Such movements indicate phenomenal

navigational skills. Little

is

known about

the existence of

physical tools which might have been utilized to aid their

navigation, but in the 19th century a

were discovered

from a British Admiralty Chart annotated by Agassiz

nnarked, demonstrating the considerable attention to detail in

it

in the

118991. Fringing

many hydrographic

number of stick-charts

Marshall Islands. These consisted of

charts.

and barrier reefs are

clearly

Reef Mapping

bound frameworks of

with their intersections

sticks,

corresponding to the location of islands (often marked with

cowrie

shells).

Other sticks showed the direction of waves

Expedition

from 1838

in the Pacific

expansion of knowledge about

to

reefs.

1842 led to

were concerned not only with charting and the expansion

many wider

issues of research and

or currents, or an indication of distance or direction to

of empires, but with

other islands. Although the stick-maps themselves are not

discovery, including natural history and geology.

old,

it

seems quite

peoples for

many

began

in the

The

ages of discovery

of coral reefs

location

the

in the

West. Since classical

times maps or charts had been widely developed

in the

Mediterranean and were often kept by navigators

coastal pilot books. Travels outside this region

the

15th and

16th centuries.

historic visits to the

Columbus made

the

began

first

of reefs

treatise specifically

origins of these, and

coral

which included

was

reef distribution,

Darwin

in

work was

1842. While

in

map showing

much of what is contained in this

own observations during

five years

on the Beagle, an even larger proportion

Cape of Good Hope and

expeditions and on his discussions with the various ships"

who

took part

India just a few years

words, Darwin's work "is the result of

Charts were originally produced by individuals and

Being of high

by the large trading companies.

labour.

From

the early 18th century

[He] consulted, as far as [he] was able, every

In 1912, the

French scientist Joubin published a

larger-scale global

map

in five large sheets at a scale

work was based not only on

of coral reefs on these charts was as a navigational feature

and charts, but also on the

of national hydrographic

rather than a biological

phenomenon, although

cases the charts were drawn with

at least

of the biological and geological setting of coral

Much

many

in

some knowledge

from the 18th and 19th centuries, was

reefs,

actually gathered

on

from Western Europe. The voyages of Captain James

in the Pacific and later ones such as those of the

Beagle with Charles Darwin and the Wilkes Exploring

Sou din gi

Left:

Beqa IMbengal Island and

the mortuary temple of

The carvings show

Barrier,

Fiji,

Queen Hatshepsut

in

Id

results

of a

much

maps
larger

data-gathering e.xercise, which included correspondence

with

many

interested people throughout the world.

throughout the world

on to missions
Until

the exploratory and hydrographic expeditions setting out

Cook

of 1:10 000 000. Joubin's

a survey of existing

(He

includes in his acknowledgement thanks to the abbes

reefs.

of the early scientific knowledge of coral

much

of coral reefs, covering the world

The representation

offices.

In his own
many months'

in these.

voyage and map" (Darwin, 1842).

and economic value, many of these were kept

onwards, the same charts became the primary responsibility

is

based on his readings of the reports of other such

in

later.

as closely guarded secrets.

global

the result of Darwin's

captains and others

political

reefs,

produced by Charles

that

traveled along the coast of East Africa before crossing to

later

on coral

which considered both the biological and geological

his first

maps

global

first

major global

1492-93, while

Caribbean islands

Gama rounded

Vasco da

The

of the Polynesian

feats

centuries.

mapping of

Detailed

maps could have played

likely that such

a key role in the navigational

a great

Such expeditions

who passed

in quite a

very recently,

his information requests

number of countries.)
few other works have made

such systematic attempts to

map

coral reefs globally. In

general, following on from the early global reviews, there

was

a trend towards

more

detailed studies at the local

falhomi.

from a

Britist)

Admiralty Ctiart annotated by Agassiz 118991. Right: The walls of

Egypt illustrating the expedition

to the

Land

of Punt (Sudan or Entreal in 1496 BC.

an intimate l<nowledge of these waters, including several identifiable fish species

Ipiioto: Giotto Castellil.

79

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

.^^

'''*^=^^^"'~f:^-1i^^l^2'r4

level.

This

is

exemplified by the early work of Agassiz and

differing rates, throughout the world. In addition to charts,

the later studies such as those carried out on the Great

Reef Expedition of 1928-29 and

Barrier

the

reefs are increasingly

works

as

shown on topographic maps,

supported by the Coral Atoll Program of the Pacific

The

Science Board. More recently, the mapping of individual

improved the information base

reefs

and those of particular areas and countries

at

as well

on other more specialized maps of natural resources.

availability of

remote sensing technology has greatly

for reef

mapping and

this,

together with other techniques used in the preparation of

higher

resolution has developed considerably, though at widely

detailed reef maps,

is

considered

in the

next section.

I.

Barbude

Sf Oiri^tophe.

')SZJontseprat

i.delaGuadeloupe'

PETITE^

lies

Above: Darwin 's world

Below,

left:

provided

in

map

of coral reefs. This

Furttier detail of

Joubin's world

Darwin 's world

map

was prepared

map

of 1842, the

of coral reefs of 1912.

in

Sous

Vent

1842 from a study of multiple cfiarts and voyage reports.

West

Indies. Below, right:

The considerably greater detail

Reef Mapping

Reef mapping techniques

the years a

Over
have been

wide array of mapping techniques

utilized to chart coral reefs.

of techniques

purpose for which

is

The choice

clearly influenced by the primary

map

is

work

required, the scale of the

and the availability of resources. This

latter

point

is

partly

surveys

in

position.

detailed astronomical

resources and their costs have also changed considerably

physical

the

older

maps were

mapping techniques

the world these

still

severely constrained by

available, but for large areas of

Ground surveying and mapping

in reef

On

land, a variety of techniques

for

ground surveying, from the very simple preparation of

have been widely applied

sophisticated

to the

and theodolite mapping. These techniques cannot easily

at

environment, although

it

is

usually possible to gain information on distances from

shore of particular features, and also to carry out

some

ground-based surveys on areas of very shallow reef

which may be exposed

Historically,

National

low

One of

flat

relied

on

the great challenges to such

Centre. UK}.

known

determine

shorter distances. Highly accu-

routinely available through the use

positions of a

mapping. Prior

in a

is

to the

number of satellites.

another important element

development of sonar,

this

was measured.

In

many

cases tallow was

small indentation in the bottom of the weight

the base of the sounding line or cable

return to the surface. This provided

some

and inspected on
indication of the

benthos: sand or mud, and occasionally pieces of coral

would adhere

to this substance.

Although many of these techniques have now been

world the only maps

in existence

were prepared using

these methods, and the great skills developed during the

of southwest Cuba, showing a wide area of shallow banks,

Remote Sensing

to

measurement of

surpassed they cannot be ignored. For vast areas of the

tide.

most marine mapping has

boat-based surveys.

A Landsat image

at

now

calculation of depth

point the depth

placed

to the coral reef

movement over

careful

was done using soundings. Long cables were lowered off

the edge of the boat until they hit the sea bed, at which

techniques of plane table surveying, geodetic surveying

be applied

methods were required

alongside

of Global Positioning Systems (GPS), which determine

The

more

location,

rate positioning is

ground

to

maps

terrestrial features.

position to within a few meters by linking position on the

remain the best available maps.

hand sketches and chain surveying

to utilize existing

known

Far offshore, or in completely uncharted areas, however,

absolute

Many

the past has been the fixing of the boat's

was of course possible

to establish position relative to

a question of funds and personnel, but the availability of

over time.

It

edged with coral reefs Image provided

by

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Scale and resolution

The scale

of a

map

Is

measure

of the

reduction

gather

light

on

blocks

known as

of the size of features in their representation

map. Resolution

that

more

direct

measure

and generally refers

a related term, but Is a

Is

shown on a map
minimum size of an
the minimum distance

each

from a continuous grid

bands

to the

largely a function of pixel size

by which two objects must be separated for them

to

appear as such. The characteristics portrayed

In

the spatial representation of any natural system

for

the reflectance levels for those wave-

pixel,

of the detail

object visible on a map, or

defined

of

The sensor records,

pixels.

which

tor

is

It

tuned. The resolution

dependent on the optics

which

in

Is,

Is

turn,

sensor and the

of the

height at which the images are taken (although

cannot easily be varied for

this

satellites!.

The problems posed by scale are not simply

are strongly related to scale and resolution, and

those of

these need to be seriously considered both by

be hidden or exposed depending on the scales of

those responsible for the preparation of

by the end-users.

A number

of

maps and

problems can

arise, especially In the generation of statistics

the comparison of
This

IS

maps drawn

Illustrated

and

measure

coastline length: the complexity (and hence the

length) of any coastline

map
maps

shown on

map

is

function of

resolution. In the Caribbean, for

example,

of

show
and

Individual

islands frequently

great detail, including tiny offshore rocks

Islets.

Regional maps, by contrast,

marize complex coastlines

while world

maps

Into a

often leave out

may sum-

tew simple

lines,

many Caribbean

Islands altogether Measuring the length of coastline of

any Island from each

of

study. This

these

maps would

clearly yield three very different results.

is of

particular relevance

be entirely lost

to

This

at

scales of

of scale.

1:1

Many

of the

the ground, and

map

structures which are narrower than

strictly to scale,

many maps.

Many

Drawn

this.

such features would not be

In

an effort

to

address

this

visible

problem

the boundaries or lines marking the locations of

reefs have been slightly exaggerated to ensure

has the effect

this also

reef area. This

carried

back

to

of

balance must be struck between the area covered

materials prepared from

by the Image and the detail or resolution to be

scales of

found

smaller reef features.

listed for the particular

:1

of

course be

the source materials (each

which

is

maps, although

exaggerating apparent

same problem can

the height at which images are taken, although a

the resulting Image. Optical scanners

kilometer on

very difficult to see features

Is

It

represents

the worlds coral reefs are fringing or patch

of

lens and

In

of
some
maps have base-

with a diameter of less than ^00-500 meters.

In

likely

000 000 or lower At this scale

millimeter on the

or level of detail can be altered by varying the

photographic material, or by altering

the coastal

examples

provides

atlas

"problems"

will

low resolutions.

that they are clearly visible on the

With traditional photography the resolution

in

zone where many narrow linear features are

at different scales.

by attempts to

phenomena

statistics. Entire natural

000 000

will

of

maps! - source

remote imagery

at

be unable to pick out the

detailed surveying expeditions led to levels of accuracy

sensing

which are quite extraordinary. Many of the sources used

information about the land, sea and atmosphere by sen-

this atlas

can be traced back,

at least in part, to

surveys

over 150 years old. In quite a number of cases such

have
still

now been
to

in

maps

verified against air photographs and found

be highly accurate.

is

the term widely applied for the "acquisition of

sors located at

and

although

satellites,

Remote sensing
in clear,

shallow water. These

two factors make many reefs highly visible when observed

from above the ocean surface, and thus make them highly
to being

the gathering of images

it

from

aircraft

also includes such techniques as

radar and, in the marine environment, sonar.

It

amenable

distance from the target of study".

means

was not long

in the early

Coral reefs largely occur

some

Typically this

mapped using remote sensmg. Remote

after aircraft

became widely

available

20th century that reefs began to be explored

and mapped from above. Vertical

Great Barrier Reef were

first

aerial

photographs of the

taken in 1925 and these same

images were used as a baseline for the survey by the Great

Barrier

made

Reef Expedition of 1928-29. Great advances were

in

sonar technology during the Second World

War

Reef Mapping

remained the only alternative to

and

this

for

remote reef mapping

photography

aerial

advent of

until the

satellites in

the 1970s. At the beginning of the 21st century there

mounted on

for coral reef

mappmg.

satellites

and

aircraft available

as well as highly sophisticated

sensing

is

different

that

modify

or sound in a

the sun's light (usually the visible

is

it

above. In photographs,

portion of the electromagnetic spectrum) which

by the coral

reef,

"look

open water, seagrass beds, sand or

when viewed from

as with satellites,

light

to their surroundings: coral reefs

different" to adjacent

other substrates

behind the use of remote

principle

coral reefs

manner

and enables

it

is

modified

be distinguished from

to

other habitats. This particular range of wavelengths of light

reflected

A
known

by any subject

is

known

as

its

tool is

into a

map

Using

digital

images, one very simple approach

must be interpreted or

classified.
is

to

which no prior

produce an unsupervised classification,

in

knowledge

on the map are

used,

but the

features

grouped together based on similar characteristics (such

as a range of shades of the

particularly

for the

subtle

same
but

color).

useful,

is

to

undertaken through field

utilizing existing

photographs.

be classified, which

Left:

on an image, the

whole

more than colors

series of characteristics

including texture, relationships to other features, patterns

study

(ground-truthing)

or

independent knowledge, including maps

Using

digital

tures in a remotely sensed image.

Image

be a highly skilled process which,

if

fea-

interpretation can

undertaken with care

and consideration, may greatly enhance the effective

resolution of an image.
coral patch

may be

is

It

possible, for example, that a

too small to be picked up by a remote

sensor, but that patterns of grazing in surrounding sea-

may produce

grass beds

wide halo

effect

of bare sand

around such reef patches. Such halos may be clearly

visible

and give an indication of the presence of a central

Such interpretation clearly requires some

knowledge of coral reef ecology.

Remote

sensing,

particularly

using optical

sensors,

provides the opportunity of rapidly advancing beyond the

simple mapping of geographical location.

to

map

different zones

It is

now

possible

and ecological communities within

coral reef, and to look for changes in these patterns over

time.

Remote sensing can thus be used

at patterns

to look

more

closely

of human impacts, and of management measures

on reef environments, and

to

monitor changes over time.

techniques,

mapping

scientist surveying a Caribbean reef. The quadrat

high resolution CASI image of patch reefs. Each

is

Satellite sensors

prior

may be

software can be trained on particular localities within

able to use considerably

to undertake

supervised classification. This requires some

knowledge of the features

or

More

important variances in

reflectance characteristics on a coral reef,

a

is

reflected off the surface.

To convert any such

as an unclassified image.

image

is

interpreter

reef patch.

spectral signature.

raw image prepared by any remote sensing

it

areas with similar spectral signatures.

all

In attempting to identify the features

and scale can aid identification of habitats or other

sonar devices on boats.

The common

classify

is

an impressive, and technologically bewildering, array of

optical devices

an image and then extrapolated to the entire image, to

is

Several different sensors are currently available, but the

most widely used

for reef

Mapper (Landsat TM) and

de

la

mapping
the

used

to

Thematic

Terre (SPOT). These have similar spatial resolutions,

10-30 meters depending on the

20-50 meters

are Landsat

Systeme pour I'observation

mode of

data collection,

estimate percentage cover of different species. Right:

in

diameter and surrounded by clearly

visible halos.

83

8A

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Astronaut photography of coral reefs

Astronauts have been photographing our planet

NASA's

through spacecraft windows ever since the begin-

Laboratory

ning of

human

AOO 000

spaceflight. To date, nearly

been

Management IICLARMI

natural color and, due to selective photography by

angles out of the

spacecraft, including near vertical views

Earth,

low oblique views

down

at

an angle, and high

at

the

photographs

include

to

the

in

astronaut-

global coral

reef

database, ReefBase.

Many astronaut photographs

astronauts, tend to have relatively low cloud cover

of

Analysis
with

International Center for Living Aquatic Resources

acquired

missions using hand-held cameras. Most are

Image

and

collaborating

NASA

They are taken from a variety

clearly

show

shallow reefs, and can show submerged features up

to

depths

possible

about 15 meters

of

in

clear waters.

It

is

major geomorphological

distinguish

to

oblique views that include the horizon. Once con-

features within reef systems, including reef crests

verted to digital form, these images typically have a

and patch

high resolution, with pixel sizes of 20-80 meters

ditional satellite data to help distinguish

in

most images.
Earth

reefs.

clouds and

observation training for astronauts

phenomena

includes the study of

the realms of

in

They can be combined with

the location and extent of river

ment

photographs they bring back

types, including

vertical or low-oblique angle

Near-

photographs can be

and used as three-band

digitized at high resolution

green, blue) remote sensing images

Ired,

same way

a scientist

in

the

would use Landsat or SPOT

Image processing techniques can be applied

data.
to

Earth are used

to

different disciplines.

determine landuse, cover or change over time.

Nearly 30 000 photographs

of coral reef

areas

may

provide

and managers with information on

reef scientists

ology and the environment. Not surprisingly, the

many

tra-

between

lagoon features such as pinnacles.

Furthermore, astronaut photographs

ecology, geology, geograpy. oceanograpy. meteor-

by scientists of

plumes and sedi-

runoff, or facilitate identification of land cover

mangroves.

Photographs taken by astronauts are used

to illustrate coral reefs

throughout this book. They

have been selected to show the range

found

in

every region,

places described
ticular

interest,

and

to

of coral reefs

further illustrate

the text and features of par-

in

human developments,

including

the plumes of sediments

banks and remote

in

atolls.

river

mouths, shallow

Selected

photographs

have been taken by astronauts on board the Space

were scanned, and color and contrast were hand

Shuttle providing a valuable but underutilized data

corrected to give an approximation of natural color.

source for coral reef scientists and managers. To

use

facilitate the

of

these public domain images.

and both have sensors which detect

light

portions of the visible spectrum (bands). This

in
is

discrete

important

because infrared radiation will not penetrate water and,

generally

changes

speaking,
in

more bands enable more

the light returning

from the seabed

subtle
to

be

detected. Satellite images can be geometrically corrected

(assigned

map

properties) and used in a geographical

information system (GIS) quite easily.

Cloud cover

is

often cloudy over reefs in the

some very

real

humid

in

some

may be mapped

areas.

tropics and this

There are

problems of accuracy. The technical

specifications of the sensors

mean

that,

None

of the

photographs shown here has been

number were

georeferenced, and a

more

detailed

mapping of

clearly taken at

different reef habitats

possible to an accuracy of 20-40 percent.

ation of high resolution satellites will

over the next few years, though their

A new

become

utility for

new sensors

is

only

gener-

available

reef

ping will probably depend on commercial factors.

data collection from

is

map-

Initial

usually concentrated

outside the tropics as a greater economic return can be

generated from temperate regions. At the present time,

an important constraint

limits the availability of useful satellite images.

also

has

photographs have been taken by astronauts on

in

It is

Sciences

Earth

while coral reefs

accurately and separately (in about 70

percent of cases) from seagrasses, algal beds and sand.

therefore, satellite sensors are well suited for broad-scale

mapping of reefs over

required for

more

large areas, but other techniques are

detailed interpretation.

In addition to satellites,

manned

spacecraft provide an

important opportunity for obtaining images of the Earth

from space (see box). Examples of such images taken from

the Space Shuttle are found throughout the present work.

Reef Mappi ng

oblique angles through spacecraft windows.

feasible,

When

near vertical photographs have been

rotated so that north

is

toward the top

of the page.

An approximate scale bar and north arrow have

been added based on reference

to a

1:1

000 000

unique

They provide global coverage, with free and

immediate
database

browsed
of

photographs

provide

source of moderate resolution reet remote sensing

Julie

domain. The

availability in the public

of

photographs can be searched and

online,

photographs

website

scale navigation chart.

Astronaut

data.

and high resolution

in this

digital

copies

atlas can be accessed via the

Earth Science and Image Analysis at

of

NASA's Johnson Space Center:

http://eoLjsc.nasa.gov

A Robinson (Johnson Space Center! and Marco Noordeloos IReefBasel

European Space Agency astronaut Gerhard PJ Thiele photographs Earth from the Space Shuttle Endeavour
February 2000 ISTS099-305-

Aerial photography

No

in

121.

archives

many maps

other remote technique has produced as

many

of

countries

represent

valuable,

but

generally unavailable, repository of coral reef images.

of coral reefs as the simple use of photography from the

air,

typically

digital

wide variety of

aircraft,

and the techniques for analyzing

the images are well proven.

be carried out

High resolution mapping can

if the aircraft is

(sub-meter resolution

is

operated

achieved by flying

at
at

low altitude
1

000 meters

or less) although the area covered by a single flight path

much reduced

as a result.

The main

is

constraints to this

technique are the time required to process, geometrically

correct and
addition,

Airborne multispectral imagers

from airplanes. Both conventional films and

cameras are used. Cameras can be mounted on a

combine overlapping

many

aerial photographs. In

nations are highly sensitive about aerial

surveys of their coastlines. Without a doubt the military

A more

complex system of

sors similar to those used

on

aerial

imaging involves sen-

satellites,

pickmg up

radiation

on a number of specified spectral wavelengths. These

multispectral imagers are of a size that

from

aircraft,

may be

operated

enabling similar spatial resolution to aerial

photography. The use of aircraft permits data to be collected

specifically

conditions

from areas of
are

interest,

at

times

when

most favorable. Another major benefit

of airborne multispectral sensors

is

that

in

many

cases

the optical configuration of the sensor can be set up as

required.

The two systems which have been used most

85

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

mapping

for reef

NASA

are the

Airborne Visible Infrared

opportunities

of individual

refinement

the

for

maps,

Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) and the Compact Airborne

greatly

Spectrographic Imager (CASI). The costs and the complex

discernment of particular features or habitats which might

processing requirements associated with these systems are

not have been visible in other areas.

still

the

main constraints

many

typically

is

accuracy and allowing

tens,

if

to

obtain

not hundreds, of

Remote sensing now dominates mapping

and

field,

is

a critical

small areas, however, most existing

preparation of fine-scale coral reef maps.

are composite productions

sensors - they gather information from existing light as

it is

from objects on the ground. By contrast, a number

own

in the

marine environment which

older data from early charts.

combination with

in

more widespread and

updating of reef maps worldwide

is

much
rapid

limited by the high cost

of remote sensing and the detailed technical

for

reefs

which may have been prepared

bathymetric data from sonar surveys and even with

and cameras are sometimes termed passive

of active sensors are used

relatively

maps which show

using satellite or aerial imagery

Active sensors

almost every

in

maps covering

the world. Apart from specialist

these represented the most accurate available systems for the

reflected

the

component of reef mapping around

thousands of dollars. At the close of the 1990s, however,

Satellites

for

to their general use for coral reef

mapping. The minimum capital required just

the imagery

the

increasing

skills required

image interpretation and map production.

source of light or sound towards their

Despite the power of remote sensing as a mapping

subject and measure the reflection. Acoustic signals, or

tool, there are also several practical constraints to its use.

direct their

are

sonar,

perhaps the best known. Sonar systems are

Many of the

where cloud cover

good

acquisition of images.

in

depth. Sonar
is

can be achieved (1-4 meters), while

spatial resolution

shallow water they are unaffected by water turbidity or

is

used

most bathymetric mapping, and thus

in

an important element of many reef maps, ahhough

it

does

detection

and ranging (LIDAR)

is

frequent,

is

which greatly

The nature of mapping

tropics

restricts the

submarine

own set of problems, not least of

which is the inability to map deeper reefs. Although the
depth limits vary it is rarely possible to map features more
feature also creates

its

than 20-30 meters below the ocean surface with conven-

not provide a direct measure of ecological features.

Light

humid

world's reefs are located in the

carried by ship-borne sensors. Using higher frequencies,

light-

tional satellite imagery.

Even above these depths,

the water

based form of remote sensing which involves emitting

column

pulses from an airborne laser and receiving energy which

changing the spectial signatures of particular seabed

has been reflected from both the water surface and sub-

characteristics

merged

features.

The time

difference between the two

greatly affects the light returning to the sensor,

depending on depth and water

Although these effects can be

partially

types of return provides a highly accurate (15 centimeters)

image processing they cannot be

measurement of depth. The

an extremely high

corrected. Moreover, the nature of the water

much

a reef, especially turbidity and depth,

resolution bathymetric chart.

by water

clarity than

result

is

LIDAR

is

less affected

normal optical sensors and

in clear

conditions can operate to depths of about 50 meters. Like

sonar,

LIDAR

only maps the topography of the seabed,

Reef geometry,

for specialist aircraft,

it is

yet to be used routinely in coral

reef mapping.

does not lend

mapped by remote sensing - few

removed or

totally

is

column above

highly variable.

itself easily to

parts are flat

being

and most

coral tends to be concentrated on steeply sloping edges.

One

not ecological features. Furthermore, because of the vast

amounts of data processing involved and the requirement

too,

clarity.

compensated during

further

weakness

is

that the

remote sensing tools

used for seabed mapping are typically different from those

used

to

draw bathymetric maps. Many reef maps prepared

using remote sensing do not give detailed bathymetric

data, although these are clearly an important feature

many

Ground-truthing

The process of producing

an image

is

The only

a supervised classification of

highly reliant on the correct interpretation.

of

reef maps.

coral reefs

is

alternative to

remote sensing for mapping

the use of boat-based surveys to

map

surface

linked to a detailed sampling on the

features such as reef crests, plotting bathymetry, or even

ground, either directly by the cartographers, or using

undertaking detailed sampling of the seabed. Unlike remote

existing information gathered by others in photographs,

sensing, which samples the entire seascape, errors arise in

maps

this

Ultimately this

or

is

ecological

expensive but

surveys.

critical

element

Ground-truthing
in

remote sensors. Natural variation

tions

and over time

is

preparing
in reefs

is

an

maps from

between loca-

often significant and too

extrapolation from previous work, or from

much

work under-

taken in other areas, can lead to substantial errors. At

the

same time, ground-truthing can present considerable

method because of

habitats

the possibility of overlooking

advantage of ground survey methods

the

some

between adjacent sampling points. Conversely, one

is

that they allow for

mapping of additional resources such

habitats or benthic species,

as

different

which cannot be distinguished

by remote sensors because of similar reflectance patterns or

sparse distribution.

Ground methods may

also allow greater

Reef Mapping

Habitat

map

Cockburn Harbour. South Caicos, based on a supervised classification of CASI muUispectral

and showing the very good resolution and habitat differentiation which can be achieved from

of

imaging data,

these sensors (reproduced by permission of UNESCO, from Green

et al 12000]].

50

-50

100

Metres

xmmr

Habitat type
(with

user accuracies)

Acropora palmata zone

90%

Soft corals

& Microdictyon sp

Soft corals

& bare substratum

81%
80%

Montastraea spp & bare substratum

^^^^Kj-'

Lobophora sp dominated

Sand

Penlcitlus

& Halimeda

algal

dominated

Seagrass: low-medium standing crop

Seagrass: medium-high standing crop
ft

Map
Datum:

Image

NAD27 (Bahamas)

date:

16 July 1995

Land, sunglinl

Information

Projection: Universal Transverse Mercator grid

Spheroid: Clarke 1866

Map
zone 19

derived from airborne

with 1

CASI imagery

spatial resolution

Overall accuracy of

map

81')

83%

82%

75%

& unimaged areas

-77%
72%
-93%

87

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

map of the Caicos Bank, Turks and Caicos Islands, based on a

TM imagery Ireproduced by permission of UNESCO, from Green et al 1200011.

Broadscale habitat
of Landsat

supervised classification

Map

derived from
Landsat TM imagery
Overall accuracy of map =

73%

Habitat type

User Accuraaes

A/ea (ha)

Land
MaCToalgae

47%

83%

298,935

Sand

86%
Seagrass - 59% Coral reel

visual depth penetration than

45,603

92,306

UTM gnd zone 19

Spheroid Cladte 1886
Datum NA027 IBaliamas)

91 ,363

ProJecJion

DepWalef

many remote

sensing methods.

tiation

of zones and communities on the

reefs.

One

Furthennore, the inability of most sensors to detect small

important aspect of this will be the development of

but important navigational hazards Isuch as rocics

comprehensive "spectral

2 meters in size)

mean

many new

or

libraries", providing a constantly

utilize

expanding reference library of spectral signatures asso-

old hydrographic techniques, often in combination with

ciated with different reef communities at different depths

remotely gathered data.

and

that

charts

still

Generally speaking, even for small areas, boat-based

in different conditions.

critical

Such

libraries will provide

reference material for the truthing of

new images

surveys are even more costly than using remote sensing,

without the need for extensive field surveys. Another

and the

priority will be to begin to utilize these

latter will

continue to provide the dominant reef

mapping techniques

in

coming

years.

New

priorities will

undoubtedly be to increase resolution and the differen-

comparisons over time, and

reef monitoring.

to use

images

remote sensing

to

make

in coral

Reef Mapping

Global reef mapping

THAILAND

Hat Nopharat Thara

-

Recent
in

years have seen a burgeoning of interest

obtaining global information about the natural

environment. The
perspective

of having a global

values

on coral reef distribution are manifold,

supporting an increased understanding of ecological and

geological processes which, in turn, can fuel

more

locally

based research into reef processes, or more widely based

studies of global change. Linking this

same information

Mu i<5 Phi Phi NP

Offices, and also the air navigational series, such as the

US

Defense Mapping Agency Operational Navigational

Charts. Reefs on such charts are generally not given a

clear geological

or biological

definition,

as

discussed

below, but they remain valuable tools in developing a

global understanding of reef distribution. Increasingly,

such datasets are being prepared

One

to

other recent global

in digital formats.

synthesis of

maps with

and geological focus was the three-

knowledge of human uses and demographic change can

clearer ecological

have considerable value for development and resource

volume Coral Reefs of the World, prepared at the lUCN

Conservation Monitoring Centre (now UNEP-World

management

standing of these

in

the under-

Conservation Monitoring Centre,

at finer scales.

The increasing
in

and can again help

issues,

role

of regional and global organizations

decision-making processes, and the growing awareness

of large-scale patterns within marine ecosystems across

national boundaries, further increase the need for under-

standing

at

and data

availability have

the

global

level.

Improved communications

strengthened the potential for

Global maps of coral reefs have been developed and

nificant

by a number of organizations. As

topographic

map and

those produced by the

Left,

above: Detail of

Map

1.2,

UK

US

Hydrographic

UNEP-WCMC

coral reefs

on

areas and dive centers.

its

has been developing a global

GIS. These maps have been

published and widely distributed in the global coral reef

and analyses. They are now widely used over the

The
The only

map

global coral reef

practical

means

Internet.

map showing

map

in

2001

for the preparation of a global

of coral reefs are through the compilation of existing

plotting scleractinian coral diversity. Left, below: Detail of

bleacliing events in 1998. Right: Part of a detailed

forests, protected

Since 1994,

map of

sig-

chart coverages, such

and

scientific

papers, navigational charts and personal communications.

and navigational features, reefs

remain important on global

as

were prepared from numerous sources, including

database, ReefBase, and utilized in a variety of publications

developing and utilizing existing global-level datasets.

are maintained

UNEP-WCMC). The

volumes contain regional maps and national maps which

Map

the location of coral reefs

2.2,

sfiowing coral

relation to

mangrove

89

90

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

With

world

be variation

will

map

derived from multiple sources there

of coral reefs which

in the definition

is

used although remarkably few maps, other than detailed

habitat surveys, provide these definitions in their keys or
in

accompanying documentation. Despite

is

usually possible to determine what has been

weakness,

this

it

mapped

from an understanding of reef geomorphology, combined

with some independent knowledge of the reefs of each

maps and

region. Coral reefs portrayed on navigational

charts typically include shallow reef

flat

and reef crest

may

areas only. High resolution resource inventories

of reef

less attention to areas

give

where bottom cover

flat

is

primarily bare rock or sand, but typically extend beyond

the reef crest.

The outer

on maps may be

limits of coral reef areas as

shown

by the depth limitations of the survey

set

techniques rather than by any clear ecological boundary.

With

information

this

more generalized

it

definition

a definition, in fact,

Although

is

it

at finer

map

US

remote sensing, the

using

built

in

by

including hermatypic corals.

These shallow reef areas are among the most

some way off

UNEP-WCMC

a starting point, a

in this

work

commercially

of digital coral reef data was

used plotting the world's reefs

based on the

mapped

corals and other hermatypic organisms, and in every case

The approach adopted by

available global base

they are

they are associated with an important living component,

map

As

As

volume, coral reefs are shallow structures

more

realization of this goal remains

has been hierarchical.

Such
broad

to the

resolutions for specific areas.

theoretically possible to prepare a

standardized global

1.

out a

distil

to all sources.

conforms quite closely

definition provided in Chapter

this

material prepared

possible to

is

common

at a

scale of 1:1

000 000.

Defense Mapping Agency Operational

important areas

realize

terms of reef growth, productivity,

in

and

coastal protection

there

that

but

diversity,

considerable

are

it

important to

is

additional

areas,

including sub-surface structures and coral communities

which lack clear physical structures and are not shown

in

Navigational Chart series. Although broadly accurate, this

these maps. Other authors, using broader definitions of

information was

reef,

too low a resolution to

at

show many

were then added from the Coral Reefs

reefs. Further data

of rhe World volumes, focussing on those countries

where the 1:1 000 000 source was deemed particularly
inadequate,

notably

Caribbean and parts of the

the

Western Indo-Pacific. In parallel with

this

work

a systematic outreach, but

lable data

improvement of national data

means

1,

although the lack of avai-

such calculations are inclined to

that

be more predictive, and are of

little

value

regional or

at

national resolutions.

Work on

a data-

gathering phase was initiated. Funds were insufficient for

have calculated significantly higher reef areas than

those presented in Chapter

an ongoing
data

is

coral

activity.

likely to

reef

mapping

at

UNEP-WCMC

expand

in

coming

years, with increasing

has continued on an opportunistic basis, with particular

collaboration with partners around the world.

focus directed towards those countries where existing data

equally important to try to capture

were considered particularly poor.

reefs, particularly in those parts

The

result

of

this

mapping work, by 2001, was

comprehensive and detailed GIS dataset, outputs from

which are presented

in the

maps contained

in this

volume.

These maps represent a summary of the best global

map of coral
is

reefs available.

list

presented for each map. In

of the source materials

all.

around 70 percent

of countries include source material from new sources

at scales finer than

scales of

000 000. Many of these were

at

:250 000 or finer, including navigational charts,

topographic

map

series,

more occasionally,

processed

specialist

satellite

coral

are

New

information, and the

seagrasses.

It

be

reservoirs of

improved mapping

to overlay the coral reef distribution

mapping of

will also

understanding of

will

of the world where these

priorities include the

of biodiversity patterns

It

some of the sub-surface

more common, and may harbor important

biodiversity.

is

The contribution of remotely sensed

related habitats, notably

be important to develop a better

human

interactions

with

coral

reefs,

through continued mapping of the threats to reefs, and also

improving the available information on marine protected

area boundaries. This latter information will enable a

more

images and,

complete assessment of the global distribution and cover-

shallow

age of marine protected areas with coral reefs and will help

reef or

substrate maps.

Corinna Ravitious incorporating coral reef data into

to highlight the

UNEP-WCMC's

global GIS.

gaps

in this network.

Reef Mapping

Selected bibliography

A I189VI. The islands and coral reefs of Fiji. Bull Mus

CompZool33: 1-167 land 120 platesl.
Dana JD 11872). Corals and Coral Islands. Sampson Low.
I^arston. Low and Searle. London. UK.
Darwin C (1 842). The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reels.

Agassiz

Green EP, Mumby PJ, Edwards AJ. Clark CD (1996). A review

remote sensing for the assessment and management

Man

Coast

2A:

of
of

-40.

Green EP, Mumby PJ, Ellis AC. Edwards AJ. Clarl< CD led
Edwards AJ) 12000). Remote Sensing Handbook for Tropical
Coastal Management. Coastal Management Sourcebooks 3,

UNESCO,
Joubin

(1912).

Carte des bancs et recifs de coraux

(Madrepores). Annates de TInstitut Oceanograpfiique

(with 5

LeDrew

maps

in

IV:

separate volume).

Holden H, Peddle D, Morrow J. Murpiiy R, Bour

Towards a procedure for mapping coral stress from
SPOT imagery with in situ optical correction. Third Thematic
Conference on Remote Sensing for Marine and Coastal
E,

(19951.

Environments.

KP et al (1996). The Space Shuttle Earth Observations

Photography Database: an underutilized resource for
global environmental sciences. Environmental Geosciences

Lulla

3:40-44.

McManus JW. Vergara SG

(eds) (1998). ReefBase:

A Global

Database on Coral Reefs and their Resources, Version 3,0,

CD-ROM. International Center for Living Aquatic Resources

Management, Manila,

Philippines.

Peddle DR. LeDrew EF. Holden

HM

(19951. Spectral mixture

abundance from satellite imagery and

in situ ocean spectra, Savusavu Bay, Fiji. Third Thematic
Conference on Remote Sensing for Marine and Coastal
analysis of coral reef

Environments.

PetroconsuUants SA (1990). MUNDOCART/CD. Version

1:1000 000 world

map

2.0.

prepared from the Operational

Navigational Charts of the United States Defense Mapping

Agency PetroconsuUants (CESI Ltd, London, UK.

ReefBase (2000). ReefBase 2000: Improving Policies for
Sustainable Management of Coral Reefs. Version 2000. CDROM. ICLARM, Philippines. ISee also http://www,reefbase,org)
Robinson JA. Feldman GO. Kuring N, Franz B, Green E,
Noordeloos M, Stumpf RP (2000). Data fusion in coral reef
mapping: working at multiple scales with SeaWiFS and
astronaut photography. Proceedings of the 6th International

Conference on Remote Sensing for Marine and Coastal

Environments 2: 473-483.
Smith SV (1978). Coral-reef area and the contributions of reel
to processes and resources of the world's oceans. Nature
273: 225-226.

Spalding

MD

Proc 8th

(1997).

Int

Mapping global coral

Coral Reef

Symp

2:

reef distribution.

1555-1560.

Stanley Gardiner J (1931). Coral Reefs and Atolls. Macmillan

and Co,

Ltd,

UNEP/IUCN

London, UK.

(1988a).

and

Atlantic

Coral Reefs of the World. Volume

Eastern

UNEP Regional Seas

UNEP and lUCN, Nairobi,

Pacific.

Directories and Bibliographies.

Kenya, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK.

UNEP/IUCN
Indian

(1988b).

Ocean.

Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 2:

UNEP

UNEP/IUCN
Pacific.

UNEP

Regional

(1988c).

UNEP

and lUCN, Nairobi, Kenya, Gland,

Coral Reefs of the World.

Volume

3:

Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies.

and lUCN, Nairobi, Kenya, Gland, Switzerland and

W/ells

JW

(1954). Recent corals of the Marshall Islands. Bikini

and nearby atolls, part 2, oceanography

Survey Prof Pap 260: 385-486

Seas

Directories

and

(biologic),

US Geol

Winkler (1901). On sea charts formerly used in the Marshall

Islands, with notices on the navigation of the islanders in
general- Smithsonian Institution Annual Report for 1898.

487-508.

Paris, France.

ML

UNEP

Cambridge, UK.

Smith, Elder and Co.. London. UK.

tropical coastal resources.

Bibliographies.

Switzerland and Cambridge, UK,

92

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Part

II

The Atlantic and Eastern

Pacific

The

Ocean covers one

Atlantic

fifth

of

the

surface area of the planet, second only

size to the Pacific.

of

the world's youngest

is

It

in

around Bermuda

in

the Northern Atlantic. Brazil too

has some reef structures, although

ocean, only beginning to form around the

the other oceanic islands or

time of the break-up

Even

Pangea about 180

the supercontinent

of

million years ago.

It

also has the

in

general these

are small and intermittent. There are no true reefs on

the Eastern Atlantic.

in

the Caribbean Sea, reef development rarely

in

reaches the extent

of reefs in the

there appear to be real physical differences

amounts

structures between these regions.

of

sediment entering

it

from the great rivers

and

Indo-Pacific.

biggest drainage basin of any ocean, and the large

reef

in

Many Caribbean
many of

such as the Amazon, Orinoco, Mississippi, Niger and

reefs are deeper

Congo

those with a clear reef crest often only have a narrow

reef

certainly have a role to play

development along much

In

of its

in

inhibiting coral

perimeter

reef

the eastern tropical areas of the Atlantic the

coastline

is

relatively simple, following the continental

coast of West Africa, and with only a few significant

island groups,

Cape Verde Islands and

notably the

flat.

submerged

features, while

Although there are a small number

of barrier

reefs and atolls these are clearly not as prolific as

in

many

parts of the Indo-Pacific.

percent

of

the

world's coral

In

all,

less than

reefs are found

in

this region.

Sao Tome and Principe. The Central Atlantic has few

shallow water features and, although there is some

region are depauperate, but they are also unique. The

volcanic activity associated with the mid-ocean ridge,

Atlantic

there are only a few oceanic islands

in

the tropics. The

the Indo-Pacific. There are three clear regions

western coastline

is

quite different:

Atlantic

reef

focussed

in

of

the Atlantic

between the eastern coast

southern

tip

of

Venezuela and the

of

Florida there

is

chain of islands

separating the Atlantic proper from the Caribbean Sea

the south and from the Gulf of Mexico

terms

In

biodiversity the coral reefs of this

of

corals

now share
province,

only seven

with

the

genera with

Bermuda

the Caribbean [from

Atlantic.

the

to Trinidad),

but with other small centers of coral diversity

and the Eastern

in

highest diversity

in

Brazil

Current coral faunas are

the north.

uniform across the Caribbean sub-region, with few

These semi-enclosed seas actually have an older

geographically restricted species. The Brazilian sub-

in

geological

history than

the Atlantic

in

As the

itself.

Central American Sea they would have been directly

connected

to the

Mediterranean

Pangea and the appearance

volcanic activity

western edges

in

of the

and

to the

is

north of Cuba

in

Florida.

elopments

few locations

in a

of

is

these reefs have a very low diversity of species,

development

are endemic.

evidence
in

this

an area bounded by the

There are smaller reef devin

the Guyanas and the Brazilian

of

centered around the Caribbean Sea

Bahamas and

isolated from the Caribbean by a substantial

There

Caribbean Basin.
reef

is

break-up

of the Atlantic.

few areas on the eastern and

The only major coral

entire region

until the

region

barrier posed by the long, sediment-rich coastal areas

the Gulf of Mexico and

record,

of a

while

Some appear

the

be

relict

wider distribution shown

others

allopatric speciation,
in

to

Amazon. Although

are

Caribbean. The

in

probably the

and appear

to

many

species with
the fossil
result

of

have sister species

Eastern Atlantic

has even

lower levels of species diversity and there only one

is

endemic. The remainder show

affinities

to

both

The Atlantic and Eastern Pacific

Caribbean and Brazilian sub-regions, suggesting

ocean

immigration from both areas.

coastline plunges into relatively deep water as the

many areas

In

Caribbean, including remote

of the

there have been wide declines

localities,

together with dramatic increases

in

coral cover

in

algal cover While

human

these can sometimes be directly related to

impacts

in

appears

specific localities, there also

have been a regional decline. Much can be linked

widespread die-off

Diadema
page
the

was

This species

reefs

and,

The

caused by
natural or

die-off

was

it

have been pathogenic -

to

and may have been

a bacterial infection -

may have been

carried to the region

in

water from ships. At the same time wide areas

have been afflicted by coral diseases. White band

disease has infected and

plates of North and South America. There are only a

few offshore islands

many

lying

beyond the continental

shelf.

Water conditions on the continental shelf fluctuate

considerably,

with

cool water upwellings

years, occasionally reversed to

warm water

in

most

upwellings

during El Nirio Southern Oscillation (ENSOl events.

The isthmus

was

of the continental

oceanic plates are subducted under the continental

3.5 million years

overfishing

Much

of its reefs.

major algal grazer on

in

often the major herbivore on

appears

terms

1983-8'i Isee

places where

in

particularly high,

ballast

long-spined sea urchin

antillarum, which occurred

611.

reefs.

the

of

to

to the

in

minor breaches

of

Panama

closed between 3 and

ago and. apart from possible very

of this gap. there

has been no marine

connection between the coral reefs on either side

of

bridge since that time. Dramatic changes

this land

have been wi nught on the marine communities since

the closure of lie isthmus.

communities wei

the two separated

Initially

e probably very diverse.

However, the

Pliocene/Pleistocene glaciations wiped out large

num-

populations of

bers of species, and almost completely removed coral

staghorn coral y4cropora cerv/corn/s and elkhorn coral

species from the Pacific shores of the Americas. There

Acropora palmata, which were once among the main

has been some recolonization

structural
idly

components

l<illed

Dead corals are rap-

of reefs.

overgrown with algae, especially because

of the

but they have

come from

of

these shores by corals,

the Pacific. Recolonization

has been slow and sporadic due

to the great physical

loss of grazing Diadema, and large areas of reef have

distance between these shores and the nearest reefs

now become algae-dominated and

little

around the Central Pacific islands. This "East Pacific

which these problems are the result

currents, further reducing the chances of larval trans-

processes remains unclear, but

port across the Pacific.

are showing

sign of a return to previous conditions.

The degree

to

of entirely natural

region

impacts,

and

many

also widely affected by

is

this

human

direct

sedimentation, nutrient pollution

including

Tourism

overfishing.

Barrier"

is

probably

most

the

important industry across the wider Caribbean, with

most

coastal

The coral reefs

of

of

ocean

the Eastern Pacific are thus

highly distinctive communities. Their closest affinities

are with the reefs of the Pacific, but they have a

lower diversity

of

many

species and

much

are endemic. The

many

reefs themselves are rarely well developed as physical

development associated with the

structures - most are simply coral communities. The

tourists seeking

places,

enhanced by unfavorable patterns

is

beach-based holidays.

In

growing tourism industry has greatly exacerbated the

few structural reefs are mostly small

problems facing the reefs

and consist

of the region.

Reefs at Risk analysis, 71 percent

In

the 1998

of the reefs in the

deposits.

in

overall extent,

few meters depth

of only a

The one exception

of

carbonate

to this generalization is

Wider Caribbean were described as threatened by

Clipperton Atoll, a true atoll administered by French

human

Polynesia (and described

activities. In

areas where these problems are

most extreme, the rates

of

recovery of reef systems are

Fluctuating

in

Chapter

141.

oceanographic conditions have

certainly being slowed. Efforts to improve reef status

considerable impact on coral reefs. The

and recovery through the implementation

wide mass mortalities associated with coral bleaching

protected

areas

and

other

coastal

of

marine

management

regimes are varied, but include important success

stories. At the

threats

same

time, the indirect nature of

that,

even with legal protection,

means

reefs are

still in

many
many

were linked
98

ENSO

although

to a

major

ENSO

event

1983.

The 1997-

event also caused high levels of bleaching,

mortality

appears

to

have

been

lower

Localized centers of upwelling appeared to suffer least

and may be important refuges

decline.

in

region-

first

for the

East Pacific

fauna during such events.

Human

The Eastern
The western shores

of

Pacific

Most

the Americas are completely

separated from the Caribbean Sea and have very

different coral reef

of

impacts on this region are generally low.

the reefs are associated with offshore islands

and therefore not heavily impacted by terrigenous

influences. Overfishing

is

certainly a

problem

in

communities. Although part

of the

areas. There

is

from the rest

of this

of the highly

controlled visits to the Galapagos.

Pacific, this region is quite distinct

some

virtually no tourism, with the exception

93

MAP

Northern Caribbean

Chapter U

Northern Caribbean

northernmost

The

Caribbean

reefs

region

the

of

Caribbean Basin, stretching

Wider

the

outside

lie

in

true

broad

sweep from the Turks and Caicos Islands

the

south

Bahamas. Far out

Bermuda forms an
the region by the

This

is

Because

of

into

an area
its

the Atlantic,

the

outlier to this group,

warm waters
of

northerly location

it

play an important role

in

interest.

of

many

in

biodiversity

coral

supply of

warm waters

to

currents maintains a

latitudes

even quite far

outside the tropics, and supports the active growth of

the most northerly reefs

in

the world,

in

Bermuda.

These same currents may further maintain biodiversity

on

some

reefs by transporting

new

larvae of coral reef

organisms from reefs "upstream". Reef development

in

the region has built up complex reef systems around

older carbonate structures and islands, and the overall

extent of reefal shelf

/.eft;

Broad

33, 19981.

wew

is

really very large indeed.

of the Florida peninsula, with

Right: Blue

some

among

the most

the world, but they are also

the most heavily utilized and

have become

highly degraded. By contrast, the vast extent of reefs of

Bahamas

most

are, for the

part, poorly described,

and human impacts (other than

these biodiversity patterns.

of

among

in

a region of great contrasts.

the

with latitude and oceanographic processes probably

The general northward flow

intensively studied

is

Reef Tract are

of

encompasses the

decreases

terms, this

of the Florida

to

Stream.

biological

outer limits of the distribution range

reef species. There are clear

island

connected

of the Gulf

great

in

and the northern

Florida

to

human

In

The reefs

trated

in

concen-

fishing! are

few locations, leaving much

of the

The

legal protection of reefs, through the desig-

nation of protected areas or the implementation of other

strict

management

region.

controls,

is

However, the condition

well established

of Florida's reefs,

human-induced stresses have been apparent

for

may

decades, suggest that such protection

in

the

where

many

not be

enough. Though they have been "protected" for some

years, there remain considerable conflicts

demands

of those living beside

and

the "user"

contrast to the Florida reefs, the Flower Garden

In

Banks

off

Texas (Map

Sal,

as well as

the Turks and Caicos Islands,

comes

and

fairly

of the reefs of the northern

in

case

of

Bermuda,

spite of high population den-

heavy use

Bahamas

Bermuda and

provide examples of

relatively well protected reefs. In the

this protection
sities

in

visiting the reefs.

of reef

resources.

visible to the right ISTS095-743-

chromis Chromis cyanea hovering above the branches of the increasingly rare staghorn coral

Acropora cervicornis.

rest

relatively undisturbed.

95

MAP 4a

Northern Caribbean

Florida and
the US Gulf of Mexico
^^^^^H

^BIP^

^^

^p
^^
^K

MAPAa

.v^HMW^M

y^'^'WFPl^!^

v1

<.U

Wm
Hi^^
^hI
|jBI|

.->-4^LgPlw^

^H

^K.
^^^9

^^^^^^^^^Hk*

1
coral

The
in the

of mainland

reefs

USA

are

largely

two areas: the coastline of southern

restricted to

shoreline, both of the Florida Everglades and around

Bay and

areas of Biscayne

many

the Florida Keys. North of

Florida and a few small but important reef patches

Miami

Gulf of Mexico.

Generally these are not major reef structures and coral

cover

there

is

some

reef development as far as Vero Beach.

low, although

is

on deeper reefs down

22 meters

to

staghorn corals are reported to be increasing.

Florida
The Florida Reef Tract
systems

the

in

Miami Beach

is

Starting directly offshore from

region.

there

is

which stretches

structure

Human

one of the most extensive reef

near continuous offshore reef

in a barrier-like

some 260 kilometers. Further west

formation for

the shallow platform

continues, and there are isolated reef patches, including

the

Dry Tortugas and

The reef

front has

number of submerged

some

structures.

well developed spur and groove

mounds

from the bottom

structures,

with coral

below

Overall coral cover in the region was typically

this.

rising

14 percent in the late 1990s, reaching 30-40 percent on

some patch
channel

reefs behind the reef crest.

this there

is

slightly

deeper

behind the reef (Hawks Channel). Behind

lies

a chain

of islands, the Florida Keys. These are

low-lying (less than 2 meters elevation), and are

composed

impacts on the reefs of Florida have been

many

apparent for

road

1938.

in

most popular

They have now developed

tourist destinations

4 million people

visit the

Keys annually, joining some

The

reefs of Florida, afflicted

Initial

the railway

causeway out

to the

the

Keys

in the early 1900s.

Bay became severely

re-opened, other impacts have continued and

damage and

ship groundings are

Detailed view of the western Florida Keys, clearly showing the intense

now

to

include

have grounded

in the

alone, while

Looe

some 500

reported annually in the Florida

human development,

roads, as well as sediments in the surrounding waters ISTS038-85-103, 19901

now

the scouring of sea-

Between 1980 and 1993 approximately

Key and Key Largo Sanctuaries

Mangroves dominate

in the region.

disrupted, and although channels have subsequently been

shallow and harbor some of the most extensive seagrass

region.

and

by an enormous range

Patterns of water flow from Florida

500 vessels were reported

entire

sailing, diving

changes were noted following the construction of

grass by propellers.

the

and

of impacts, include some of the most degraded

into the area of Florida

in

one of the

fishing are critical to the local economy.

Miami

areas

into

of continental USA. Over

the area by the marine environment,

ship groundings, anchor

Key West. Behind the Florida Reef Tract and

Bay the waters are generally very

first

100 000 permanent residents. The majority are attracted to

of Pleistocene limestone, stretching from Soldier Key near

to

The Florida Keys were

years.

joined to the mainland by a railway in 1912 and then by

including airstrips

and

97

98

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Keys National Marine Sanctuary. Another major problem

is

and pollution of nearshore waters

the eutrophication

associated with the extensive agricultural areas that drain

into the bay,

and from sewage. There are some 200 sewage

treatment plants. 22 000 septic tanks, 5 000 cesspools and

139 marinas harboring over 15 000 boats

Keys. Fishing pressure

is

in the

Florida

considerable throughout the area,

and many fish stocks are considered overfished.

Although some declines

98

to the construction

l,.4c/'o/;ora corals

However

The sanctuary only provides

flats.

many

protection and

1997 a system of 23 no-take marine reserves

in

the area - while these only cover

was established within

1

of

covered up to 96

percent of the reef substrate in places, but by 1986 this

some

percent of the total sanctuary area, they include

65 percent of the shallow reef zones. Within three years

some

recovery.

marine zoning program, key sanc-

In addition to the

tuary initiatives include a water quality protection program,

extensive

marking

buoys

and volunteer programs, channel

education

initiatives,

and

Tortugas and

installing

anchor damage

to prevent

The remaining

cover had fallen to about 3 percent, linked to the impacts

of white band disease. Even since 1996, there have been

partial

unsustainable activities continue.

there already appeared to be signs of

more rapid declines have been observed

since the 1980s. In

and sand

ties

conditions and

in ecological

been linked back

coral growth have

the causeway, far

hard bottom, seagrass meadows, mangrove communi-

reef,

and maintaining mooring

to the

reef

reefs in Florida are around the

Dry

within the Dry Tortugas National Park.

lie

declines in both remaining hard coral cover and diversity

at a

majority of permanent monitoring

sites.

More than

ten

US

coral diseases have been observed. Coral bleaching events

have occurred with increasing frequency since the 1980s,

when warm weather

typically

is

further exacerbated

by very

US

In the

Gulf of Mexico

waters of the Gulf of Mexico there are a nurnber

of banks rising up from the continental shelf which are

calm doldrum-like conditions. The most recent bleaching

derived from

was associated with

number of these they generally

similar calm conditions in 1997,

continued to a second major

warm

which

period with intense

salt

domes. Although corals are found on

lack diversity and cannot be

called true reefs, with the exception of the East

and West

bleaching in 1998, followed by the impacts of Hurricane

Flower Garden Banks. The banks themselves cover

Georges and Tropical Storm Mitch.

than 90 square kilometers, with the reef areas occupying

In combination, these

led to considerable losses of coral in shallow areas.

Reefs

in

Florida

are

possibly

the

only a small proportion (about

most intensely

monitored

in the

world, with 16 programs active in 2000.

All

reefs

in

coral

Florida are protected either at the

federal or state level.

The Florida Keys National Marine

They

1.4

less

square kilometers).

200 kilometers south of Galveston, Texas,

are located

and are among the most isolated reefs

Caribbean. Little

known and

in

the

Wider

studied until the advent of oil

exploration during the 1970s, these reefs only appeared on

Sanctuary, designated in 1990. extends over nearly 10 000

nautical charts in the 1930s

square kilometers of critical marine habitat, including coral

published on the Flower Gardens before 1969. They are

and fewer than ten papers were

colonized by 20 species of hard corals. Dominated by

species of Diptoria, Montastrea and Poriles, they have a
live coral

USA, Atlantic

cover of around 47 percent

a depth of 15-30

at

meters. Shallow water species of soft corals are not found

General Data

here.

Population (thousands!

GDP

(million

US$)

Land area (km^j

from shore and

392 711

meters deep and so even hurricanes

9/151 035

152 000

Florida

Marine area (thousand km^j

Per capita

fish

na

consumption (kg/year)

21

their depth:

the

bank

their distance

crests are

15-20

inflict relatively little

damage. Environmental conditions are generally more

stable than they are in Florida
is

- the surrounding water

oceanic and exceptionally clear

Temperatures range from 19

to

the

all

year round.

30C.

Live coral cover has remained relatively high since

Status and Threats

Reefs

These reefs are naturally protected by

275 563

at risk (%1

91

Recorded coral diseases

16

monitoring
disease

is

began

first

relatively

in

low

1972, and the incidence of coral

(2 percent

of colonies). Algal

cover increased rapidly from negligible amounts to a

maximum

Biodiversity

Reef area (km^l

Coral diversity

250

na/58

of 14 percent after the die-off of the urchin

Diadema, but

this

was reversed within

a year after the

populations of large, herbivorous parrotfishes increased.

Mangrove area (km^l

na

No. of mangrove species

na

spectacular seasonal events. Each year,

No. of seagrass species

na

of the

The Flower Garden Banks

moon

in

August,

a syncronchized

many

are the setting for

at

some

the last quarter

coral species reproduce in

mass spawning. Each winter

the reefs

Northern Caribbean

Protected areas with coral reefs

P

Site

name

Florida and

Designation

US

Abbreviation

cat.

Size

Year

(km2|

Biscayne Bay

National Park

NP

II

729.00

1980

Dry Tortugas

National Park

NP

II

262.03

1992

Everglades

National Park

NP

II

066.88

1947

Florida Keys

National Marine Sanctuary

NaMS

IV

603.73

1990

John Pennekamp Coral Reef

State Parit

John U Lloyd

State Recreation Area

Key Largo

SP

226.84

1959

SRA

1.Q2

1973

National Marine Sanctuary

NaMS

323.88

1975

Key West

National Wildlife Refuge

NWR

IV

979.43

1908

Looe Key

National Marine Sanctuary

NaMS

15.54

1981

Flower Garden Banks

National Marine Sanctuary

NaMS

U5.04

1992

Everglades and Dry Tortugas

National Parks

UNESCO

8 716.59

1976

sharks.

schools

Biosphere Reserve

of hammerhead
the year -

Manta rays can be seen throughout

juveniles in the summer:

adults

in

the

winter Whale

sharks are periodically abundant.

in

1992.

An

on Stetson Bank there

ably

little

no active reef accretion. The

impact from the petroleum industry, although

US

National

additional smaller bank.

and over 35 000 kilometers of pipeline

to

hook and

temperature variation and higher turbidity, was added to

is

prohibited, and

While there

is

some

coral growth

stoplight parrotfish Sparisoma viride amidst massive corals

in the

northwestern

Gulf of Me.xico. Harvesting of reef organisms

Stetson Bank, which lies further north in an area of greater

this designation in 1996.

is

marine sanctuary has ensured that there has been remark-

there are about 4 000 hydrocarbon production facilities

The Flower Gardens were declared

Marine Sanctuary

Gulf of Mexico

witness gatherings of large

lUCN

installed.

line fishing,

Some

is

restricted

anchoring by commercial vessels

mooring buoys

for dive boats have

2 000 divers visit each year.

and a gorgonian coral or sea

fan.

been

MAP 4b

..^...

QQ

<'C:>c

e-

.^

:^dAi

Northern Caribbean

Bermuda
MAP 4b

Bermuda

an isolated group of 150 limestone

is

islands in the Sargasso Sea area of the Western

North Atlantic Ocean more than

000 kilometers

from continental USA. Most of the land area

sented by

five

causeways. These

Bermuda

islands

Platform

is

repre-

which are joined together by

islands

high points of the

the

are

nearby

the

and

Plantagenet

Challenger Banks rise to 50 meters below sea

level.

Together the three banks crown the Bermuda Rise, a midplate hotspot of similar origin to Hawai'i, although geologically older.

Water

excess of 8 000 meters depth

in

occurs just 6 kilometers to the northwest of Bermuda, as the

sides of the

Bermuda Rise

steeply to the ocean floor.

fall

The Bermuda Platform

the

Bahamas,

is

hermatypic coral

nearest

and the

Florida

in

sub-tropical climate maintains shallow

water temperatures above 19C

maximum of 27C. The

warm temperatures, at a
is

400 kilometers from

yet supports the northernmost coral reefs of

the Atlantic.

Islands,

reefs,

due

in winter,

with a

summer

occurrence of such

northerly

Canary

similar latitude to the

Gulf Stream which passes

to the

to the

north and west of Bermuda.

The reef

flora

and fauna of Bermuda are much

less

diverse than in the Caribbean. Only one third of Caribbean

most notable absence being the

corals occur here, with the

genus Acropora. Approximately 120 species of reef fish

have been recorded. Fringing, bank barrier and lagoonal

Bermuda Platform and

patch reefs are found on the

health of these small reefs

averaged 30-35 percent

is

good

HH^^^

2000, reaching 50 percent on

in

was

in the

Population (thousands)

sufficient to prevent even a temporary increase

cover of fleshy algae after most of the

Bermuda has

a very high

human population

density.

Per capita

for an estimated

visitors.

The

tourist

consumption (kg/year)

UU

100

at risk (%|

Recorded coral diseases

28 percent of gross domestic product and

84 percent of

industrial sector

its

is

main source of

Biodiversity

business from North America.

small, and agriculture

terrestrial pollution.

grounding of large vessels

Queen conch

Reefs

industry accounts

is

is

also a

Mangrove area (km^)

for the reefs.

are reported to be commercially extinct, but

other reef fisheries are

at a

low

level

and appear

to

Above: A large hogfish Lachnolaimus maximus. These

26 /na

Coral diversity

is

The occasional

problem

370

Reef area (km^l

severely

limited by a lack of suitable land. Domestic waste

the

39

Status and Threats

vices and the development of luxury tourist facilities for

600 000 annual

fish

797

450

Marine area (thousand km^l

the world, through both the provision of financial ser-

The

Land area Ikm^l

also enjoys one of the highest per-capita incomes in

attracts

63

GDPImillion US$1

Diadema

died in 1983.

It

Bermu da

General Data

the outer terrace. Grazing by parrotfishes and surgeonfishes

^^

the

overall. Coral cover

0.16

No. of mangrove species

No. of seagrass species

be

fish

are popular food items and increasingly rare

Below: Massive corals Montastrea and gorgonians or sea fans.

in

many areas.

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

sustainable.

In

general,

marine conservation enjoys

substrate,

own

and many are now important reef habitats

priority status, with a high level of protection afforded to

their

about a quarter of the Bermudan coral reefs through two

Recreational

coral reef preserves, three seasonally protected no-take

commercial

right. All fishing is

fishing areas, nine large protected dive sites and a further

in

20 smaller ones. The

illegal fish traps

latter are

mostly wrecks on the reef

elsewhere have bag

fishers
trap

fishing for finfish

1990. Recently the

was

limits,

totally

number of convictions

has increased

in

prohibited in these areas.

in

and

banned

for use

of

Bermuda.

Protected areas with coral reefs

t

Site

j^^^^H TtoDreviatioii

name

m^^

^SlZ^kiiiJl

^a^^

Bermuda

Airplane

Protected Area

PA

0.28

na

Aristo

Protected Area

PA

0.28

na

Blanche King

Protected Area

PA

0.28

na

Caraquet

Protected Area

PA

0.28

na

Commissioners Point Area

Protected Area

PA

0.12

na

Constellation Area

Protected Area

PA

0.79

na

Cristobal Colon

Protected Area

PA

0.28

na

Darlington

Protected Area

PA

0.28

na

Eastern Blue Cut

Protected Area

PA

1.13

na

Hermes and Minnie Breslauer

Protected Area

PA

0.79

na

Hog Breaker

Protected Area

PA

0.28

na

Kate

Protected Area

PA

0.28

na

Lartington

Protected Area

PA

0.28

na

L'Herminie

Protected Area

PA

0.28

na

Madiana

Protected Area

PA

0.28

na

Marie Celeste

Protected Area

PA

0.28

na

Breaker

Protected Area

PA

0.28

na

Montana

Protected Area

PA

0.28

na

North Carolina

Protected Area

PA

0.28

na

North East Breaker

Protected Area

PA

0.28

na

North Rock

Protected Area

PA

3.U

na

North Shore Coral Fieef

Preserve

Pr

130.50

1966

Pelinaion and Rita Z ovetto

Protected Area

PA

0.79

na

Snake

Protected Area

PA

0.28

na

South Shore Coral Fieef

Preserve

Pr

4.50

na

South West Breaker Area

Protected Area

PA

1.13

na

Tarpon Hole

Protected Area

PA

0.28

na

Taunton

Protected Area

PA

0.28

na

The Cathedral

Protected Area

PA

0.28

na

Vixen

Protected Area

PA

0.03

na

Xing Da Area

Protected Area

PA

0.12

na

Mills

Pit

Northern Caribbean

Bdhamas
MAP

The Bahamas,
numerous
and

an archipelago of some 700 islands

over

reefs, stretch

225 kilometers

from north to south. Most of these islands are

Bahama Bank

scattered over two shallow banks, the Little

and the Great Bahama Bank, with depths of 10 meters

country from Cuba. The Gulf Stream flows through the

Straits

The Bahamas

mar

baja

is

are

named

these

after

banks:

Spanish for "shallow sea". The other islands

occur on smaller, more isolated, banks to the southeast

(principally the Crooked,

Mayaguana and Inagua Banks)

and the west (Cay Sal Bank). To the south, Hogsty Reef
one of the few atoll-type structures
the

Bahamian

islands have low relief and are

carbonate material, laid

algae,

down by

corals

is

Caribbean. All

in the

formed from

and calcareous

or by physical deposition from saturated water.

Successive ice ages exposed these carbonate platforms,

and wind-blown sand dunes created

subsequently

some

lithified,

at

much

further raising the

the

same time

elevation

ful
is

flow

that

is

Reef development

The North

windward

ward bank margins. However there

bank barrier
is

reefs,

Left:

Long

Island.

Bahama Channel which

Bahamas

separates the

ISTS055-73-38. 19931 Right:

is

in the northern

on many

is

lee-

are thousands of small

some

such as the Andros Barrier Reef which

one of the longest reef systems

Many Bahamian

in the

Western Atlantic.

good condition, which

reefs are in fairly

probably due to limited anthropogenic disturbance asso-

ciated

with

remoteness and the country's low

their

population density.

White band and other diseases have affected corals

Macroalgal cover

important fish

through the Old

Bahamas.

Bahamas

the

patch reefs, dozens of narrow fringing reefs and

abundance

the east of the archipelago, while the remainder passes

much of

by unusually cold winters

sites,

Equatorial Current, part of the North Atlantic Gyre, flows

diverges: part passes along

in

islands and by turbid, high salinity waters

up from the southeast where

it

of its power-

naturally limited by the exposure to hurricanes of the

from San Salvador

currents affect the Bahamas.

effect

most of the land-based runoff from Florida

diluted and dispersed without reaching the

in

areas.

Two major

of Florida from the west, before flowing north

between Florida and the Bahamas. One

or less bounded by extremely deep water of up to 4 000

meters.

4c

of

in

is

both
is

the east to

Andros

in

the west.

usually low to moderate and the

herbivorous

and

commercially

high. Corals of the central

showed extensive bleaching

in

Bahamas

August 1998, with over 60

percent of all hard corals bleached to a depth of 20 meters

San Salvador,

Rum

Cay and Conception Island I5TS095-705-6

1,

19981.

103

MAP

4c

Northern Caribbean

p
Protected areas with
I

lUCN

Abbreviation

Designation

name

Site

coral reefs
Size

cat.

Year

Ikm!)

Bahamas
Conception Island

National Park

NP

II

8.09

1973

Exuma Land and Sea Park

National Park

NP

II

455.84

1958

Little

San

Pptprc;nn

of

New

Cav

8.50

1981

National Park

NP

II

0.01

1971

Cay

in

Little

at

San

Samana Cay was

Islands.

Bahamian
There
with
at

is

over

for spearfishers.

number of

illegal

fishing activities

occur which include the use of toxic chemicals, the harvesting of hawksbill turtles, the taking of undersized or

juvenile queen conch, and the collection of spiny lobster

was noted,

out of season or with prohibited diving gear. Artificial

Some subsequent
Exuma Cays.

reef animals

mortality

shelters are often positioned close to reefs to attract spiny

reefs,

are

still

common on many

and fish stocks are generally abundant.

a well developed

total

that

spawning aggregations of groupers have become the target

at

particularly at the

Edible

Concern has been expressed

species of grouper

the northern Bahamas, with many types of

affected.

coral

National Park

II

There was also extensive bleaching

less affected.

Walker's

1961

NP

and some gorgonians was seen

Salvador, San Salvador and Egg

much

1965

1.82

Sweetings Cay, Chubb Cay,

Inagua,

Little

743.33

Providence Island. Near complete bleaching

the hard corals

all

II

IV

Wild Bird Reserve

Salvador (Little Island)

Pelican Cays Land and Sea

around

NP

WBR

National Park

Inagua

commercial and export

fishery,

landings in 1999 close to 5 000 tons, valued

US$70

million. This figure includes over 2 700

tons of the very high value spiny lobster

There

tails.

local overexploitation of certain stocks, including

is

whelk

Citlariim pica, queen conch, spiny lobster and several

lobsters, although there is

concern that these may simply

aggregate existing spiny lobsters rather than enhancing

natural stocks. There

a limited legal harvest of adult

is

green turtles during an open season (April-July). Sand

still

is

being mined from a few reef sites on a fairly small

scale.

Over half of the commercial dive

have mooring

sites

buoys. Declines in coral cover have been recorded in

locations.

On New

Providence dredging,

some
sedi-

landfill,

mentation and the construction of a cruiseship port have

^i^^"'^^'
Bahamas

^^^^^^

I^HHH

1^^^H
t

General Data

Imillion

US$1

Land area (km^l

Marine area (thousand km^l
Per capita

fish

60 percent of the coral reef habitat.

The Bahamas

economy

heavily

is

a stable, developing nation with an

dependent on tourism and offshore

banking. Tourism alone accounts for more than 60 percent

Population Ithousandsl

GDP

led to the loss of

consumption (kg/year)

295

3712
12 869

652

22

Recorded coral diseases

Moderate growth
construction of

49
8

Mangrove area (km^l

labor

force.

boom

in the

new

the

hotels, resorts

on coral

and residences has led

reefs, but the total area is

little

affected.

Shark feeding, a new speciality of the Bahamian dive

is

attracting

increasing

numbers of

tourists.

Several protected areas have been established, though in

Biodiversity

Coral diversity

archipelago's

to localized pressures

industry,

Reef area (km^l

in

and directly or indirectly

tourism receipts and a

employs 40 percent of

so great that the majority of reefs are probably

Status and Threats

Reefs at risk (%1

of gross domestic product

3 150

2000 these were poorly funded and had only one paid

32/58

warden. Overall prospects for the conservation of the

2 332

No. of mangrove species

No. of seagrass species

marine environment

in the

Bahamas

will

depend heavily

on the fortunes of the tourism sector and continued

income growth in the USA, which accounts for the
majority of tourist visitors.

105

106

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Turks and Caicos Islands

MAP

20

Turks

The

and Caicos

archipelagos

Islands

limestone

of

consist

across the relatively small Turks

much

of two

distributed

islands

Bank and

the

some

000

larger Caicos Bank, with an area of

times several hundred meters

Caicos Bank, which

is

in

diameter, occur across the

A number

of coral diseases

square kilometers. The margins of these are defined by

Turks and Caicos Islands

^^

Turks and Caicos Islands are similar to the Bahamas,

consisting of oolitic limestone sediments, eolianite hills

and karst limestone

are

three

cliffs

on the windward shores. There

submerged banks

to

the

southeast - the

Mouchoir, Silver (La Plata) and Navidad Banks, the

algae

are dominated by coral,

and gorgonian communities. Hard coral cover

averaged 18 percent in 1999, with 30 percent of the substrate

being covered by the alga Microdictyon marinum,

and a low density (five per square meter) of

There

is

this

18

na

US$1

Land area (km^l

491

Marine area (thousand km^j

153

Per capita

fish

consumption (kg/yearl

true fringing reef along the southern tip of

Status and Threats

Reefs at risk (%l

Long

many

locations

protects a lagoon with dense beds of seagrasses,

Reef area (km^l

Coral diversity

No. of seagrass species

coral species

and more

730

29/57

Mangrove area (km^l

some 37

high, with

Biodiversity

No. of mangrove species

is

47

Recorded coral diseases

mainly Thalassia testudiniim and Syringodium fdiforme.

Diversity

na

soft corals.

Cay, the southern coast of South Caicos and the northern

coasts of Middle and North Caicos, and in

Population (thousands!

GDP

last

two of which are claimed by the Dominican Republic.

The edges of the main banks

General Data

(million

than 400 fish species recorded. Large patch reefs, some-

The Caicos Bank. Much of the central bank

mangrove communities

ISTS050-82-98, 1992!.

is

km

mainly covered by sparse seagrass

and calcareous green algae.

sharp "drop-offs" to deep oceanic water Geologically the

Ad

dominated by sand, but there are also important seagrass and

111
5

na

MAP4d

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Protected areas with coral reefs

Site

name

Abbreviation

Designation

lUCN

cat.

Size

Year

ikm^i

I
Turl(s
Fort

and Caicos
National Park

George Land and Sea

IV

4.94

1987

French, Bush and Se;al Cays

Sanctuary

IV

0.20

1987

Grand Turk Cays,

Land and Sea

National Park

NP

IV

1.56

1987

West Caicos Marine

National Park

NP

IV

3.97

1992

544.00

1990

Ramsar

North, Middle
AND East Caicos Islands

have been reported and are thought

to

Site

have contributed to

extensive losses of Acropora. though considerable stands of

Acropora palmala

still

is

based on tourism,

fishing and offshore financial services. Nearly

all

capital

goods and food for domestic consumption are imported,

and there
rivers,

is

minimal manufacturing and agriculture. With

terrestrial

runoff

is

very

low.

120 000 visitors were recorded, with the

In

USA

1999, over

being the

primary source of tourists. The primary export fisheries are

conch and

lobster, with exports

respectively in

Nutrient discharge

is

localized problem,

notably

on Providenciales, resulting from coastal development,

including hotels and marinas, but also conch aquaculture

remain.

The Turks and Caicos economy

no

NP

of 646 tons and 314 tons

1998, mainly to the

USA. Reef

fish are

largely taken for internal markets, generally sustainably.

and fish processing plants. Direct damage

divers

may be

localized problem at

to the reefs

some dive

by

sites.

Generally the reefs of the Turks and Caicos Islands show

little

signs of being adversely affected by

however development
significant
tourist

threat,

in

notably

developments on

considerable

human activity,
may pose a

the tourism sector

newly proposed harbor and

East

and

South

Caicos.

number of marine protected areas have been

designated, although active

management of these

away from Providenciales.

Eagle rays Aetobatis narinari rising up from the deep waters on the edge of the Caicos Bank.

is

limited

Northern Caribbean

Selected bibliography
FLORIDA AND THE US GULF OF MEXICO

KM

Chiappone M, Sullivan

119961. Distribution,

Steneck RS, Macintyre

abundance and

species composition of juvenile scleractinian corals

Mar Sci

Florida Reef Tract. Bull

Gittings SR, Hickerson

EL

58121:

ledsl

in

systems

of

the Florida Keys coral reefs.

larvae

JR

Mumby

Man

19(11:

study of the

JW etal

in

the Turks and Caicos

113-134.

Green EP, Clark CD, Edwards AJ (1998).

PJ.

Digital

analysis of multispectral airborne imagery of coral reefs.

Cora( Reefs 18: 3A1-351.

A long-term interdisciplinary
Florida-Keys seascape. Su// Mar Sci 54(3): 1059-

JC, Porter

Developing coastal park

(1991).

the tropics - planning

Islands. Coasta/

and

Continental

in

Cora; ffeefe 17111: 59-69,

variability of coral

Ogden

16(1):

G,

Mitchell BA, Barborak

(19921. Influence of Florida current, gyres

Aronson RB (19991. Scale-dependent spatial

assemblages along the Florida Reef Tract.

TJT,

algal ridge

Medley P 11995). Evaluation of diver carrying

capacity and implications for reef management in the Turks
and Caicos Islands. Bahamas J Sc/ 31 11: 9-14.

Gaudian

She/^ffes 12(7-81: 971-1002.

Murdoch

A unique

(19971.

Bahamas. Coral Reefs

TURKS AND CAICOS ISLANDS

Dedicated Issue -

and wind-driven circulation on transport

in

RP

Reid
Cays,

555-569.

(19981.

Mexico Science 16121: 127-237.

Jaap WC, Hallock P (1990). Coral reefs. In: Myers RL. Ewel JS
ledsl. Ecosystems of Florida. 57'i-618.

recruitment

IG,

Exuma

the

in

29-37.

the

Flower Garden Banl<s National Marine Sanctuary. Gulf of

LeeTN, Rooth C etal

system

(1994).

Map sources

MapAa
Coral reef and mangrove data were obtained from the Florida

Marine Research

Institute in digital format. Highly detailed files

1071.

Porter JW, Meier

in

OW (1992).

Quantification of loss and

Floridian reef coral populations.

Suman DO

The

(1997).

Florida

Sanctuary: a case study of an

partnership

in

change

4merZoo/32(6): 625-640.
Keys National Marine
innovative

federal-state

marine resource management. Coast Man

25(31: 293-32A.

from numerous sources (from 19801, including aerial photography and ground surveys. Location of the Texas Flower

Garden Banks has been extracted from hydrographic charts.

Map 4b
Coral reef data are taken from Hydrographic Office 119841. Last

major edits

chart were

to this

1959.

in

Hydrographic Office (1984). Bermuda Island. British Admiralty

BERMUDA
Cook CB, Logan A

Chart No. 3ii.

et al (1990). Elevated

bleaching on a high latitude coral reef - the 1988

Bermuda

event. Cora/ ffeefa 9111: 45-49.

Fishing Industry

in

Bermuda: A Discussion Paper

of Bermuda.

and the
Ministry

Environment, Government

Map

Cowen RK (1994). Recruitment of coral reef fishes

Bermuda - local retention or long-distance transport. Mar

1:2

of

coral recruitment and

post-

Caribbean and Pacific reefs.

Amer Zool

Number

Bahamas North

1995a).

32(61: 663-673.

(Used

ReefSymp

geology

2:

for

Aklins

New

Coral

ReefSymp

GW (1994).

components
In:

Ginsburg

surrounding

islands,

437-442.

Effects of

temperature and UV-B on different

of coral reef

RN

Long Island- 1:500

Mayaguana -

000.)

(ed).

of the

Bahamas. Longman Group UK Ltd,

Bahama - 1:600 000; Abaco -

1:650 000;

New

Providence -

School

of

10 000;

Andros

- 1:730 000.1

communities from the Bahamas.

map based on Landsat TM imagery

(path,

row

45,

22 Nov 19901. Supervised classification of marine areas pro-

duced four categories

of

defined as "coral reef",

together with

DOS
DOS

all

information for

habitat,

here.

(19841.

(1984). Turks

and Caicos
of

Islands. 1:200 000. Series

DOS

Overseas Surveys. London, UK.

Marine and Atmospheric Science,

*

of which one was

Mangrove information,
the Turks Bank, is taken from

marine

shown

609 2nd edn. Department

Proceedings of the Colloquium on

University of Miami, USA. 126-131.

:1

For the Caicos Bank, reef and coastline are taken from a broadscale habitat

Global Aspects of Coral Reefs: Health, Hazards and History,

1993. Rosenstiel

1:500 000;

Mapid

1789-1794.

Providence and

1:

only

Harlow, UK. (Used for Grand

Bahamas. J Coasf Res 13131: 798-812.

Liddell WD, Avery WE, Ohlhorst SL (1 996). Patterns of benthic
community structure, 10-250 m, the Bahamas. Proc 8th Int
Smith

Island

Great Inagua - 1:500 000; Exuma Islands 1:500 000; Cat Island - 1:500 000; San Salvador - 1:250 000;

Sealey N. Burrows EJ (eds) (1992). School Atlas for the

Kindler P (1997). The stratigraphy and surficial

of

Road Map.

1:500 000

1:500 000;

Anthony SL, Langg JC. Maguire B (1 997). Causes of stony coral

mortality of a central Bahamian reef: 1991-95. Proc 8th Int
PJ.

1995a and

Commonwealth

Coral

Ic.

and Berndtson Publications, Furstenfeldbruck, Germany.

BAHAMAS

Hearty

B&B

Germany (Used for: Bimini Island - 1:100 000.1

(c.1995b). Bahamas South .500 000 Road Map. Berndtson

(1992).

30.

(c.

B&B

A Guide to the Ecology of

Shoreline and Shallow-Water Marine Communities of
Bermuda. Bermuda Biological Station for Research, Special
Publication

600 000. Mangrove data are based on

|1988al'

approximately

Berndtson and Berndtson Publications, Furstenfeldbruck,

settlement mortality on Bermuda's reefs - comparisons to

Thomas MLH, Logan A

UNEP/IUCN

at a scale of

1995b) and Sealey and Burrows (19921.

B&B

fco/ProgSerl09(l): 15-28.
Smith SR (1992). Patterns

4c

which presents coral reefs as arcs

c.

Schultz ET,
to

UK.

Coral data have been digitized from

Ministry of the Environment (2000). Marine Resources

of the

:60 000. Taunton,

temperatures and

See Technical notes, page 401

110

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Chapter 5

Western Caribbean

11

region incorporates

This

islands

in

some

km

of the largest

the Caribbean, including Cuba, as

distance from the coast along with

human

well as the mainland of Central America

from Mexico south

Colombia,

to

harbors considerable areas

The reefs
subject

Discovery Bay

of

intensive

of

in

studies

also

It

coral reef.

of

Jamaica have been the

since the

and

1950s,

together with the extensive barrier and fringing reef

systems
t^lexico

Belize

of

among

are

and the Caribbean coastline

the best

known

of

reefs of the region.

Reef development across the continental shelf

Nicaragua
extensive.

reefs on

documented but believed

poorly

is

Cuba has considerable though little-known

sides,

all

particularly associated with

the

Pacific coastline of the

Americas holds

unique tropical coral assemblages. For the

of

part these do

some

there are

Biodiversity

is

not form true

reef structures

in

although

reefs,
a

few locations.

low on the reefs, though they contain a

number of unique and important species. The diversity of

reef corals in this region was much reduced during the
Pliocene/Pleistocene glaciations and has not recovered.

This

of

be

to

The East

number
most

low

relatively

population densities.

region

is

regularly impacted

by extreme

environmental conditions. Coastal waters are typically

cool and rich
but there

is

in

nutrients, associated with upwellings,

also occasional extreme

warming

linked to

long-shore archipelagos which border more than half

El

of its coastline.

cause widespread coral bleaching and subsequent

Human

impacts on the reefs

highly varied.

been heavily

Some, such as those

utilized by

humans

for

this region are

in
in

Jamaica, have

many decades.

In

recent years these have been severely degraded by

a

combination

of

the

Diadema

die-off

together with direct

human

fishing,

sedimentation

pollution.

Left:

but

also

Others

have

and disease,

impacts, notably over-

been

and

protected

Grand Cayman. The shallow lagoon

is

nutrient
by

their

Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events. This can

mortality,

driving

localized extinctions of particular

species. The frequent occurrence of such events fur-

ther helps to explain the lack of

more extensive

development. Clipperton Atoll

the only major reef

is

reef

structure on the western edge of this region. Because

it

is

administered from French Polynesia and shares

some
in

features with the Indo-Pacific reefs,

Chapter

it

is

covered

14.

surrounded by extensive and important mangrove areas ISTS062-8i-70,

19941.

newly described coral Pocillopora effusus Itop of picturel growing on a rock outcrop exposed to strong wave
action on Clarion Island, Mexico. Thus far this species is only known from Clarion Island and Mexico Iphoto: JEN Veronl.
Right: The

MAPS

MAP

5a

2
2

D.
RZST

tIasjN

STP

NMP

-^-1

-i
1

y An d

Ma

Conto

ETC ETC

<

BahIa

BR(N)

Mamata

Arrecrfal

Puerto

Isia

Santa

la
Celestun

Lagartos

Ka'an

de de de de

de
ema

ya fa ya ya

rra

lip

CDrara(ij.E?J2raQ)w T o a 3

Q.Q.cLQ.Q:a:aiiy3wi->x>-

^SiSS^SEaKSKglo
Q.

^
^

0. -e

itoSi-g^i &^o
Tec
nosde

Ceuta

Cuitzn"

ElVer

Mexiq

MIsma

Ptedra

Ranch

El
^

5..5,5.5!.5.S.5.S.

?.&?.

(nnJiotocbraSjtotD n (0 CC CD
0.0.0.0.0.0.0-0.0.0.0.0.0.

Western Caribbean

Mexico
MAPS

Coral

and communities occur throughout

reefs

Mexico but
the

main

are concentrated in four

areas:

Gulf of California and Pacific Coast; the

nearshore reefs between Tampico and Veracruz

the

in

western Bahia de Campeche; the more distant offshore

reefs of the
atolls

Campeche Bank; and

the fringing reef

in

the

Mexican

described abundant

Pacific,

but

recent

populations

coral

in

research
these

be

to

has

their discontinuous occurrence.

elevated structure occur

on

Isla Espiritu

at

True reefs with an

Cabo Pulmo, Ensenada Grande

Santo, Punto Chileno, Islas Marias and

at

scattered locations along the southern coast of Oaxaca.

Coral communities,

growth but

sometimes with abundant coral

net accretion, are present in the central

little

Gulf of California from

Isla

Angel de

la

Guardia to Bahia

Concepcion. They consist of just two species - Pontes

panamensis and

P.

sverdnipi - which are tolerant of the

low temperatures of the upper gulf The

endemic species believed

to

be a

relict

latter

is

an

from the Pliocene

undergoing a natural process of extinction. Other communities occur

Left:

all

Bahia La Paz,

reef development

along the Pacific coast, occupying

in tt)e soutt)

is fiigfily

Isla

0-15 meters in depth. The communities

at

Jaltemba, Huatulco Bays, east of Puerto Angel,

Puerto Angelito and Carrizalillo are particularly well

developed but are composed of only a few species, mainly

Pocillopora spp., Pnriles spp., Parana spp.,
spp.

and Fungia spp. The

Psammocora

Nino and post-El Nifio

latest El

and mortality around Bahia Banderas and Huatulco, but

had considerably

Some 200

reefs,

despite their small size (mostly a few hectares or less)

and

at

events in 1997 and 1998 caused considerable bleaching

of the Caribbean Sea.

Hermatypic corals were originally considered

rare

and

rocky areas

5a and b

less

impact

at

some

600 kilometers west of mainland Mexico,

19891. Rigfit:

lies

a small

but important group of four volcanic islands, the Islas

They

Revillagigedo.

lie

deep oceanic water and are

in

broadly impacted by a westward flowing North Equatorial

Current, which
the

is

fed by the cold California Current and

warmer Costa Rica Coastal Current. These

harsh conditions are exacerbated by

relatively

regular

tropical

storms. Despite this, the islands harbor the most diverse

fish

and coral communities

development

is

limited,

structures, notably

in

the

Mexican

in the

but

there

more

are

Pacific.

some

true

Reef
reef

sheltered bays. Twenty

hennatypic coral species have been recorded around these

islands,

dominated by Pocillopora

lobata and

P.

lichen.

Many

spp., as well as

Frencf) angelfish

Pontes

gorgonian species have also

of Baja California. Atthiougli tfiere are important marine communities

limited ISTS030-71 -9.

other localities.

kilometers south of Baja California and

Pomacanthus paru

and some

corals, true

Iplioto: Colin Fairiiurstl.

113

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

been recorded. Biogeographically the islands appear to

be more closely linked with Clipperton Atoll than the

Mexican mainland and up

to three

species found on the islands

may

been found

be endemic

and 12 reef fish have

to the islands.

Gulf of Mexico

In the

General Data

be endemic to these two

areas. Additionally, six molluscs

to

Mexico

of the hermatypic coral

reefs occur in the south,

Per capita

Campeche Bank, which

The majority of the Veracruz

some with emergent

reefs,

although patch reefs do exist

Lizardo and

in

fish

consumption (kg/yearl

Reef area Ikm^j

tvlangrove area Ikm^l

low.

The Campeche

that

characteristics

logical

and morpho-

reefs have ecological

them from

distinguish

Caribbean reefs of Mexico, although their fauna

Banco

Ingles,

base

Alacranes

an

is

in the state

Arrecife

meters.

larvae

coral

Carmen

settlement,

area.

Playa del

particularly

in

the

Considerable declines

in

coral

cover

at

Puerto Morelos and nearby reefs have been related to the

impacts of Hurricane Gilbert in 1988 and a large but

unquantified bleaching event

in 1995.

However, unlike

in

Belize to the south, the combined impacts of the bleaching

atoll.

reef development in the country

and Hurricane Mitch - the Atlantic's fourth strongest

of Quintana Roo on the east coast of the

hurricane on record - did not lead to widespread coral

The most extensive

is

Banco Nuevo,

from a pre-Holocene

depth of 50-60

located at a

No. of seagrass species

the

Bajo Serpiente. Madagascar and Sisal) reefs

are present. All are platforms rising

5315

No. of mangrove species

similar.

is

Both emergent (eg Cayos Areas, Cayos Arenas and

Arrecife Triangulos) and submerged (eg

780

78/81

Papaloapan and Alvarado limit coral growth, and diversity

is

Biodiversity

very high on reefs

Coral diversity

these areas

11

39

close to the port of Veracruz where the rivers Antigua,

in

9/18

3 289

Giote off Anton

El

is

962

Recorded coral diseases

Punta Gorda, Punta Majagua, Hornos and

at

Punta Mocambo. Sedimentation

Reefs at risk (%|

Lobos,

Isia

in

US$1

Status and Threats

reefs are platform

as

parts,

26A715

Imillion

Marine area Ithousand km?)

follows the western and northern edges of the Yucatan

Peninsula.

100 350

GDP

Land area (km^l

and

are mostly located along the edge of the continental shelf,

both around Veracruz and on the

Population (thousandsl

Yucatan Peninsula. Here the continental shelf

narrow, in

many

are partly

submerged fringmg

coastline, while

is

very

mortality along this coastline.

places less than 2 kilometers wide. There

reefs along

much of

from Xcalak southwards there

this

a fully

is

information

Little

exists

on

Most of

Pacific.

anthropogenic

the

impacts on coral reefs and communities

in the

Mexican

the coral and reef communities occur

developed fringing reef which continues to Ambergris

in

Key

tourism, and sedimentation arising from deforestation in

in

Belize, and then extends into the Belize Barrier

places subject to recent intensive development for

Reef Extensive spur and groove systems have developed

adjacent watersheds

Islas

the center

and south. This coastline

is

noted for

of rivers but numerous limestone sink holes

outflow of freshwater

at

Cozumel

large island in the north with a

separated
channel.

reefs are well

(windward) side of
shallow

waters,

reefs

an

on both

to the Belize

of Banco Chinchorro, which

from the mainland by a

The

result in

Island, a relatively

number of

windward and leeward shores; and close

atoll

lack

various points. Offshore are two

further important features:

border the large

its

is

000 meter deep

developed on the eastern

this atoll: coral

cover

is

lower in the

and a spur and groove system has

developed. The lagoon

is

water

cover and

in the

the current

up

to

Caribbean Current. South of Cozumel. part of

is

grazing by goats and pigs -

aquarium fishery

funnelled into the channel and accelerates

4 knots to form the Yucatan Current.

Its

speed

is

believed to influence sedimentation rates and possibly

Even on

the remote

in the

may be

a problem.

small

Gulf of California has recently

been expanded, with three operators and combined

permits for the collection of nearly 90 000 individual
fish

(from 20 species),

000 corals and 80 000 other

invertebrates per year. These figures are of

because

the

coral

communities

from

some concern
which

these

collections are derived are small and scattered, and their

natural vulnerability

is

further exacerbated by the extreme

environmental conditions of the region.

generally sandy, with extensive

some patch reefs. Both Banco

Chinchorro and Cozumel modify the northerly flow of
seagrass

increasing.

is

Revillagigedo sedimentation - arising from over-

In

the

Gulf of Mexico, the Veracruz reefs have

probably suffered the greatest damage

from human

impacts due to their proximity to the coast and their

location

near important ports

such as Veracruz and

Tuxpan. Campeche Bank reefs have suffered from

related activities over the last 25 years.

port

was

installed

deep water

oiloil

by Cayos Areas and the chronic effects

MAP
87''45'

8830'

Gulf of Mexico

2r45'

5b

87"0ff

Yucatan

2r45'

Channel

RIa Lagartos

Playa de Isia
Contoy RZSTP

ETC

BajdAntonieta
Bajo Pawashik
i

Lagartos

Ramsar Site '

Playa adyacente a
Rio Lagartos RZSTP

Dnlam SR
& Ramsar Site

Yucatan

Costa Occidental
de Isia Muleres

State

APFFS
._.

Isia

^^v;---.. v' ;--<||. '.San Jiiand^Ulua

fc
A. Blanquilla

Punta Majagua

"^

La Blenqjilla

PunlaGorda)

ETC '"\:

Veracruz

"^

.W
:

-l:

Anegada d Adenmi

Jv

Muieres,

Punta Canciin
y Punta Nizuc NP

CanciJn*- it^

Punta Nizuc 21 "OO"

Quintana Roo;

^'' ''^'^^

Airecifes

de

Puerto Morelos

State

NP

''

^ ir.
Playa del Carmen

Laguna de
Chankanaab

'

te

Pf^at

.s

Palmul '-

LB

Yacab Reef

2015'

Colombia Reef-

TulumNP
Tulum

'

z*^
r

Manicajbo Reef

^
'

__,

IQ
!
i\
I >

PalajicarReef---

ttccS-:Jii

Chacalal

^
.,
Punta Molas

IslaCozumel
Costa Occidental de

Ista

Cozumel APFFS

Arrecifes de
Cozumel NP

.2p15'

Yucatan Peninsula
MEXICO

Sian Ka'an BR(NJ,

Wortd Heritage Site
\

and Biosphere Reserve

1930'

CARIBBEAN SEA

1845'

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

116

of numerous small
spills are

reefs.

oil spills in

Fishing

is

at least partially

near Veracruz, while

The Caribbean
artisanal

along the Cancun-Tulum touristic corridor

addition to occasional large

believed to have adversely affected the coral

fishing

since

is

1960s,

in

porous karst limestone, combined

and tourism has

are a cause for concern throughout this area.

large

number of marine protected

areas have been

patches, such as El Garrafon at Isia Mujeres and Punta

declared which include coral reefs. Active

Nizuc

some of

Cancun. have been completely destroyed by

tourism and impacts are becoming more evident elsewhere

management

is

supporting increased protection of coral

reef resources

these areas.

Protected areas with coral reefs

1

Site

name

in

these

'-^

m--

places such

with the direct impacts of anchor damage and diver damage,

developed enormously since the mid-1970s. Small reef

at

in

as well as the offshore

The impacts of construction and inade-

quate sewage systems

heavily exploited.

have been subject to intense

the

Akumal and Puerto Morelos.

island of Cozumel.

regulated in the reefs

Campeche Bank
reefs

as

Designation

Abbreviation

lUCN

caL

Size

Ikmil

Year

Mexico
Archipielago de RevlUaglgedo

Biosphere Reserve (National!

BR(N|

VI

6 366.85

1994

Arrecife Alacranes

National Marine Park

NMP

II

3 337.69

1994

National Park

NP

II

119.88

1996

Arrecifes de Puerto Morelos

National Park

NP

II

108.28

1998

Arrecifes de Sian Ka'an

Biosphere Reserve (National)

BR(N1

VI

Bahia de Loreto

National Marine Park

NMP

II

Banco Chinchorro

Biosphere Reserve (National!

BR(N!

VI

Cabo Pulmo

National Marine Park

NMP

II

Costa Occidental
de Isla Cozunnel

Area de Proteccion de
Flora y Fauna

APFFS

Costa Occidental
de Isla Mujeres

Area de Proteccion de
Flora y Fauna

Fondo Cabo San Lucas

Area de Proteccion de
Flora y Fauna

Arrecifes de

349.27

1998

2 065.81

1996

443.60

1996

71.11

1995

IV

na

1980

APFFS

IV

6.64

1973

APFFS

na

na

1973

National Park

NP

II

51.26

1998

Isla

Mujeres,
Punta Cancun y Punta Nizuc

National Park

NP

86.73

1996

La BlanquiUa

Other Area

ETC

IV

668.68

1975

Laguna de Chankanaab

Parque Natural

PNat

Unassigned

na

1983

Los Arcos

Other Area

ETC

na

1975

Sian Ka'an

Biosphere Reserve (National!

BR(N!

VI

5 281.47

1986

NMP
NMP

Isla

'

Cozumel

Contoy

Sistema Arrecifal Veracruzano

National Marine Park

Xcalak

National Marine Park

II

522.39

1992

II

na

2000

ISLAS DEL GOLFO OE CALIFORNIA

UNESCO

Biosphere Reserve

3 603.60

1995

Sian Ka'an

UNESCO

Biosphere Reserve

5 281.48

1986

Sian Ka'an

World Heritage

5 280.00

1987

Site

Western Caribbean

Belize
MAP5C

Although
region.

The

coastline

is

Reef is

in length,

in

the

fringed by a shallow shelf

with a barrier reef running along

Barrier

some

a relatively small country. Belize has

of the most extensive coral reef resources

outer edge.

its

the longest in the Caribbean.

The Belize

230 kilometers

though there are barrier-like reef tracts

in Florida

and Cuba which are considerably longer. To the north the

barrier reef

becomes joined

mainland

to the

at

Ambergris

Cay, a southerly extension of the Yucatan Peninsula. At

this point the reef

system becomes fringing, and continues

most extensive seagrass beds

occur across the whole

abundant
in size

in the south.

in the

Caribbean. Patch reefs

though they are much more

shelf,

These patch reefs vary considerably

from small collections of corals

to large reefs

many

form and species

tens of meters in diameter, as their

composition are determined largely by the location on the

shelf,

wave and current energy, and depth. Rhomboidal

atoll-like structures called faros are very

associated with the southern shelf

They

unusual features

are believed to be

formed by corals growing on top of submerged sand or

north along the coastline of Mexico. These reefs, together

rubble cays. The lagoon also houses regionally important

Honduras, are sometimes known

populations of the Caribbean manatee, although there are

with others to the south

as the

in

Meso-American Reef,

in recognition

of the

inter-

The mainland coast

is

dominated by narrow sandy

beaches or mangrove forests, often associated with river

deltas.

The development of

extremely

limited

sediments.

Some

by

concerns that

illegal

hunting

may be reducing
The

particularly in the south of the country.

connected nature of their ecosystems.

reefs along the

fluctuations

in

mainland

turbidity

is

numerous mangrove cays on

its

central

flat

with

and landward

side,

The outer slope

is

best developed

where the reefs are

and

(and studied)

in the central section,

and unbroken with a deep spur and groove

south between

typically long

Placencia and PuntaYcacos, but have low species richness

system which

and are dominated by sediment-resistant genera such as

separated by a rubble-filled channel. The reef

reefs

do occur

in the

Siderasnea and Porites. The lagoon

is

wide, typically only a few meters deep

reaching 50 meters in the south.

It

20-40 kilometers
in the north,

numbers,

barrier reef

of a rubble strewn reef

Itself typically consists

fronted by a reef crest.

its

but

in

some

series of channels,

becomes

supports some of the

The Belize Barrier reef and the three offshore atoUs ISTS060-85-W,

partially

The other

19941.

and

areas

in

the

becomes
south

it

a double ridge
is split

by a

breaks up and

submerged.

striking feature of Belizean reefs

is

three

117

MAP5C
8830'

88oq
Yucatan Peninsula

CoFozal

CoTOzalBay

MEXICO

Rocky Pt

Banco Chinchorro BR(N)

MEXICO

(MEXICO)

Bahia
de
Chetumal

Shipstem
Privf^

Xcalak

Deer Cay
.

1
.-'

NMP

(MEXICO)

Bacalar
Chico MR
RcefPl

LJttle

Guana.

CayBS

JL

^'^,
,

1800'

V
;\

'V.'/ Belize Banier Reef

Reserve system
l. J I
tj
World Heritage Site

*..

Sma//

./A

1800'

j;/

Mangrove jjaf ^
CayBS -rT'San Pedro

* San

Filipe

17 30'

ly'Sff

BELIZE
Be/ize Barrier

'

Reef

Reserve system
World Heritage Site

A
BELMOPAN

^roof

ly-off

Placencia-Ti

Lagoon../^

Lagoon
Cays

'

\W\

'

^ ^'It

163ff

jr

Monkey River Town

Qgy

fnf

system IVorid
Heritage Site

^ Cay

8830'

Ranguana

^/ Sapodilla

Bahia deAmatique

eNP

Reef Reserve
PimtaYracos

Al

gg

BeZ/ze Barrier

Port Honduras.

Laughing Bird

4*

l>

Caves

Gulf of Honduras

50

MR
8800'

8730'

km

Western Caribbean

large

the

offshore:

further

atolls

Turneffe

Islands.

Lighthouse Reef and Glovers Reef All three show distinct

1998 employed 2 000 fisherfolk with 350

area, but in

boats.

The dominant

fisheries

lobster

are

which was considered

(mainly

slopes,

Pamdirus

argiis).

with the development of spur and groove formations on

maximum

sustainable yield in the early 1980s, and conch

differences between the leeward and

the

windward

(eastern) sides, but also

windward

some of

the

most

highly developed reef structures. Lighthouse and Glovers

(mainly Sirombus gigas). The

latter

to

be near to

its

produces catches

averaging 180 tons per year The adults aggregate in the

Reefs are exposed to higher wave energy on these eastern

shallow back reef and seagrass areas and although there

slopes and as a result they have a higher coverage of

are

Acropora palmata and Lithothamnion than Turneffe. Both

catches have remained consistent.

of these
patch

atolls

also have deep lagoons with

and very

reefs

little

contrast, has a land area of

land

cover.

that

the

may be

populations

overexploited,

deeper and unfished

numerous

reproductive population could be responsible for main-

by

taining the catch. Nearly two thirds of lobster and conch

Turneffe,

22 percent of the

signs

atoll

and a

are exported to

the

USA. By

contrast

80 percent of

shallow lagoon with only a few patch reefs in the north.

-m1

Hurricanes have regularly impacted Belize's reefs.

Hurricane Hattie
coral cover by

subsequently

in

1961 was reported to have reduced live

80 percent

made

in

some

^^^^^^^P

places, although the reefs

good recovery. As elsewhere

General Data
in the

2i9'

Population (thousands)
region, Acropora cover has fallen dramatically since the late

1970s, linked to the impact of white band disease. In 1998,

GDP

(million

US$1

50/i

Land area (km'l

the El Nifio-related coral bleaching event,

followed by

Marine area (thousand

Hurricane Mitch,

hit the reefs

22 169
31

km-')

of Belize particularly hard.

Per capita

fish

consumption (kg/year)

Corals remained bleached for a considerable period, but by

early 1999 mortality

was

high, with a 62 percent loss of live

coral cover in the south, 55 percent in the north, 45 percent

in the atolls

and 36 percent

in the central reefs.

Belize has a long history of

coastal zone,

Mayan

human

which can be traced back

to

300 BC. The

Nowadays

the

major

threats to the reefs of Belize are fishing, sedimentation,

agrochemicals,

sewage,

solid

wastes

activities in the

fishing conch, finfish, turtle eggs and manatees, as well as

sites.

63

Reefs at risk (%)

Recorded coral diseases

Indians used cays in the lagoons as stations for

ceremonial centers and burial

Status and Threats

and

dredging.

Biodiversity

Reef area (km^)

Coral diversity

Mangrove area (km^j

No. of mangrove species
No. of seagrass species

330

46/57
719
5

na

Fishing occurs on a relatively small scale given the reef

30

Left: Soft corals

and a tubular sponge. Rig fit: Chetumal

Ambergris Cay where the Belize Barrier Reef connects

ESC-5317,2001L

Bay, on the border

to the

between Belize and

/Mexico. To the right is

Yucatan Peninsula and becomes a fringing reef tlSSOOl-

km

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Protected areas with coral reefs

1

Site

name

Designation

lUCN

Abbreviat ion

cat.

Size

Year

(km'i

Belize

Bacalar Chico

[vlarine

Blue Hole

Natural

Gladden Spit

Marine Reserve

Glovers Reef

Marine Reserve

Half

Moon Caye

MR

Reserve

NM
MR
MR

Monument

Monument

National

IV

107.00

III

41.00

1986

IV

na

2000

1996

IV

308.00

1993

NaM

III

39.25

1982
1987

HolCfian

Marine Reserve

MR

IV

4.11

Man-o-war Cay

Bird Sanctuary

BS

IV

0.01

1977

Port Honduras

Marine Reserve

MR

IV

na

2000

Sapodilla Cayes

Marine Reserve

MR

IV

127.00

1996

Marine Reserve

MR

IV

298.00

1996

963.00

1996

Soutfi

Water Cay

World Heritage

Belize Barrier Reef

Site

Reserve system

^^B

BL

BHHB

iif'ia

development of

finfish, especially higher quality species such as groupers

the

(Serranidae) and snappers (Lutjanidae), are caught for

The Hoi Chan Marine Reserve

local

consumption. Shrimp mariculture

tant industry in Belize.

may

already be having on

coastal fisheries and further expansion

areas.

A number

known

gations are

be overfished.

now an impor-

There are considerable concerns

about the impacts this industry

mangrove

is

impact

likely to

of major fish spawning aggre-

in Belize,

One of the

is

and many are considered

largest

of these. Gladden

to

Spit,

has recently been declared a protected area.

The

Belize

economy

is

heavily

is

system of marine protected areas.

on

north of the country

implemented with the support and collaboration of the

local population. This site has significantly higher fish

numbers and biomass than surrounding

importantly,

its

areas, but.

yields from the surrounding areas. For

many of

the other

marine protected areas the legislation and infrastructure

and effective reef management,

although further enforcement

is still

required.

agriculture. Sugar, the chief crop, accounts for nearly half

of Belize's exports, while the banana industry

is

the

country's largest employer. Increased sedimentation from

forest or
fertilizers

savannah clearances and eutrophication from

are

suspected,

although

few effects on the

marine environment can be directly attributed

cultural
citrus

to

agri-

landuse practices. Adjacent to the banana and

growing regions of Belize, shallow marine habitats

such as patch reefs and seagrass beds are located

further offshore than elsewhere, and there

is

growth of algae under certain conditions. This

much

a higher
is

an area

of intense ongoing research. Belize's trade deficit grew

throughout the 1990s, mostly as a result of low export
prices for sugar and bananas, and so tourism has been

assuming an increasingly important

role.

This

may

also

bring a greater range of threats to the reef systems,

although there have been particular efforts to develop Belize
as an environmentally sustainable "ecotourism" destination.

Considerable efforts have also been directed towards

tourist on the Belize Barrier Reef.

visitors to a

smalt area of reef.

Waliang on reef

flats

more

protection has demonstrably increased fish

are largely in place for full

dependent

in the

widely cited as an example of an effective no-take zone,

can become a problem when there are large numbers of

Western Caribbean

Honduras, Nicaragua,
Guatemala and El Salvador
MAPsd

'"'

...-'

il'^'s'-wi^sr:

'y-'

H0nuUr3S
Caribbean Sea

has a long mainland coast facing

but dominated by heavy riveiine

the

mangrove communities. There

inputs and extensive

are

no recorded coastal coral

reefs,

although small, poorly

on a limestone pavement about

100-200 meters from

shore, eventually merging into a spur and groove zone.

Agaricia tenuifoUa
in

the principal reef-building species

is

these shallow waters, though in higher energy areas

more common. On

developed coral communities are recorded from Puerto

Acropora palmata

Cortes, La Ceiba and Trujillo. Important coral reefs occur

10-15 meters, Monlaslrea annularis. ColpophylUa natans

around the Bay Islands

and Diploria

the

(Utila, Roatan,

Cayos Cochinos which

lie

Guanaja) and also

between Roatan and the

is

the fore reef, at

spp. are very abundant, with live coral cover

averaging 28 percent on the deep fore reef, but ranging

mainland. Fringing and patch reefs also occur to the east

between 24 and 53 percent

associated with the Misquitia Cays and Banks, which are

Marine Reserve. The shelf edge

a continuation of the reef systems on the Nicaraguan shelf

places and also has high coral cover, with species of

the south. There are also reefs associated with the

Agaricia and colonies of Eusirinlia fastigiata growing

to

remote Swan Islands

(Islas

del Cisne)

some 150

kilo-

meters northeast of the mainland. These are three raised

coralline islands

which

close to the edge of the

lie

Cayman

to

an

unusually large size.

of marine biodiversity
natural resources

most extensive reef development on

Relatively

The Bay
are

in

the

healthy

until

project for the

1998,

the

Bay

Islands.

Bay Islands

reefs

pressing threats to reefs in Honduras are a projected

muds

Bay

planned as part of a five-year

and were damaged during Hurricane Mitch. The most

of Roatan
to

s reefs

coarse

Thalassia

corals and algae such as Turbinaria

Roatan,

is

management

The

beds (mainly

seagrass

44 species of

deep water of the Cayman Trench, and

typical seaward profile

terrestrial

total,

many

experienced extensive bleaching during the El Nino event

lie

surrounded by well developed fringing

from

In

Sandy Bay/West End

nearly vertical in

relatively close to the shore, but

Islands

are also near to the

is

coral have been recorded here, but a complete inventory

Trench. They are surrounded by fringing reefs, with the

their northern shores.

in the

Islands,

is

reefs.

a gradation

calcareous

sand and

tesludimim).

Sparse

and Sargassum occur

Honduras

ISTS050-80-52, 19921.

increase in diving-related tourism and associated migration

from the mainland.

The Cayos Cochinos

consist of two larger

and 12 very

small volcanic islands. The northern coasts of the larger

121

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

''

~^K

Honduras

human impacts

beds, while

minimal

are thought to be

because of the low population density.

Reefs occur along the entire coastline, but especially

General Data
around the offshore islands, notably the Miskito Cays

GDP

the north and

Corn Cays towards the center of the country.

3 725

US$1

(million

in

6 250

Population (thousands)

These, together with other shelf edge reefs,

112851

Land area (km^l

may be

a true

barrier reef system. Reefs also occur around a group of

Marine area (thousand km^l

238
inshore cays:

Per capita

fish

consumption (kg/year)

Man O'War

Cays, Crawl, Set Net and Taira

Cays and the Pearl Cays. Seagrass beds, predominately

Thalassia testudinum. cover huge areas in between the

Status and Threats

Reefs

mainland, these cays and the shelf edge. Although these

57

at risk (%l

Recorded coral diseases

beds have never been mapped they are believed to be

some of
Biodiversity

810

Reef area (km^l

Coral diversity

Mangrove area (km^l

No. of mangrove species

role as nursery habitat

fish

^M

No. of seagrass species

Caribbean,

if

not

the Caribbean. Undoubtedly they also play an important

^58

the

in

and may provide food and refuge for more

than half the remaining green turtles Chetonia mydas in

/57

31

most extensive

the

the world,

and feeding grounds

for coral reef

and invertebrates, and buffer coral reefs from much

of the low salinity water and sediment flowing from the

coastal rivers.

Increased sedimentation from the clearing of forests

islands

subject

are

wave energies and

high

to

are

25 kilometers of the mainland. The reefs of

dominated by massive corals, while the southern shores,

on

and the more protected shores of the smaller islands, have

the Miskito Coast

a greater diversity

of corals, dominated by Agaricia. There

number of

overexploited, and there

Tourism

is

stocks

fish
is

a large

a major industry in the

to a lesser extent in the

considered

are

prawn trawling

Bay

Islands,

to

and present

Cayos Cochinos.

an unofficial marine reserve has been

which covers the

actively

total

Marine Reserve have not been extensively

of 27 species of scleractinian corals and 12

set

habitat available

and healthy conditions suggest

may be many more

species present.

The

Pearl

that there

Cays

reefs lie

close to shore on the edge of a turbid coastal boundary

Bay

1998 these cays supported

community and

Acropora palmata colonies on

up around the West

The

reefs of Great

Com

thriving

their

community of

windward eastern

Island are better

known,

sides.

largely

due

Bay. There are several other marine protec-

ted areas, notably the

is

surveyed.

current which sometimes enters into this archipelago. In

Islands have been spearheaded by the local

and

be

industry.

Efforts to protect the marine resources of the

End and Sandy

reefs within

gorgonians have been recorded. However the diversity of

are extensive seagrass beds.

is

believed to be responsible for the low coverage of live coral

Cayos Cochinos Biological Reserve,

entire island

and reef system of

managed with support from

Nicaragua

this area

^n

the private sector.

General Data
Population (thousands)

GDP

Nicaragua

(million

US$)

Land area (km^)

The Caribbean coast of Nicaragua runs

for over

A813
2

534

129 047

350
Marine area (thousand km^)

127

kilometers along a north-south axis. Offshore, the coastal

Per capita

fish

consumption (kg/year)

shelf drops quickly to 20-40 meters then maintains this

depth to the abrupt shelf edge, which

some 250

lies

Status and Threats

kilometers from shore in the north but as close as 20

Reefs at risk (%)

kilometers

Recorded coral diseases

in

the

south.

This

is

significant

90 percent of Nicaragua's watersheds drain

because
into

year in the south,

the world.

The

among

and more than 7 meters per

the highest precipitation rates in

coastal ecology of this country

is

generally

quite poorly studied, but the marine resources are believed

to

be extremely important

in a regional

the

Caribbean, and this coast receives more than 3 meters of

rainfall per year in the north

58

context. Large

areas are covered by coral reefs, mangroves and seagrass

Biodiversity

710

Reef area (km^)

Coral diversity

Mangrove area (km^)

22/57
1

718

No. of mangrove species

No. of seagrass species

1
J.

MAPSd

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

to the presence

of a monitoring

site.

Most of

nearshore reefs have dechned over the

Hve coral cover

sewage
is

in

is

is

now

the shallow

decade so that

last

less than 10 percent.

An

increase in

the probable cause, especially because the island

quite densely populated (500 people per square kilometer)

comparison

to the rest

of the coast (5 people per square

kilometer). Waste from two fish processing plants, which

produce 40 percent of the country's seafood exports, may be

Deeper

polluting nearshore waters.

more

stable, with

percent hard coral,

corals.

No

reefs

have remained

an average cover of 38 percent algae, 22

I

percent sponges and

Hurricane Mitch on the coral reefs of Nicaragua

are

percent soft

bleaching has been observed. The effects of

in late

1998

unknown.

Guatemala and

Indigenous Miskito Indians, together with some other

communities, use the reefs

in the

artisanal fisheries. For the

sustainable,

north of the country for

most part

however the green

this

would appear

turtle harvest is

very high

(14 000 per year) and in urgent need of control. Illegal

fishing from neighboring countries

stocks in

some

may be reducing

fish

There are no true reefs

in either

El

Salvador

Guatemala or El Salvador.

Guatemala has a few small coral communities

of Honduras, but none are known from
coast. El Salvador

munities

at

is

its

in the

Gulf

longer Pacific

reported to have small coral com-

Los Cobanos although there

is

no available

information describing them.

places.

Protected areas with coral reefs

I

Site

name

Designation

Abbreviation

lUCN

cat.

Size

ikm:)

Year

Honduras
Bahia de Chismuyo

Wildlife

Cayos Cochinos

Biological Reserve

El Jicarito

Wildlife

WRef

IV

290.00

1992

BIR

i60.00

1993

Refuge

WRef

IV

15.41

1992

Wildlife

Refuge

WRef

IV

1.98

1992

Guameru

Wildlife

Refuge

WRef

IV

na

1992

Guapinol

Wildlife

Refuge

WRef

IV

na

1992

IvINP

II

na

1991

NP

II

El

Quebrachal

Islas del

Cisne

Refuge

Marine National Park

Jeanette Kavjas

National Parl<

781.62

1988

La Alemania

Wildlife

Refuge

WRef

IV

na

1992

Laguna de Guaymoreto

Wildlife

Refuge

WRef

IV

50.00

1992

Las Iguanas

Wildlife

Refuge

WRef

IV

U.26

1992

Montecristo

Wildlife

Refuge

WRef

IV

na

1992

Punta Isopo

Wildlife

Refuge

WRef

IV

112.00

1992

Ragged Cay

Wildlife

Refuge

WRef

IV

na

na

Teonostal

Wildlife

Refuge

WRef

IV

na

1992

Parque Nacional Jeanette Kawas

Ramsar Site

781.50

1995

Refugio de Vida Silvestre

Ramsar Site

112.00

1996

500.00

1991

Punta Izopo
Nicaragua

Cayos Miskitos

Queen angelfish Holacanthus

fvlarine

ciliaris.

Reserve

RMar

la

Western Caribbean

Panama

Costa Rica and

MAPse

Caribbean coast of Costa Rica

The

is

dominated

sediments and there

by wide areas of alluvial

are considerable riverine inputs.

These conditions

lies to

Panama

greatly inhibit the development of coral reefs, although

there are fringing communities at

Isla

Limon (northwest of

Uvita) and Punta Cahuita towards the south. Less

the south of the

main Caribbean hurricane

In

decades the Costa Rican coral

three

spectacular decline, undoubtedly

reefs have suffered a

exacerbated by an increase

in

sedimentation caused by

deforestation on the mainland. This

Viejo to Punta Mona.

rent at Cahuita,

contrast,

Panama has

more complex

coastline,

including rocky shores and two areas of extensive offshore

islands,

notably

and there
at

some important reef development,

Bocas del Toro

eastwards.
a province

Punta

is

The eastern

known

in the

third of

west and from Cristobal

Panama's coastline

as San Bias or the

San Bias, the

175

Kuna

kilometer long

From

San Bias

Archipelago runs parallel to the coast with

hundred small nearshore sand cays stretching

Colombian

lies in

Yala.

several
to

the

coastline.

These Caribbean coastlines

lie

well south of the main

westward flow of the Caribbean Current. This current

up two counter-clockwise eddies, the

first

sets

producing

where

live coral

had decreased

the late 1970s but

percent to 90 percent.
to

By

larly badly.

the

percent,

although

it

remained the dominant species.

Massive species were much

less affected.

For example,

while the abundance of Porites porites

fell

by 9 percent,

Sidemstrea siderea colonies increased

in

abundance by

6 percent. Part of this decline can be linked to a severe

earthquake

in

1991 which affected the whole of the Costa

this event, but they

region's best developed reefs.

1999, coral cover had declined

Acropora cervicornis largely disappeared and

sweeping east along the San Bias islands. This area also

Kuna

in

by 1993,

abundance of Agaricia agariciles decreased by 15

slope to slump. In

in a

to 11 percent

increased significantly. Branching corals suffered particu-

around the Golfo de los Mosquitos, and the second

Densely packed houses

particularly appa-

about 3 percent. In the same period sediment load

Rican Caribbean coast,

in

Limon

some places causing

the reef

the reefs largely recovered

from

have not done so in Cahuita, possibly

San Bias Islands, northeast Panama. The mainland coast remains

and occasional Islands of the San Bias Archipelago are some of the

village in the

largely undeveloped. Right: The scattered reefs

is

cover was 40 percent

while the cover of rubble and algae increased from 60

eastward currents flowing from southern Costa Rica and

Left:

and

coast in the last 120 years.

the past

developed coral communities are also found from Puerto

By

belt

there has only been one record of a hurricane along the

125

MAPse

?^^^

Western Caribbean

due

to intense

sedimentation smothering coral recruits as

they settle onto the substrate.

K^^^^^

In Panama, some 64 hard coral species have been

recorded off the Caribbean coastline. The mshore reefs at

is

less

heavily

impacted

GDP

The Laguna de Chiriqui

places.

mangroves and

is

further

Per capita

lined with extensive

the beaches of the area are

still

and

experienced

little

at

disturbance as they were within a

Panamanian government

in 1999.

Reefs

foliose
tides
year,

it

which

is

25

Coral diversity

83

370

Mangrove area (km^l

No. of mangrove species

dominated by

oil pollution.

major

real

spill in

and
1987

mangrove communities and has continued

to

leach out into the surrounding waters where studies have

significant declines in coral cover and diversity.

Some

970

Reef area Ikm^)

Punta Galeta has

Panama Canal presents

continuing threat of

shown

id

ll

No. of seagrass species

to 14 hours at a stretch. In the central region,

proximity to the

entered into

i
93

at risk (%1

Biodiversity

US

Panama Canal

and crustose algae. During calm weather and low

is exposed for long periods, up to 30-40 times a

from

566

consumption (kg/year)

Recorded coral diseases

an emergent reef with a shallow fore reef pavement and a

substantial coral boulder reef flat

fish

608

Punta Galeta have

military reservation until the return of the

to the

51

Status and Threats

important

rookeries for hawksbill and loggerhead turtles. Further

east the reefs near Cristobal

7 130

US$)

Marine area (thousand km^j

some

in

(million

Land area (km^)

offshore and live coral cover in these areas remains at

about 25 percent, reaching as high as 70 percent

3 711

Population (thousands)

cides and fertilizers, from mainland banana plantations.

Reef development

General Data

del Toro receive a high sediment load, rich in pesti-

Bocas

Costa R ica

of the best developed reefs occur along the San

Bias coastline.

number of

islands and reefs lie

outer edge of the continental

fringing reefs around coral cays

shelf as

on the

patch reefs or

in a barrier-type structure.

Further east, the reefs and islands are mostly located closer
to the shore. Fifty-seven species

been recorded. This

is

of scleractinian coral have

an area which has better protection

A schoolmaster Lutjanus apodus, with tubular sponges and

heavily fished.

than

many

mous

other reefs in the Caribbean, being an autono-

region run by the

Kuna

Indians.

The mainland coast

remains heavily forested and so there

runoff.

The Kuna have

tightly

offshore islands, and while

little

is

sediment

packed villages on 41 of the

all

waste from these villages

passes straight into the surrounding waters, there appears

to

be sufficient dilution in most areas. Growing population

numbers have

led

to

expansion of some islands by

reclamation, destroying the reefs in the immediate vicinity.

Most fishing

is

subsistence level, but there

is

some export

of spiny lobster, conch, spider crab and octopus, and there

IS

evidence of significant target species overfishing for

soft corals.

Along with other snappers,

this

species

is

often

127

128

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

some of

Despite the apparently healthy picture

these.

overall, there

have been dramatic reductions

1
^

Panama

in coral cover,

with equally dramatic increases in algae. In decline since

General Data

the early 1970s, coral cover at various monitoring stations

averaged 40 percent
to

Population Ithousands)

1983, and by 1997 had dropped

in

below 15 percent. Wide areas of Agaricia

dominated many patch

reefs,

spp.,

more or

less

Per capita

which were once formed by extensive mounds of

Bias,

Although there
is

not

is

shown considerable

some tourism

fish

1U

7i697

Marine area (thousand km^l

vanished

everywhere. The shallow inner reefs of the Golfo de San

Porites pontes, have also

Land area (km'l

have died, and Acropora

cen'icornis and A. palmata have

2 808

GDPlmiUion US$1

which

332

consumption kg/yea r|
1

Status and Threats

declines.

Reefs

to these islands, diving

65

at risk (%1

Recorded coral diseases

common.
Biodiversity

Reef area (km^j

Eastern Pacific
The

Pacific coastlme of both Costa Rica and

warm

associated with

Panama

Mangrove area (km')

is

extremes of water temperature

affected by

strongly

El Niiio

720

52/84

Coral diversity

(~33C) events and more

8U

No. of mangrove species

12

No. of seagrass species

frequent cool upwelling episodes (~15C). These restrict

offshore reef development in

many

areas, while terrestrial

runoff greatly restricts reef development on mainland

coasts.

mostly

general,

In
at

reef development

is

sporadic

point locations around offshore islands.

and

Most

reefs in this region consist of shallow (less than 10 meters)

sub-tidal

Pocillopora

banks bound together with

careous algae, while Porites lobata

is

cal-

also a major reef

builder in Costa Rica. Species diversity

90 percent on healthy

Cores through these reefs

reefs.

have shown carbonate accretions up

10-12 meters

to

thick, suggesting vertical accretion rates similar to

reefs in the Indo-Pacific.

The

many

Pacific reefs were severely

impacted by the 1982-83 El Nino event, which drove

mass bleaching and mortality

in all areas. In

Costa Rica

low, but 23

recovery has generally been good and, despite repeated

species of hermatypic corals have been recorded on the

bleaching in 1992 and 1997-98. coral cover remains high

Panama, and 18

Pacific side of
their simple

community

in

is

Costa Rica. Despite

structure and low diversity, coral

in

most

cover on these small reefs can be very high, reaching over

In

By

areas.

Panama has

contrast, recovery on

many

reefs in

not been great.

Costa Rica the main areas with coral communities

or partial reef development are near Santa Elena, Bahia

Culebra, Isla del Caiio and Golfo Dulce. Golfo Dulce, in

eastern Costa Rica, has largely escaped the impacts of El
Niiio events, although the reefs here have been severely

affected

by sedimentation from deforestation, mining

and road construction. In 1993

than 2 percent.
the

substrate

From

live coral

cover was less

the surface to a depth of

consisted almost

entirely

meter

of a mesh of

dead Pocillopora damicornis and Psammocora

stellata.

Severely bio-eroded colonies of Porites lobata. a species

which

is

especially resistant to sedimentation, covered

the fore reef slope to a depth of about 12 meters.

Bahia

Culebra has the most diverse coral reefs on mainland

Costa Rica, and here coral cover

is

much

higher -

some

20-50 percent - with Pocillopora elegans, Pavona clavus

and Leptoseris payracea being the dominant species.

Reefs on
recovery,

Isla del

Cano

are reported to be in a phase of

new

with high levels of

coral

recruitment.

Recreational diving and unplanned tourism are the main

threats in Costa Rica, although

damage from commercial

fishing nets and the collection of aquarium organisms has

also been reported.

Boats waiting

to

enter the

vessels can contain

Panama

canal. There is a continuous threat of oil spills,

numerous marine organisms which are sometimes released

threatening native species.

in

and the

ballast water on these

other parts of the world,

Western Caribbean

In

Panama, Pacific reefs are best developed around

offshore islands in the Gulf of Chiriqui in the west and the

Gulf of Panama

the east. At the latter, the largest areas

of reef are around Las Perlas Archipelago,

eastern sides, facing

group of 53

on northern and

basaltic islands. Reefs are best developed

away from the upwelling

currents.

These islands were severely impacted by the 1982-83

bleaching, and live coral cover on

below 2 percent, although

In the

Isia

Gulf of Chiriqui the

some

reefs remains

Iguana has over 30 percent.

reefs are

less

affected by

upwellings and El Nifio events, and tend to be larger and

more diverse - these

are probably the best developed reefs

on the continental shelf of the Eastern

also

some pocilloporid

Pacific.

reefs associated with the

There are

mainland

around Ensenada de Muertos. Bahia Honda and Punta

Entrada.

On

patterns

the offshore islands fringing reefs have clear

of zonation.

Most of these

remain

reefs

inaccessible to recreational divers.

In

addition to these reefs. Costa Rica also incor-

porates the remote Isla del

Coco which

lies

half-way

between mainland Costa Rica and the Galapagos. This

island

is

reported to have coral cover over

much of

its

offshore slopes, dominated by Porites lobala.

Protected areas wi th coral reefs

Site

name

^^^^^^^^^|

1 ^B

Designatlon^^J^^^I 1

Abbreviation

Nature Reserve

SNR

lUCN

Size

cat.

Ikm'l

YearB

Costa Rica

Cabo Blanco

Strict

Cahuita

National Park

Gandoca-ManzaniUo

National Wildlife Refuge

Isla del Cafio

Isla del

Coco

la

11.72

1963

NP

II

U0.22

1970

NWR

IV

94.i9

1985

Biological Reserve

BiR

la

2.00

1978

National Park

NP

II

23.6^

1978
1972

Manuel Antonio

National Park

NP

II

6.82

Marino Ballena

National Park

NP

II

42.00

1990

Area de Conservacion Guanacaste

World Heritage

Site

310.00

1999

Site

Cocos Island National Park

World Heritage

997.00

1997

Gandoca-Manzanillo

Ramsar Site

94.45

1995

Coco

Ramsar Site

996.23

1998

Isla del

Panama
Comarca Kuna

Commarc

IndCo

na

3 200.00

1938

National Park

NP

II

132.26

1988

Portobelo

National Park

NP

II

359.29

1976

Punta

Ramsar

138.05

1993

Isla

Yala (San Bias)

Bastimentos

Patii^o

A Kuna Indian

in

Panama

Indigenous

Site

'

with a catch of spiny lobster Panulirus argus.

130

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Colombia and Ecuador

MAPsf

Colombia

enjoys

700 kilometers of Caribbean

threefold rise in algae cover. Similar though less severe

150 kilometers, located away from major estuaries

changes have occurred

and sediment plumes. The Caribbean Current forms a gyre

in

percent in 1983 to 21 percent in 1990, concomitant with a

coastline, but coral reefs are restricted to less than

Colombian Basin, moving water

the

northeasterly

off the

direction

in

Colombian

a north

to

This

coast.

in the Islas

de San Bernardo. The

most affected species were the acroporids which

about

80 percent of their

tenuifolia

live

lost

then Agaricia

cover,

and Porites porites which suffered 30-40

to the

percent mortality. Between 6 and 12 percent of Diploria

surface and further curtailing the distribution of coral

sthgosa. Montastrea annularis and Siderastrea siderea

brmging cold water

creates localized upwellings,

reefs.

Reefs occur off Acandi

Lopez

in the east, but the

in the far

west and Punto

most extensive structures are

same

also died over the

period. This change has been

attributed to a combination of bleaching, coral disease

and

Morro Grande.

pollution from the area's major cities and ports. There

Bahia Granate, Bahia Chengue and Bahia Gayraca) and

appears to be a gradient in reef state moving eastwards

those off Santa Marta

Cartagena
Rosario).

(at

Islas

Several

Colombia there are

also

(at

Punta Betin,

Isla

de San Bernardo and Islas del

hundred kilometers northwest of

a

number of

islands and reefs

which

form part of Colombia (although they actually

closer to

Nicaragua! on the Nicaraguan

Rise.

number of shallow

reefs including

those on the banks of Quitasuefio, Serrana and Roncador,

and the

atolls

of Courtown and Albuquerque.

All the reefs off Santa

coral cover at the

Islas

del

Broad view of the Galapagos

20 years. The

Bahia Gayraca

at

coral cover at

live

Bahia Granate and 49 percent

at

in 1993.

The offshore

reefs,

coral

banks and

atolls

on the

Nicaraguan Rise are well developed and diverse, with 44

scleractinian corals recorded off

San Andres. But unfortu-

nately these complexes, which represent about 75 percent

of the

total coral reef area in

in decline.

Marta and Cartagena have

experienced great changes in the

Punta Betin, 37 percent

lie

These

include the larger populated islands of San Andres and

Providencia, but also a

from Santa Marta, with 19 percent

San Andres

80 000 people

living

on

is

Colombia, also appear

to

be

a densely populated island with

less than

25 square kilometers, and

live

a major tourist destination.

Here coral cover has declined

Rosario declined from 41

by about half - mortality

in

last

Islands, with

Fernandina and Isabels

restricted to very sma// structures ISTS068- 168-28, 199il.

in the fore.

excess of 50 percent from

Coral reef development

in

these islands

is

MAPSf
y

14

^^'l"

77

""SerranaBank

14'

Cayo de Roncador

Islade
Providencia

de
Salamanca
Isia

l-

5j,

Cora/es del Rosario NatNP

Islas de Rosario

10

_.
^/'V
PANAMAsi

Islas

de San

Bemado

'

Venezuela

\
Nevada de
Santa Marta NatNP
Sierra

Tucacast

Puns
Lopez

Maracaibo
Valencia

Sistema Delta Estuarino

del Rio Magdalene.
9g Grande de
9^"f
Santa Ramsar Site

^'^Q>

Barquisimeto

Lagode
Manicaibo

VENEZUELA

^Y
Golfode
Uraba

i,

Golfode

Riohacha',

^ Cartagena

"7 -^

Bonaire

s s

,.

Ciinaga Grande de
Santa Marta FFS

CARIBBEAN SEA

ANTILLES)

^^Curifao

Bahia Chengue

(NETH.

(NETHERLANDS)

bos Flamencos FFS

Bahia Gayraca

Cayos de Albuquerque

Aruba

Jayrona NatNP
.

^.-

69

73

*ii^, ^

Senanilla

CARIBBEAN SEA

Quitasueflo

Medellln

Ensenada de
Utrla

Bajo Nuevo

Bank

Acandi*

NatNP

Bank

SertanaBank

Oulbdo

PACIFIC OCEAN

COLOMBLAl

COLOMBL\

Bajo Baiid6

Isia

^ Cayo de Roncador

de

Providencia

Ibague*

Old Providence
Isia

McBeenLsgoon
NelNP

de Malpelo FFS
de San
AndrtscTT

Isia

Isia

Cayos del E.S.E.

(Courtown Cays)

Scall

--

Sanquianga NatNP

Cayos de
Albuquerque
sr

150

km

Cayos Hemes a
Cayos Cotton INR

WXI

f-

100

Goojona NatNP
^.'

SO

90'00'

PACIFIC OCEAN

Galapagos Islands

L Culpepper

ECUADOR
.'

I.

Wenman
GalipagosMRR

Bahia de Cardquez *

I'OO'

GalipagosNP
(land area only)

Manta
Porto Viejo

Galapagos Islands
World Heritage Site

ECUADOR
Machalllla

NP and

I.

Pinta

Ramsar Site
I.

Guayaquil

Manglares Chunite

.,

Jfii%

Marchena
I.

ER

Genovesa

^"^ Ramsar Site

Archipiilago de Coldn
(Galapagos) Biosphere

Machala

Tumbes <#

LFeraandina

'

' I.

"^sen/e

San Salvador

0'30'
<

';f
r^,

Mancora^

ll^^'^'^

Talara

1.

Santa Cruz

L San Cristobal
V

PERU

L Santa Maria

LEspafioIa
6

6"
50

60
81

120

"

180

240

30
'

"

100

160

km

TT

73

km

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

1968

to

come

1992 was recorded for 19 species - and reefs have

be dominated (upwards of 70 percent cover) by

to

algae in the

wake of the Diadema

mortality of 1983.

More

to be

showing signs of

low pro-

number of

commercially important fish stocks. While overfishing

than 90 percent of Gorgonia venlaliiia colonies have died

be causing the

and only small specimens remain. Large

may

fish such as

a similar decline, with a

portion of live coral cover, and depletion of a

may

demise of the corals themselves

be indicative of a Caribbean-wide decline.

There are

snappers, groupers, grunts, queen triggerfish, hogfish and

the

latter,

few small reef developments along the

barracuda are almost absent from San Andres. In the late

Pacific coast of Colombia, most notably at Tebada and

1960s a subsistence fishery supplied the local hotels with

Ensenada de

all

these species.

Now

either fish

is

imported or previ-

ously uneaten species are collected (parrotfish. surgeonfish

Utria.

and are

reefs

These are small fringing and patch

relatively

young, developed over the basalt

rocks of the Cordillera del Baudo. They are formed by

and angelfish). The more remote reefs of Courtown,

no more than

Albuquerque, Serrana. Roncador and Quitasuefio appear

Pocillopora spp The reefs of the Ensenada de Utria are

a half

dozen scleractinian

corals, mostly

protected in a national park. Given the remote location,

human

Colom bia

influence

in this

caused by the recent El

General Data
39 686

GDP

51

800

U1

957

ImiUion US$1

Land area Ikm^l

Marine area (thousand km^!

fish

Gorgona. particularly on

low.

However, the reefs

In addition to this area,

Nifio.

island of

750

consumption Ikg/yearl

munities

to

depths of 35 meters.
is

very high on some of these Pacific

Despite the 1982-83 El Nino event, which caused

widespread mortality, including the decline of

44

at risk (%|

eastern shores. These reefs are

Malpelo also has some important coral com-

down

Coral cover
reefs.

Recorded coral diseases

its

protected within a national park. Far offshore, the oceanic

Status and Threats

Reefs

is

there are fringing and patch reefs around the coast of Isla

Population (thousandsl

Per capita

area

were heavily impacted, with coral bleaching and mortality

cover

in Isla

Gorgona from 70 percent

live coral

to 15 percent, there

has been a rapid and nearly complete recovery, and in

Biodiversity

1998 coral cover was estimated

Reef area Ikm^l

Coral diversity

940

At one

49/77

Mangrove area Ikm^l

11

No. of seagrass species

na

on Malpelo

percent in 1972 and

3 659

No. of mangrove species

site

Left:

in

many

now

at

Colombia has designated

larger, but these suffer

The Serrana Bank, Colombia. An isolated reef structure

forming a dominant part of the community

be almost 60 percent.

was 65

45 percent.
a

number of protected areas

containing coral reefs. The Caribbean ones are generally

ment and some

now

is

to

island, live coral cover

in the

more notable problems of manage-

illegal activities continue.

Caribbean Sea ISTS080-7W-46,

of Colombia s offshore reefs.

19961.

Right: Algae are

Western Caribbean

Ecuador
A

Galapagos, the fishing lobby

few coral communities occur on the mainland coast of

true reef at Machalilla.

Ecuador and one

However,

is in

it

the Galapagos Islands that reefs are best developed. This

archipelago

is

influenced by a major surface current, the

South Equatorial Current, which flows from the

largely fed by the cool Peru

east,

Oceanic Current (20-24C)

and the colder Peru Coastal Current (15C), This current

is

In

significant and powerful.

and sea cucumber, while numbers of

grown considerably. The number of lobster

eries include lobster

fishers have
fishers alone

grew from 500

Efforts to place restrictions

in

1999

to nearly

000

in

2000.

on these industries have led

is

some weakening of catch

limits as a

form of appeasement.

given by the Panama

Current which flows south from the Panama Bight

December

to

January.

Below

the

South

depth of 100 meters, which

is

is

generated

GDP

Marine area (thousand km^l

Per capita

fish

consumption Ikg/yearj

06i
8

of Isabela. Santa Cruz and the

Status and Threats

For the most part these reefs are poorly developed

Reefs

patches and do not form true fringing structures. Species

16

at risk |%1

Recorded coral diseases

also low. Although the reefs are well protected

some impacts from bleaching and

there have been

Biodiversity

bio-

Reef area

erosion. Fishing pressures have recently increased dramatically in a

few areas, notably for the export trade

in

these reefs, both

in

1982-83 and

in

sea

No. ol mangrove species

na

No. of seagrass species

events causing considerable coral mortality.

is

low

in the

,
^Protected areas with coral reefs

name

25/23
2^69

Mangrove area (km^l

1997-98. with both

Although the overall human population

<50

Ikiri'l

Coral diversity

cucumbers and shark. Significant bleaching also impacted

Site

256 925

Land area Ikm^l

northern coasts of San Cristobal.

is

13 008

US$1

year round (except during El Nifio

all

to the eastern sides

diversity

Imillion

is

events) and this restricts coral growth and reef develop-

ment

12 920

Population (thousands!

deflected to the surface

by Fernandina and Isabela. Cool nutrient-rich water

therefore present

or

^^1
General Data

Current, an easterly Equatorial Undercurrent

at a

in

Equatorial

^"
Abbreviation

Designation

lUCN

cat.

Size IkmM

Y..r

200.00

1977

543.00

1987

na

1995

Colombia
Corales del Rosario

Natural National Park

NatNP

Ensenada de

Natural National Park

NatNP

II

FFS

la

II

492.00

1984
1996

Utria

II

de Malpelo

Fauna and Flora Sanctuary

Gorgona

Natural National Park

NatNP

Natural National Park

NatNP

II

9.95

Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta

Natural National Park

NatNP

II

3 830.00

1959

Tayrona

Natural National Park

NatNP

II

150.00

1964

MRR

IV

79 900.00

1986

665.U

1984

665.U

1978

550.95

1990

Isla
Isla

Old Providence

McBean Lagoon

Ecuador
Galapagos

Marine Resource Reserve

Archipielago de Colon
(Galapagos)

UNESCO

Galapagos Islands

World Heritage

Machalilla

Biosphere Reserve

Ramsar Site

to

considerable hostility and violence by the fishers, but also to

strongly driven by the nearly constant southeast trade

winds, while additional impetus

is

nearshore waters, the most important industrial fish-

Site

MAP

59

Western Caribbean

Cuba
MAPsg

'

^-,._^--SjlPL -^ll|bB-S.

^5^

^'^.i^^.^^;^

.iil)^**..
Cuba

is

long,

the largest of the Caribbean islands, with a

r-"

......

.^^.^*i:

complex coastline and considerable chains of

^-^r^'-

Diadema

,*;^''"*'^*:

>'

>^.

^x

die-off which has affected the rest of the region.

Populations of the urchin

in

Cuba show no

signs of

offshore islands and coral cays. Coral reefs stretch

recovery, so algal species such as Cladophora catenata,

along virtually the entire border of the Cuban shelf The

Microdictyon marinum, Lohophora variegata. Diclyota

majority of these
barrier reefs,

lagoons.

The

lie

offshore in long tracts which resemble

separated from the main island by broad

longest runs for

some 400 kilometers along

the north coast from the Archipielago de

Archipielago de Camaguey.

On

Sabana

to the

lie

on

and Halimeda spp. achieve biomass

which are

reefs

may

meter This occurs on

from sources of organic pollution and

far

indicate that the changes are part of the Caribbean- wide

Cabo

disease, rather than a result of direct anthropogenic impacts.

most cases these wide

In

lagoons, together with the long archipelagos of small coral

cays which

spp.

impacts of Diadema die-off and loss of Acropora spp. to

Cruz. Unlike true barrier reefs, the lagoons behind these

reef tracts are very shallow.

Sargassum

figures as high as 3 kilos per square

the south coast a similar reef

over 350 kilometers from Trinidad to

tract stretches for

spp.,

their outer edges,

have protected the reefs

In

terms of reef

fish,

Cuban populations have higher

biomass. species richness and average size than

many

in the

1980s and 1990s due

to overfishing. In 1998, coral

from adverse anthropogenic impacts. Hurricanes are more

bleaching was reported to have been severe on

frequent in the south and west where the reef communities

although bleaching-related mortality was low.

are

dominated by species

water movement, especially

resistant
in the

to sedimentation

and

all

coasts,

Levels of sewage, organic and inorganic pollution are

high in Havana Bay and this has caused the diversity

Gulf of Batabano.

Only short stretches of coast have been heavily

urbanized or industrialized. For these reasons, pollution

Cuba

other

countries in the region, but these parameters were declining

of scleractinians, sponges and gorgonians to decline

severely.

These reefs are now dominated by

just a

few

are

species of scleractinian corals, mainly Sideraslrea radians,

believed to be affected by a significant degree of organic

by the sponges Clathria venosa and lotrochota birolulata,

tends to be localized: less than 3 percent of reefs in

pollution.

Many

of the reefs appear to have shown a gen-

eral increase in algal cover,

Nuevitas Bay

In

probably associated with the

and by the gorgonians Plexaura homomalla,

Pseudoplexawa

northeast Cuba. The fringing reefs offshore are clearly

communities around the lagoon INM23-729-782, 19971

visible,

P.

flexuosa or

spp.

while there are important

mangrove

135

136

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Fishing plays a very important role

Cuban

the

in

economy, both as a generator of foreign exchange and as a

source of protein. In general, catches rose systematically

during 1960-75, leading to the overfishing of species such

as

lane

the

snapper Lutjanus symigris

Gulf of

the

in

Batabano, the Nassau grouper Epinephelus striatus and

queen conch Strombiis gigas across the whole Cuban

shelf,

and shrimps (Penaeus spp.) on the southern shelf The

decline in lane snappers led to their replacement by grunts

Gulf of Batabano, which are of lower food quality

the

and commercial value. The proliferation of grunts subsequently prevented recuperation of the lane snapper stocks,
in

spite

of the imposition of severe administrative and

protective measures.

The overfishing of queen conch was

based mainly on the

illegal extraction

(with a rough estimate of

more than

of the meat as bait

500 tons per

year),

or for selling the shells as curios. Closed seasons during

the breeding period (April-September), the prohibition of

catching juveniles, and quotas have

Two assessments suggested a

of Cuba stock in Cabo Cruz

all

been implemented.

slight recovery in the south

1990. and another

in

in the

south of the Gulf of Batabano in 1991. The spiny lobster

Panulirus argus
reefs

and

and since
13

another resource closely linked to coral

is

978 catches have \aried between

000 tons per year However,

based on lobsters

in

Batabano rather than

the seagrass beds

in

this harvest is

the

in

the reefs themselves,

000

mainly

Gulf of

where an

important reproductive population remains. Annual lobster

exports were valued

The

at

US$100

million in the late 1990s.

collection of black coral for ornamental jewellery

has continued for four decades and, as a consequence,

stocks have been depleted in

some

places, especially the

shallower waters along the north of Pinar del Rio Province,

in

Matanzas Bay, Puerto de Sagua and Cazones Gulf

The Cuban government announced

1995

in

that

gross domestic product had declined by 35 percent during

Cuba

1989-93, a decline closely related to the loss of aid from

General Data

the former

U2
U69i

Population Ithousandsl

GDP

(million

11

US$)

Land area (km^l

110/137

Marine area (thousand km^]

Per capita

fish

consumption |kg/year|

3/15

13

Recorded coral diseases

and economic sanctions imposed by the

some economic growth

there has been

since then, living standards remain at a depressed level

compared with 1990. Fluctuations

in the price

of nickel and

sugar have compelled the state to open up areas for tourism

development, and

this industry

now

plays a key role in

generating foreign currency earnings. However, regulations

Status and Threats

Reefs at risk (%l

USSR

USA. Although

Ub

for the protection

of coral reefs directed

at

both tourists and

tour guides are not yet fully implemented. Physical

damage

and the extraction of stony corals and other organisms

Biodiversity

Reef area (km2|

Coral diversity

Mangrove area (km^)

are degrading the reefs in

3 020

29/57
7 8/i8

No. of mangrove species

No. of seagrass species

reefs

the northeast of

soft corals.

tourist areas,

such as the

Havana Province. The

effects

of coastal

construction are generally unmonitored. At the end of the

1

990s the

tourist industry largely catered for the

market, but enormous expansion

political situation

A trumpetfish Aulostomus maculatus amongst

some

of Rincon de Guanabo and Puerto Escondido to

is to

between Cuba and the

European

be expected

USA

if

changes.

the

Western Caribbean

25

km

Within the southeastern province of Guantanamo

there

is a

large

US

Naval Base, covering some

kilometers along the sheltered coast of

and associated recreational

Guantanamo

Bay.

are

US sovereignty, the lease of the base

the US government agrees to relinquish

Although not under

area
it.

is

held until

The area includes considerable

and much of the bay

facilities,

area has been dredged and degraded. Despite this, there

14 square

some

coral communities, and recreational diving

practiced by personnel.

Beach have been declared

military developments

is

The beach and waters of Cuzco

a

preserve,

dredging

is

prohibited and visitor numbers restricted.

Protected areas with coral reefs

Designation

Dreviation

lUCN

Size

cat.

ikmzi

Year

Cuba

TNA

320.00

1986

NP

920.00

1986

TNA

335.00

na

WRef

IV

69.00

na

Cayo Coco/Cayo GuiUermo

Touristic Natural Area

Cayo Romano

National Park

Cayo Sablnal

Touristic Natural

Cayos de Ana Maria

Wildlife

Cienaga de Zapata

National Park

Punta Frances Punta Pederales

Parque Nacional Marino

Subarchipielago de Jardines
de la Reina

Integrated

Management Area

IMA

Subarchipielago de los Canarreos

Integrated

Management Area

IMA

Subarchipielago de Sabana -

Integrated

Management Area

IMA

NP

Area

Refuge

NP

PNM

na

na

\lk.2U

1985

305.80

na

331.10

na

789.08

na

Camaguey
Sur

Isla

de

Juventud

National Park

800.00

1992

BUENAVISTA

UNESCO

Biosphere Reserve

3 135.00

2000

Cienaga de Zapata

UNESCO

Biosphere Reserve

6 253.54

2000

CUCHILLAS DEL TOA

UNESCO

Biosphere Reserve

275.00

1987

Desembarco del Granma

National Park

World Heritage

418.63

1999

Peninsula de Guanahacabibes

UNESCO

015.00

1987

Left: Golfo

la

de Guacanayabo

structures INM23-729-780,

in

Site

Biosphere Reserve

southeast Cuba. Reef development

19971.

Right:

remote reefs which are less heavily

in this

shallow water has formed complex reticulated

Schoolmasters Lutjanus apodus. These snappers are more regularly observed on

fished.

MAP5h

Western Caribbean

Jamaica
MAPsh

M M 1 M M

Jamaica
Sea.

Jamaica has a long history of exploiting

the third largest island in the Greater

is

Antilles and

Cuba.

is

located in the center of the Caribbean

150 kilometers north, moderates the

effects of the northeast trade

winds on the fringing reefs

including turtle meat from the

Cayman

waters was also undertaken, but the

and sediment slopes, grow on a wider shelf extending up

some

Pedro Cays, 70

at the

kilometers south, and the Morant Cays, 50 kilometers to

the southeast. Coral cover
is

low, although this

on the mainland fringing

was not always

reefs

the case (see below).

000 tons offish per year

Overfishing

is

particularly

bad on the north coast, where

smaller area, while making the shallow reef communities

more

Many

accessible.

of the fish

now caught have

limestone, and on the north coast by Pleistocene reef

that reef fish stocks in

deposits. Past changes in sea level have created terraces

mented by

above and below present sea level

The offshore banks

to

form raised or

There are two wet seasons,

in

October

and May, and two dry seasons. The water temperature

on the north coast ranges from 26

particularly

on the north coast,

to

30C. The weather,

is

dominated by the

northeast trade winds, occasionally interrupted by cold

fronts

from North America

in winter.

Two of

the

most

severe hurricanes on record, Allen and Gilbert, hit Jamaica

in the 1980s,

with significant impacts on the coral reefs.

Portland Bight
in 1999,

in

and has

yield of

1960s was clearly

narrow coastal shelf concentrates fishing into a

attained reproductive maturity, and

cliffs.

and dried

maximum

in the

Cretaceous basement rocks are covered by Tertiary

drowned

Islands,

and fish stocks have now collapsed.

unsustainable

the

marine

its

from North America. Fishing the immediate offshore

reef formations on the south coast, punctuated by rivers

20 kilometers offshore. Reefs and corals also grow

km

import of fish to feed the growing population,

stantial

fish

on nine offshore banks, notably

10

Since early colonial days there was a sub-

resources.

of the north coast, which grow on a narrow shelf Patchy

to

large

fish larvae

it

not yet

has been suggested

Jamaica may be being supple-

from other parts of the Caribbean.

are also heavily fished,

and there

is

conch fishery on Pedro Bank.

Jamaican reefs are further stressed by human impacts

resulting

from

tation caused

terrestrial

by

activities,

soil erosion,

nutrient pollution. Coastal

many

including sedimen-

but more particularly from

development has been rapid

in

parts of Jamaica, encouraged by massive tourism

developments. In

many

areas sewage receives

little

or

no treatment.

southern Jamaica. This important area for coral reefs and mangroves was declared a protected area
full

community involvement

in its

management ISTS065-95-82,

199il.

139

140

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Protected areas with coral reefs

name

Site

Designation

Abbreviation

lUCN

Size

cat.

ikm'i

Year

na

1979

Jamaica

Bogue

Fisheries Sanctuary

FS

IV

Middle Morant Cay

Nature Reserve

NR

na

Montego Bay

Marine Park

MP

1!

na

na

15.30

1991

Negril

Marine Park

MP

na

na

1998

Ocho Rios

Protected Area

PA

na

1966

Portland Bight

Protected Area

PA

876.15

1999

The combined
die-off of

effects of hurricanes

Diadema

and the regional

are particularly well understood in

Jamaica's reefs have been well studied by scientists

for several decades, notably through the

work undertaken

Jamaica. Here, as elsewhere, the urchin was a major

from the Discovery Bay Marine Laboratory. Efforts

herbivore on reefs before

reverse

1983. and

its

disappearance,

combined with severe hurricanes and white band

disease,

has resulted in a dramatic shift in Jamaica's reef from

some of

are beginning in

protected areas have been declared. Active management,

coral-dominated communities to those dominated by

with

algae. Hurricane Allen, in

number of

1980, caused the destruction

of most of the dominant shallow reef-building colonies of

Acropora patmata and A. cervicornis, which led

temporary abundance

of species

agaricites, with smaller encrusting

such

as

to

many problems facing the country

some areas, and a number of marine

the

full

community involvement,
these, notably

.s

being pursued

Montego Bay. Negril and

in a

the

recently declared Portland Bight Protected Area.

to the

Agaricia

and plate-like growth

forms. There was a partial recovery from the impacts of

this

and new coral growth was recorded.

hurricane

However, the Diadema die-off led

to considerable algal

growth, with small ephemeral species being replaced by

large

macroalgae.

leading

to

mortality

amongst the

Agaricia species and preventing further recruitment by

juvenile

Hurricane Gilbert did destroy

corals.

large

amounts of algae but the bare spaces created were more

rapidly reeolonized by algae than by the slow-growing
corals, suggesting that a

created which

is

new

stable

ecosystem had been

algal rather than coral-dominated.

White

band disease has further decimated Acropora populations

and, over the last ten years, black

disease have impacted

some

band and yellow band

areas. Live coral cover at

multiple sites along the coastline declined from over 50

percent in the late 1970s to less than 5 percent in the early

1990s.

By

the late 1990s, coral cover increased again to

10-15 percent

at

Deeper

'-^

9^^^^U^^^

Population (thousands)

GDP

/i383

(million

US$1

Land area (km^j

11

Marine area (thousand km^l

Per capita

fish

653

OAA
251

consumption (kg/year)

17

Status and Threats

Reefs at risk 1%)

99

Recorded coral diseases

depths of 5-15 meters, partly due to

increases in the abundance of

waters.

^^^^B
General Data

reefs have

been

Diadema

in these

less severely

shallow

impacted by

Biodiversity

Reef area (km^l

these various events, particularly on the southern shelf

Coral diversity

edge where some active Acropora growth continues.

Mangrove area (km^j

It is

2i0

36/57
106

postulated that increased herbivory could bring back the

No. of mangrove species

former high cover of coral, but herbivorous fish remain

No. of seagrass species

chronically overfished.

Western Caribbean

Cayman Islands
MAPsi

Cayman

The

the

UK

Islands

Overseas Territories of

are

and consist of three

Cayman Brae and

low-lying, with a

maximum

Grand Cayman,

islands:

Cayman. All

Little

very

are

elevation of only 42 meters.

Jamaica and the Cayman Islands are situated on either side

of the Oriente Transform Fault, which also separates the

Cuba from Jamaica. The Cayman Trough,

south coast of

the east of Jamaica

is

mid-Cayman

actively spreading at the

Caymans

patterns in the

to

and the southeast of Grand Cayman,

Weather

Rise.

are broadly similar to those in

Jamaica, but the eastern islands are generally drier than

Grand Cayman.

The
other.

reefs of the

Cayman

Grand Cayman has

Islands are similar to each

narrow carbonate shelf which

and which

rarely exceeds 1.5 kilometers in width,

quently

much

narrower.

The

is

fre-

fringing reefs often have well

defined spur and groove formations, below which there are

two

distinct terraces:

one

at

about 9 meters deep, the other

at

12-16 meters. This second deeper terrace plunges vertically

into the abyssal depths

Cayman

of the

generally high. Historically,

Trench. Coral cover

largest green turtle rookeries in the Caribbean.

were exported

to

some

The

turtles

Jamaica as a major food source during

the early days of colonial rule,

that

is

Grand Cayman had one of the

and

it

has been estimated

000 individuals were exported armually

in

the early 18th century, before the fishery collapsed through

overfishing towards the end of the century.

There has been a remarkable expansion

over the

Islands

last

has grown from 8 500 to 30 000, while the

boomed. The Islands

in the

Cayman

1997,

including almost 600 banks and trust companies

whose

currently

tourism

is

exceed USS500

the mainstay of the

billion.

Despite

this,

economy, accounting for

about 70 percent of gross domestic product and 75 percent

of foreign currency earnings. The tourist industry

at the

is

aimed

luxury market and caters mainly for visitors from

North America. Numbers are very high, with some

million visitors arriving annually.
visitors

go diving,

attracted

by

1.4

the pressure

Population Ithousandsl

GDP

(million

US$1

the easy access to clear

277

Marine area (thousand km^^1

119

Per capita

fish

consumption (kg/yearl

Reefs at risk (%|

Recorded coral diseases

reefs

arises

from the

Coral diversity

No. of mangrove species

Dive tourism

in

The deeper

reefs off

George

No. of seagrass species

destroyed by the continual anchoring of

the

Cayman

100
3

Biodiversity

Mangrove area (km^j

Town have been

na

Status and Threats

Reef area (km^j

on the

overfishing.

35
612

Land area (kmz|

contamination of groundwater by sewage are potential

is

^^Hj

General Data

massive, tourist-focussed development. Pollution and the

problems, as

W^^IHHI
Islands

About 40 percent of these

waters and sheer drop-offs.

Most of

Cayman

economy has

are a thriving offshore financial center,

with more than 40 000 registered companies in

assets

{IBl

30 years. The resident population

Islands

is

a critical part of the island's

economy.

230

35/57
71

na

1A1

MAPsi

a:

aa

i|S| I Sl||
i|S

Western Caribbean

Protected areas with coral reefs

name

iSite

Cayman

Islands

lUCN

Abbreviation

cat.

Size

ikm^i

Year

Bats Cave Beach (Grand Caymanl

Replenishment Zone

RpZ

IV

0.31

1986

Bloody Bay -

Marine

Parl<

MP

II

1.61

1986

Marine Park

MP

II

0.60

1986

Replenishment Zone

RpZ

IV

0.04

1986

Replenishment Zone

RpZ

IV

0.01

1986

Marine Park

MP

II

1.43

1986

Jacl<5on Point

Caymanl

Bluff -

Bowse

Rum

[Little

Point (Grand

Cayman

Caymanl

Lodge

Dive

(Grand Cayman]
Coral

Isle

Club (Cayman Bracl

Dick Sessingers Bay

Beach Point (Cayman Bracl

Sound (Grand Caymanl

Replenishment Zone

RpZ

IV

2.24

1986

Replenishment Zone

RpZ

IV

3.65

1986

Marine Park

MP

II

0.61

1986

Environmental Zone

EnvZ

lb

17.31

1986

Replenishment Zone

RpZ

IV

1.80

1986

North Sound (Grand Caymanl

Replenishment Zone

RpZ

IV

33.10

1986

North West Point -

Marine Park

MP

II

1.55

1986

Marine Park

MP

II

0.81

1986

Radio Mast Bluff (Grand Caymanl

Replenishment Zone

RpZ

IV

1.77

1986

Water Point Beach Point (Cayman Bracl

Replenishment Zone

RpZ

IV

0.26

1986

South Hole Sound

Franl^

Head

of Baricers

Flats (Grand

Caymanl

Jennifer Bay - Deep Well

(Cayman Bracl

Sound (Grand Caymanl

Little

Mary's Bay - East Point

(Little

Caymanl

West Bay Cemetery (Grand Caymanl

Preston Bay -

Main Channel

(Little

Caymanl

Sand
Salt

Caymanl

Replenishment Zone

RpZ

IV

3.16

1986

South Sound (Grand Caymanl

Replenishment Zone

RpZ

IV

3.17

1986

Spott Bay (Cayman Bracl

Replenishment Zone

RpZ

IV

(Little

House Marine
Sand Cay Apartments (Grand Caymanl

Parl<

MP

Replenishment Zone

RpZ

Victoria

West Bay Cemetery Victoria House (Grand Caymanl

IV

0.33

1986

8.01

1986

0.69

1986

A^

cruiseships,

and nearby shallow reefs have been damaged by

out in 1983 but this did not result in an algal

the resulting sedimentation. There are also direct concerns

grazing fish were

about the carrying capacity of dive

seemed

some

sites

and there have been

declines in fish stocks associated with overfishing.

There was large-scale bleaching of corals

more severe bleaching

in

in 1987,

and even

1995-96 and 1998. In addition,

white band disease has been reported.

There

is

reason for optimism, however

to

still

be recovering

Acropora species are

storms.

bloom because

abundant, and in 1998 the

still

in areas

Diadema

on west Grand Cayman.

common, although impacted by

comprehensive system of marine protected areas

has been established covering 34 percent of the coastal

waters of the islands, enforced by a number of guards, and

Diadema died

also regularly subject to detailed monitoring.

143

144

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

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MEXICO
Community

Carriquiry JD, Reyes BoniUa H (19971.

geographic distribution

of the coral reefs of

structure and

Nayant,

l>/lexican

Mannas 23121: 227-2i8.

Fenner DP 119881. Some leeward reefs and corals of Cozumel.
Mexico. Bull Mar Sc/ 42(1]: 133-144,
Fenner DP 119911. Effects of Hurricane Gilbert on coral reefs.
fishes and sponges at Cozumel, Mexico. Bull Mar Sci 48(31:
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GEL

West

119971. Coral reefs of Huatulco,

Mexico: reef development

in

upwelling Gulf of Tehuantepec.

Grigg PW, Ault JS (20001. A biogeographic analysis and review

eastern Pacific coral reef region. Coral Reefs

of the far
19: 1-23.

D, Garcia-Saez C, Lara M. Padilla C 119931.

Comparacion de arrecifes coralinos: Veracruz y Quintana

Gutierrez

In: Salazar-Vallejo SI, Gonzalez NE ledsl. Biodiversidad

Marina y Costera de Mexico. CONABIO/CIQRO, Mexico. 787-

Roo.

Reyes Bonilla H 119971.

JT,

hermatypic corals

ProcSth

Coral Reef

Symp

Reyes Bonilla

Symp

H,

1:

471-476.

Mannas

Int

535-544

Nicaragua

Lopez Perez A 119981. Biogeography

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JW

ledsl

119931.

Biodiversidad

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Int

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Seas

(edl.

Hudson JH

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Env Professional

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Holocene development

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Mar

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Littler DS, Littler

MM

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DE

Tortora LR, Keith

119971,

An

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marine

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Canb J Sc/

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geographic distribution and natural

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Glynn PW, Mate JL 119971. Field Guide

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biomass and value of

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Nmo

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Biologia Tropical LQ: 309-324,

Guzman HM, Jimenez CE

119921. Contamination of coral reefs

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Panama. Marfcof Prog Ser 105131: 231-241.

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119941. Biological inventory

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II.

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119981. Arrecifes coralinos de

Bocas

Distribucion, estructura y estado de

conservacion de los arrecifes de las islas Bastimentos,

Solarte, Carenero y Colon. Revista de Biologia Tropical 46:

11

9921.

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893-916.

Nunez JC

(1992).

The coral reefs

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Refuge,

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Gandoca-Manzanillo

Limon. Costa-Rica. Revista de

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Guzman HM, Guevara C

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Kim

Guzman HM.

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119801. Scleractmian corals of the

regeneration and growth

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An Environmental

LJ, Zapata Y, Downs 0, Chan R 119981. Great

Corn Island, Nicaragua. In: UNESCO, CARICOMP Caribbean Coral Reef, Seagrass and Mangrove Sites.
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MJ

Trott LB, Marshall MJ, Childress

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NE

Gonzalez

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Quintana Roo, Chetumal, Mexico.

target

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Ryan JD, Miller

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24(21: 211-224.

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Jameson SC,

Clifton KE,

stony corals [Scleractmia] of the Mexican Pacific. Ciencias

Gischler

flora

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Sheppard C

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Glynn PW, Morales

Carter

GUATEMALA AND EL SALVADOR

Fenner DP 119931. Some reefs and corals

12:

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Ogden JC. Ogden NB

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Com-

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munities. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC, USA.

Reefs: Health, hazards and history, 1993. Rosenstiel School

at Carrie

Belize.

I:

Structure and

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of

of

THE CAYMAN ISLANDS

Marine and Atmospheric Science, Mianni. USA. 267-272.

Shulnnan MJ, Robertson

DR

San-Blas, Caribbean

Changes

(19961.

Panama-

1983

in

the coral reefs

to 1990.

Coral Reefs

15141:231-236.

COLOMBIA AND ECUADOR

Acosta

P,

water, reef-dwelling invertebrates

Contammalion gradient and

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Jones B et al (1997). Anatomy of a fringing reef

around Grand Cayman: storm rubble, not coral framework
J Sedimentary Res 67\] PlAI: 1-16.
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effect

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on the

community structure in the Santa Marta Area,

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Hazards and History, 1993. University of Miami, Miami,

Florida, USA. 233-239.
Diaz JM (edi (20001. Areas Coratinas de Colombia. Instituto de
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BWI.

Jones

Car/fc

B,

So

Hunter KG, Hunter NG, Hunter

hydrogeology

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of the

Zea S (1995al. Los Arrecifes

de San Andres, Colombia: Estado

Ista

Santafe de Bogata

Garzon-Ferreira

(1995bl.

Morphology and marine habitats of two southwestern

Caribbean atolls: Albuquerque and Courtown. Atoll Res Bull
435: 1-33.

past two decades.

Kietman

J,

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(1994).

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Ginsburg

RN

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1993.

History,

tfie

Healtti,

Miami. Miami,

University of

USA. 247-253.

Glynn PW, Colley SB

in

Eastern

the

Reef coral reproduction

et al (19941.

Costa

Pacific

Galapagos-Islands (Ecuador!,

2.

Panama, and

Rica,

Poritidae. f^ar Biol

18(21:

191-208.

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S,

J,

Garzon-Ferreira

the

in

(southwestern

IG (1997).
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Geology and

Vacher ML, Quinn T

Maps 5a and 5b
For the Yucatan Peninsula, reefs and coastline have been

combined from Hydrographic

reef

JM

Diaz

J,

complex

of

(19991. Biotic

San Andres

Island

Caribbean Sea, Colombia! occurring over

nearly three decades. Atoll

Res

Bull: 1-16.

Office

and Jordan-

(1995)

former include various finer

resolution charts and surveys from 1820-47 and 1980-1989,
while the latter

for the

based on multiple high resolution sources,

is

combined with expert knowledge, transferred onto maps at a

scale of 1:250 000 base maps for the mainland coast, but not
offshore reefs. Further reefs have been added, largely for the
Gulf of Mexico, using

Bezaury-Creel

maps

at various scales

presented

in

Additional point data for small

et al (1997).

named reefs in the eastern Bahia de Campeche and the

Campeche Bank have been added using geographic coordinates from the same report. The reefs off Cozumel island
are approximate, and are based on a tourist map of the island.
Data for the Pacific Coast are largely taken from UNEP/IUCN
(1988a)*, which

Bezaury-Creel

Geister

changes

Islands.

Developments in Sedimentology, 54: Geology and

Hydrology of Carbonate Islands. Elsevier Science BV,
Amsterdam, Netherlands.

Dahlgren (19931. Sources

Diaz JM, Sanchez JA, Zea S,

Florida,

Islands,

Map sources

la

Hazards and

Cayman

J.

actual y perspecitvas para su conservacion. Academia

Colombiana de Ciencias Exactas, Fisicas y Maturates.

Garzon-Ferreira

the

(edsl.

Marta, Colombia.
Diaz JM, Garzon-Ferreira

Coralinos de

in

261 1-21: 52-61.

Arenas

G,

was prepared
J,

at a scale of 1:10

Macias Ordonez

R, Garcia

000 000.

Beltran G, Castillo

Pardo Caicedo N. Ibarra Navarro

R,

Loreto Viruet

(1997). Implementation of the International Coral Reef

Initiative

(ICRII

Mexico. Commission for Environmental

in

Cooperation (CEC).

In:

The International Coral Reef

Initiative

Mexico and the United States

Gulf of Mexico. Amigos de Sian Kaan AC, CINVE5TAV, NCAA,
CEC, and The Nature Conservancy.
- The Status of Coral Reefs in

CUBA
Alcolado PM, Herrera-Moreno A. Martinez-Estalella N (1994!.

communities as environmental bio-monitors

Sessile

Cuban

coral reefs.

In:

Ginsburg

RN

ledl.

in

Proceedings of the

http://benthos, cox. miami.edu/mexico/icri/home. htm

Hydrographic Office (1995). Gulf

of

Honduras and Yucatan

Colloquium on Global Aspects of Coral Reefs: Health,

Channel British Admiralty Chart No. 1220.

Hazards and

1995. Taunton, UK.

Florida,

History,

1993.

University of

Miami, Miami,

USA. 27-33.
R,

Caribe Mexicano. Parte

Map

(1997!.

Spread

of a blac(<-band
in

St Ann's

Bay, Jamaica. Bull MarSc/61(3!: 919-928.

I.

Caribbean coral

reef.

Science 265(51781:

1547-1551.

Sary

Z,

Oxenford

mesh

an increase

further detail of reefs and coastline

and 1989c].
Price

ARG, Young E

(1993).

Guidelines

for

Developing a Coastal Zone Management Plan for Belize: The

GIS Database.

A Marine Conservation and Development

Report. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland.

Hydrographic Office (1989a). Belize, Colson Point

including

HA

Some

has been appended from Hydrographic Office (1989a, 1989b,

Gibson JP,

Goreau TF (1959!. The ecology of Jamaican coral reefs.

Species composition and zonation. Ecology AO: 67-90.
Hughes TP (1994). Catastrophes, phase-shifts, and large-scale
of a

Sistema Continental. CIQROO-

data originally prepared at the World Conservation

Monitoring Centre.

disease epizootic through the coral reef system

degradation

El

5c

(19931,

JAMAICA
AW, Bruckner RJ etal

1.

UNAM.

Coral reef and mangrove data are taken from Gibson et al

Publications, Hawthorn, Australia.

Brucl<ner

000 000. May

Jordan-Dahlgren E (1993). 4f/as de los Arrecifes Coralinos del

Menendez G, Martinez-Daranas B
(1997!. General status of Cuban coral reefs. Proc 8th Int
Coral ReefSymp: 341-344.
Williams D (1999!, Diving and Snorkelling Cuba. Lonely Planet
Alcolado PM, Claro

1:1

to Belize City,

Lighthouse Reef and Turneffe Islands. British

trap

Admiralty Chart No. 959. 1:125 000. October 1989. Taunton, UK.

size on an overexploited coral reef fishery at Discovery

Hydrographic Office (1989b). Gulf of Honduras. British Admiralty

et al (1997). Effects of

Bay, Jamaica, fvlar Ecol Prog

Ser ]bi: 107-120.

in

Chart No. 1573. 1:125 000. October 1989. Taunton, UK.

1A5

M,6

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Hydrographic Office I1989cl. Belize, Monkey River

Point. British

to

Colson

Glynn PW, Wellington

Channel. British Admiralty Chart No. 1220.

(minor corrections to 19601. Taunton, UK.

Hydrographic Office 11990]. Colombia - North Coast:

For the Bay Islands coral reef areas were estimated from

TM images

1:150 000 prints of Landsat-5

this

3,

4|,

IPath/Row 17/i9.

from 1994. There was no ground-

Taunton. UK.

Santa Marta

Offshore reefs and islands around the Cayos Miskitos have

US Government

chart of 1927.

does not feature large areas

of reef directly,

1830-43, with additions from a

Although

this chart

to

Hydrographic Office 11991a]. Colombia

work.

been prepared from Hydrographic Office 119641. Most of data

from this chart actually date from a hydrographic survey of

North Coast: Bahia

Punta Canoas. British Admiralty Chart No.

to

1276. 1:200 000. March 1991. Taunton. UK.

Hydrographic Office 11991b]. Colombia - North Coast: Punta

Canoas

to

Fuerte.

Isla

British Admiralty Chart No.

1:200 000. March 1991. Taunton,

Map 5g

which are marked as reefs and from shallow submerged rocks

Coral reef areas are based on Petroconsultants

in

SA

(1990]*.

areas of active reef development. Further

from from Petroconsultants SA (19901*, and

reef data are take

1277.

UK

reefs have been broadly interpreted from those few features

where these occur

Isla

Cabo Tiburon including Golfo de Uraba. British

Admiralty Chart No. 1278. 1:200 000. September 1990.
Fuerte

truthmg on

of the

Bank. British Admiralty Chart No. 1334. 1:55 000. June 1912

MapSd

2,

and Coral Reefs

of California Press, Berkeley,

Hydrographic Office 11912], Old Providence Island and Coral

000 000. N^ay

1:1

1995. Taunton, UK.

Bands

11983], Cora(s

USA.

1989. Taunton. UK.

Hydrograpfiic Office 119951. Gulf of Honduras and Yucatan

15/4/94.

GM

Galapagos Islands. University

Admiralty Chart No. 1797. t:125 000, October

from UNEP/IUCN |1988al'.

MapSh
Coral reef and mangrove data were kindly provided by

Hydrographic Office 119641.

Hueson

River

False

to

Cape,

Lindell.

They are largely based on four Landsat

TM

Tommy
images,

including Morrison and Mosquito Cays. British Admiralty

from 1985 and 1995, These have been extensively checked

Chart No. 2i25. August 1929 Iminor corrections

against topographic charts, nautical charts, aerial photographs

to 19641.

and ground-truthing work. For the present map, coral reefs are

Taunton, UK.

taken from the layers described as "corals" and "coral reefs

MapSe

In

Coral reefs have been prepared for Costa Rica from IGN

vegetation.

Panama, Caribbean reefs have been taken

UNEP/IUCN 11988a]' at an approximate scale of

(various dates!. For

from
1:1

600 000, while Pacific reefs have been gathered

at

various

scales from Glynn and Mate (1997).

Glynn PW, Mate JL 119971. Field guide

of

Panama. Proc 8th

IGN Ivarious dates],

Coral Reel

Int

Costa Rica.

Institute Geografico Nacional,

\:

1.200 000,

San Jose, Costa

difficult

to

differentiate

".

corals from

These areas have been omitted. Further details about

work are provided in Lindell 11997, 19991.
Lindell T 11997). Mapping of the coastal zone of Jamaica. Proc
Fourth International Conference on Remote Sensing for
/Marine and Coastal Environments, Orlando, Florida, 17-19
March, 1997.
Lindell T 11999).

145-166.

9-map

was

it

this

to the Pacific coral reefs

Symp

some areas

Coastal zone mapping

of

Jamaica

for

planning and management. Proc Pecora 14/Land Satellite

series.

Information

Rica.

111,

Dec

1999,

Denver CO, USA.

MapSf

Map

Locations of reefs for the north coast of Colombia are based on

Little Cayman reef data are taken from

These maps are based on aerial photographs
flown in 1958, 1971, 1977 and field studies in 1981 and 1983.
For Grand Cayman coral reefs are taken from DOS (1978a.

Hydrographic Office 11990, 1991a, 1991bl. Sources

US Government

for

these are

charts of 1938, 1977, 1986 and 1987, most of

which are largely based on earlier surveys 11935-38) with corrections from the

970s and

980s. For the offshore Isla de San

Andres, reefs have been estimated from an original

et al 11995a].

utilized to
atolls. All

Similar maps, presented

in

map

in

Diaz

For

Logan

three

maps

Diaz et al 11995bl were

give detailed habitat

hermatypic corals. For

Isla

all

summaries and

(1978a).

Cayman

Overseas Surveys.

Providencia reefs and coastline were

(1978b).

Cayman

Overseas Surveys,
Islands.

features

but reef areas have been estimated from reef

marked as very shallow waters and submerged rocks

locations of coral

reefs

have been taken from Glynn and

Coratinos de

la Isla

J,

Zea 5 11995a),

Islands 1:25 000: Grand

2.

3rd

UK and

Brunswick, Canada.

Los Arrecifes

de San Andres, Colombia: Estado actual

y perspecitvas para su conservacion. Academia Colombiana

de Ciencias Exactas, Fisicas y Naturales. Santafe de Bogata.
Diaz JM. Sanchez JA, Zea

S,

Garzon-Ferreira J 11995b|.

Morphology and marine habitats of two southwestern

Caribbean atolls: Albuquerque and Courtown. Atoll Res Bull
435: 1-33,

of

Survey Department. Cayman

edn-DOS

Cayman. Series

1978. Directorate of

Survey Department, Cayman

Logan A (1983). Shallow Ivlarine Substrates of the Lesser

Caymans, BWI Monochrome maps at 1:12 500, prepared
by A Logan, Department of Geology, University of New

Wellington (19831. These are mostly very small structures.

Diaz JM, Garzon-Ferreira

Grand Cayman. Series

2nd edn-DOS 1978. Directorate

UK and

E821 (DOS 3281. Sheet

mark

which clearly demarcate a reef structure. For the Galapagos,

1.

Islands.

DOS

estimated from Hydrographic Office (1912). This chart does not

reefs,

Islands 1.25 000:

E821 (DOS 328). Sheet

reef

areas dominated by

11983).

1978bl.

DOS

estimate reef areas for Courtown and Albuquerque

areas have been interpreted as

Si

Cayman Brae and

See Technical notes, page 401

Eastern Caribbean and Atlantic

Chapter 6
Eastern Caribbean and
Atlantic

Eastern Caribbean region

The

is

donninated

poorly planned coastal development, with associated

problems

by small islands, lying

in a

broad arc around

eastern end

the

Caribbean Sea.

fishing,

Fringing coral reef communities are found

islands.

the

of

places on the shores of most islands,

in

of

and

sedimentation and pollution. Patterns

of overfishing,

of

vary considerably between

The region also contains some important

off Saba, Bonaire and

protected areas, notably those

been particularly well managed,

although their condition varies considerably. The

St.

region also includes the long coastline of Venezuela

leading to the maintenance or recovery of healthy reef

and, although there

is

virtually

no reef development

along this shore, there are important reefs associated

with

the

offshore

chain

of

islands

immediately

ecosystems
for reef

in

localized areas.

some considerable

As with other areas

of the

Caribbean, the reefs

These provide

management throughout

model

the region.

of

the Caribbean there are

reefs

and coral communities

Beyond the waters

to

the north.

of the

Lucia, which have

along the coastline of Brazil. Although

still

poorly

Eastern Caribbean have suffered considerably

known, these reefs are receiving increasing attention

of the Diadema die-off and

more northerly islands have

and house important and unusual communities, with

from the combined impacts

Many

coral disease.

of the

also been swept by major hurricanes

in

recent years,

greatly reducing coral cover over wide areas.

Tourism

is

the largest industry

in this

region and

high

proportion

of

endemic species.

In

the few

scattered islands of the Central Atlantic and along the

less turbid areas of the

West African coastline some

coral communities are also recorded, although there

no significant development

vast

numbers

Left:

The island of Barbuda. Lesser Antilles has extensive fringing reefs ISTS026-35-11, 19881. Right: The butter hamlet
is a distinctive Caribbean species, with a range of highly distinctive color morphs. This one is the

of visitors

Hypoplectrus unicolor

barred variety

var. puella.

have driven rapid and often

of large reef structures.

is

147

MAP

Eastern Caribbean and Atlantic

Dominican
Republic and Navassa Island
Haitip the

makes up

H3ltl
of

the western part of the island

populated with algae. In

total,

MAP

6a

10

km

35 species of scleractinian

Hispaniola, the second largest island in the

coral have been recorded in Les Arcadins, as well as 12

mountainous country with a

gorgonians and 54 species of sponges. There are two

Caribbean.

It

is

central plain enclosed by

mountain ranges

to the north

and

south which extend out into two long peninsulas enclosing

the Golfe de

la

Gonave. Offshore there are

number of

unusual

aspects to

kitlogorgia

spp..

these

reefs.

Firstly

the

which normally occurs

habitats or deeper water elsewhere,

is

common

coral

soft

cryptic

in

in the

open

islands, including the large lie de la Tortue in the north

shallow waters of Les Arcadins. Secondly, the sponge

and the central

Niphates digitalis, which rarely exhibits gigantism

known about

lie

de

la

Gonave. Very

the coral reefs in Haiti.

little

indeed

is

What information

round the capital Port-au-

exists is largely for the area

shallow water elsewhere

Haiti

is

in the

most impoverished country

the

in

Caribbean, does so here.

in the

western

although

poorly

Prince and Les Arcadins islands. Coral reefs are also

hemisphere,

known

documented, are likely to be under intense pressure.

to

occur

all

around

Rochelois Bank and Les

Vache on the south

lie

lies

coast;

de

la

Gonave: on the

Cayemites; around

lie

and also on the north coast

so

the

Perhaps less than

reef resources,

percent of the native terrestrial

vegetation remains intact.

The steep

between Cap Haitien and the border with the Dominican

have caused widespread and severe

Republic. Marine benthic surveys were carried out in Les

likely to

Arcadins

in the 1980s.

The reef

profile

was found

similar to other Caribbean fringing reefs: a reef crest

inated by Millepora complanata, an Acropora

zone (with 100 percent

fore reef

live

to

be

dom-

palmata

cover in 1989) and a shallow

dominated by Monlastrea annularis. Extensive

seagrass beds occur here - shallow beds (2-4 meters)

generally have

more algae species with a higher biomass,

whereas the deeper beds (12-14 meters) are more sparsely

The he de

la

Gonave,

in Haiti,

relief and high rainfall

soil erosion,

which

have placed a high sediment load on coastal

About 75 percent of the population

so almost

all

fishing activities are

live in

is

reefs.

poverty and

carried out at the

subsistence level, and anecdotal reports suggest that this

is

so intense that few fish reach reproductive size. There are

no sewage treatment plants or sanitary

levels

landfills

and the

of nutrients flowing from settlements into coastal

waters are probably high. This has been linked to an

abundance of fleshy algae

has a number of important reefs ISTS060-84-56.

I99il.

in the reefs off

Les

Irois

and the

H9

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Baie de Port-au-Prince. This bay

with

Haiti

oil.

monitoring

General Data
6 868

Population (thousands)

GDP

(million

US$1

2 183

Land area (km^l

27 156

Marine area (thousand km^l

is

yet to

has

station

Fondation pour

also severely polluted

is

chemicals and solid waste. Although a

industrial

been established there by the

Protection de la Biodiversite Marine,

la

implement a

it

monitoring protocol. There are

full

currently no marine protected areas in Haiti, although a

park including Les Arcadins was proposed in 1989.

127

Per capita fish consumption (kg/yearl

Dominican Republic

Status and Threats

Reefs at risk (%l

100

The Dominican Republic makes up

part of the

Recorded coral diseases

island of Hispaniola.

the larger, eastern

Like Haiti,

too

it

is

mountainous, with considerable riverine runoff. Fringmg

Biodiversity

and small barrier reefs are scattered along some 170

reefs

^50

Reef area (km^l

na/57

Coral diversity

Mangrove area (km^l

13A

No. of mangrove species

na

No. of seagrass species

na

kilometers of

its

and there are important reef

coastline,

communities on the offshore banks of Navidad and La

which

Plata (Silver Bank),

The

lie to

the north of the country.

best developed reefs include a small barrier reef in

some narrow

Montecristi in the northwest,

com-

fringing

munities along the central north coast and a further barrier-

type development in the far east. Reef development

extensive on the south coast, but there

on the mainland and the neighboring

Santo

Domingo

there are small reefs

while there are also some

some

is

Isla

is less

in the east

Saona. Around

on narrow platforms,
south of the country

in the far

around Jaragua National Park.

Coral cover has declined considerably in most nearshore areas, and algae have proliferated

many

reef corals at

localities.

High

at the

expense of

coral cover

is

now

largely restricted to deeper reefs, and to those lying further

otTshore. In 2000, average coral cover

the Montecristi barrier reef

was 35 percent on

and 40 percent on parts of the

offshore banks. In the Del Este National Park the diversity

of the main reef groups

is

high, with 22 octocorals, 26

scleractinians and 36 sponges on the shallow spur and

groove formations. Here most of the algae are calcareous,

although Dicnola

is

also abundant.

Reef

flat

communities

occur on low-relief consolidated carbonate platforms

which are exposed

to strong

wave action from

the

Mona

Passage. Algae (36 species) provide the dominant cover

(over 70 percent in

some

also occur, principally

cases), but 14 species

of corals

Acropora palmata, Diploria clivosa.

Pontes asteroides and

P.

pontes. Closer to shore, patch

amongst seagrass beds. Algae again are

reefs occur in

dominant, some 21 species accounting for more than 50

percent of the benthic cover Information on the status of
coral reefs in the Jaragua National Park

but this park protects

many

is

more

scarce,

different coastal ecosystems.

There are large and regionally important populations of

manatees, crocodiles, turtles (leatherback, green, hawksbill

and loggerhead

Many of

turtles all nest there)

and flamingos.

the reefs in the north and around Santo

Domingo have been severely affected by a variety of

human impacts. Degradation is probably due to increases

Above: The whitespotted

white spots. Below:

fitefish,

Cantfierhines macrocerus,

somewhat confusingly has an orange

color phase without

classic Caribbean reef scene, with a massive brain coral alongside soft corals.

MAP

6a

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Protected areas with coral reefs

Site

name

Designation

lUCN

Abbreviation

Size

cat.

Year

(km^i

Dominican Republic
Del Este

Marine

National Park

Mammal

Sanctuary

na

NP

II

National Park

MP

Unassigned

Montecristi

National Park

NP

II

Parque Submarino La Caleta

National Park

NP

II

Literal

in

11

National Park

Jaragua

Sur (Santo Domingo)

sediments (from upland deforestation, wetland removal,

soil

MP

erosion and coastal

construction

for

the

tourist

far

in the

and the Diadema die-off have undoubtedly

disease

exacerbated the effects of these direct

Reefs

in

the

southeast and

suffered less. There

is

human

impacts.

in the

1996

374.00

1983

10.75

1968

309.50

1983

10.10

1986

from the centers of human

Management

activity.

parks as a whole are limited and

many

heavily poached by vessels from that country.

The offshore banks of Navidad and La

These are also important breeding grounds

Overfishing,

population of

problem, although there

sure as

some

of conch and lobster,

may now be

fishers are turning to

a reduction in pres-

work

the use of fish aggregating devices

is

is

of a number of fishers towards pelagic

in tourism,

while

directing the focus

individuals,

industry in

in

the

for the largest

in the region,

some

000

and support an important whale-watching

Samana

and extends

fisheries.

Approximately 20 percent of the coral reefs

humpback whales

Mammal

Marine

Plata have

where coral cover remains high.

significant areas of reef

country, with catches estimated at 13 000 tons in 1998,

particularly

levels

continue to

be heavily fished. The parks near Haiti are regularly and

southwest have generally

an important artisanal fishery

38 000.00

sanctuaries, and the majority of these occur in the Jaragua

industry), nutrients (from fertilizers as well as domestic

runofO. Coral

1975

and Del Este National Parks. Both cover large areas and are

wastewater) and pesticides

(in agricultural

808.00

Bay.

They

are at the center of the large

Sanctuary, which incorporates both banks

include the northeastern coast between

to

Cabo Samana and Cabo

Frances.

Dominican Republic occur within marine parks and

^^^^^^^
uommican

/7T

l^^Hi

Republic

Navassa Island
Navassa Island was claimed as a
the exploitation of

'

General Data

'

Population (thousands)

inhabitants.

GDP

(million

US$1

9 945

Land area (km^)

Marine area (thousand
Per capita

tish

48 444

km

consumption (kg/year)

261
12

Status and Threats

j

Reefs at risk (%)

Recorded coral diseases

89
2

Reef area (km^)

Coral diversity

Mangrove area (km^)

No. of mangrove species
No. of seagrass species

uplifted

5 square kilometers,

terntory in 1857 for

it

is

limestone

structure

Haiti's

Haiti, some 50 kilometers from

Cap Dame-Marie. There are important coral reef

communities on

all

sides, with live coral

na/57
325

cover of 20-25

percent on the leeward (west) coast.

Some 36

hard coral

species have been recorded to date.

The

were also

reefs

observed to have considerable structural complexity, with

high levels of coral recruitment. Incidence of coral disease
low,

and reasonable numbers oi Diadema were reported.

Although the surrounding waters have yet

610

of around

located in the Jamaica Passage

between Jamaica and

was
Biodiversity

An

US

guano resources, but has no permanent

it

to

be documented,

has been suggested that significant coral communities

may

also occur on shallow seamounts nearby. There are few

human impacts on

these

reefs,

artisanal

controlled by the

US

are strict controls

on access and

fishing

by Haitian

although there

fishers.

The

Department of the
entry.

is

island

Interior

is

some

now

and there

Eastern Caribbean and Atlantic

Puerto Rico and

the Virgin Islands

US Commonwealth

of Puerto Rico

Milwaukee Depth, some 150 kilometers north of

a large

at the

mountainous island on the northern edge of the

Mona

Caribbean Sea, lying to the east of the Dominican

are predominantly volcanic in origin, with the exception of

The

Republic.

Mona

the west of the

Island

main

is

is

an uplifted carbonate island to

island, while to the east there are

two

St.

The Virgin

form an archipelago of about 100

Islands

islands to the east of Puerto Rico.

The most western

are an "unincorporated territory" of the

USA,

islands

the

US

Virgin Islands, while those in the east are an overseas

territory

of the

UK,

the British Virgin Islands.

of these islands are on

shallow platform which

a single

an extension of the Puerto Rico

The majority

shelf. St.

is

Croix to the south

Island. Puerto

Rico and the

Croix and Anegada which,

rest

like

of the Virgin Islands

Mona, were formed by

uplifted sedimentary rocks.

The dominant current flow

other significant islands, those of Culebra and Vieques.

lies

MAP 6b

is

from east

to west,

with

water movement being driven by the Atlantic Northern

Equatorial Current. These islands also

wind

southeast during the

within the trade

summer months, and from

and northeast during the winter As a

factors, the prevailing swell is

transport

lie

with wind blowing mainly from the east and

belt,

is

from the

result
east,

of

the east
all

these

and sediment

along the north and south margins.

on the separate Cruzan platform, separated by the

4 500 meter deep Virgin Islands Trough. To the northeast

this

Puerto Rico

forms the deep, narrow Anegada Passage which

separates the Virgin Islands from the Lesser Antilles. North

of the Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico, the seismically

active

Puerto

Rico Trench

constitutes

boundary of the Caribbean tectonic

at a rate

of 2-4 centimeters per year

plate,
in

the

which

northern
is

moving

an easterly direction

Coral reefs are discontinuous around the main island of

Puerto Rico, and most abundant along the east, south and

west coasts. The offshore islands are more continuously

fringed by reefs. Coral cover
island

includes

some of

is

highly varied, and the

the best developed and

US

Caribbean

most

As

with respect to the North American plate. The strike-slip

diverse coral reefs in the

motion of

elsewhere, coral disease has had a significant impact on

this plate

boundary has created a deep trench,

forming the deepest point

St. Croix.

US

in the

Virgin Islands.

Caribbean (8 605 meters)

the

total

coral

cover.

Wide areas of sliatlower water can clearly be seen around

The Diadema

ttie

territories.

die-off

island IST5054-74-49.

was

19931.

also

153

MAP 6b

Eastern Caribbean and Atlantic

considerable here, but numbers are

increasing.

Coral bleaching

now

reported to be

US

late

1980s caused

Coral reefs are widespread around

the

in

significant mortality, and a major bleaching event

also observed in 1998, though

little

was

associated mortality

appears to have occurred.

These are mostly fringing

reef off
reefs

Caribbean and tourism has traditionally been an

St.

structure been
Islands. In

economy

in 1998,

and

this

a small barrier

is

number of offshore patch

Island,

combined

else in the Caribbean have the

effects of hurricanes

important source of income, with estimated arrivals of

in the

of the main islands.

and bank structures.

nearly 4 million people in 1993. Construction and tourism

were the leading sectors

all

reefs, but there

Croix, and there are a

Nowhere

Puerto Rico has one of the most dynamic economies

in the

Virgin Islands

and disease on coral reef population

more pronounced than

1976

in the

US

cover on the fore reef

live coral

Virgin

Buck

at

dominated by Acropora palmata. was 85 percent.

has had considerable impacts on the reefs. Clearance of

Since then, eight hurricanes have caused serious physical

over 75 percent of Puerto Ricos mangroves, combined

damage

with dredging, agricultural runoff, pollution from un-

undoubtedly the most severe, but

to these

reefs.

treated sewage, and sedimentation from forest clearance

and Marilyn

have had a considerable impact on most coastal

caused extensive damage

Although there are no big commercial

reefs.

fisheries, small-

scale fisheries are significant, with a total catch of over

1

600 tons

in

1996.

Overfishing of large predators,

parrotfishes and spiny lobsters

spills

is

have further impacted reefs

offshore island of Vieques

bombing range,

is

widely reported. Oil

in

used by the

resulting in

many

measuring some 5-13 meters

some

US

craters

areas.

The

affected, either

activities

some

controversy.

now underway. A number of marine

protected

areas have been designated, together with seasonal fishery

developed to begin

to

New

address

legislation

some of

the region

as

and killed many acroporid corals, with as many

64 percent of all colonies being

The

hit less

The spiny lobster industry

Other diseases

affected.

abundant species

situation in St.

John

is

the

is

being

in the

Virgin Islands,

similar, with

in

seven months. Coral cover around

about 30 percent before Hurricane

some 8-18

percent. In

80 percent of

Hawksnest Bay being

Lameshur Bay

St.

Hugo reduced
the

lost

John was

dominant

it

to

coral,

Montastrea annularis, declined by about 35 percent and

there has been no substantial recovery even though coral

recruitment

is

occurring. Despite extensive bleaching in

1998, there was

Tourism

pollution

is

little

associated mortality.

the islands' primary

economic

activity,

accounting for more than 70 percent of gross domestic

problems of the area.

Left:

coral remaining to

such as Agaricia agaricites and Stephanocoenia michelinii.

some of the more damaging

some of the reefs from further

on some spawning aggregations.

little

on the reefs

control

and protect

decline are

a matter of

and
less

be damaged. White band disease has also greatly impacted

in just

is still

were

areas. Others

have also

from these reefs by the military compensates

to

1989, was

because of the uneven impacts of the storms

themselves or because there was so

and

Efforts

some

in

Acropora palmata colonies

for this destruction

in

1995 Hurricanes Luis

the islands within a ten-day period

positive impacts associated with the exclusion of fishers

tourists

in

military as a

diameter Whether the

in

hit

Hurricane Hugo,

is

of great

there are reports of overharvesting. Right:

economic importance

in

the Caribbean. In Puerto Rico, as in

A grey angelfish Pomacanthus

arcuatus.

many areas,

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

156

product and 70 percent of employment.

Damage

to reefs

associated with tourism and recreation includes signifi-

harm caused by boat anchors and ship groundings.

cant

The Virgin

on

Islands National Park

St,

John

attracts a

million visitors a year, mostly arriving on cruiseships

southwest of

Thomas,

St.

cooperation with fishers,

in

divers and local and federal government.

Bank, the area

closed to

is

all

Known

as

Hind

fishing and anchoring, and

represents an important step towards

more comprehensive

management.

fisheries

or smaller boats, and an estimated 30 000 anchors are

dropped

1989 the cruiseship Windspirit

in a single year. In

destroyed

some 300 square meters of reef with

and chain and there has been

little

British Virgin Islands

anchor

its

recovery since. This

Coral reefs are widespread throughout the British Virgin

resulted in the successful prosecution of the boat owners

Islands, including fringing reefs close to

by the park authorities, and remains one of the few

patch reefs

examples of such action for damages incurred

structure.

reefs.

Direct

damage by

been recorded

the

at

to coral

divers and snorkellers has also

most heavily used

Mooring

sites.

in

Horseshoe Reef, extending

Anegada. As with the

been

most

severely

US

to the southeast

impacted by the passage of several

hurricanes in recent years and, although not

33 percent of boats anchored in seagrass beds and 14

equally affected,

and no

coral left to protect

of vessels allowed
Overfishing

in

is

limits

have been

is

set

now

little

on the size

park waters.

is

further exacerbated

by

the widespread loss of fish habitats, including seagrass

and mangrove areas, such

that

in

sites lost

up

to

areas were

all

100 percent of their

There are now reports of

fish

stocks are highly

partial

most places. The reefs have also suffered from

coral disease and from the 1998 bleaching event.

widespread throughout the islands,

even within protected areas. This

some

cover.

coral

live

recovery

of

Virgin Islands, the reefs have

buoys were installed following a survey which found that

percent on coral reefs. Unfortunately, there

islands,

offshore areas, and a long barrier-type

less well studied,

it

Although

can generally be assumed that

many of

these impacts have had consequences similar to those in

US Virgin
Human impacts

the nearby

Islands.

vary across the islands, but sig-

depleted in most areas.

nificant deterioration or loss of reef habitats has been

Other threats

to the reefs include sedimentation, land

noted close to the more heavily populated areas. Coastal

clearance, coastal development and sewage discharge (the

development has been particularly severe on Tortola and

eutrophication of some reefs in the Virgin Islands has been

Virgin Gorda. with the clearance of almost

attributed

leaching from septic tanks during heavy

One of the

world's largest petroleum refineries

Considerable

increases

in

coastal

all

mangroves.

sedimentation

resulted

from road building and other construction

Croix, which also represents a significant potential

projects.

Large amounts of sewage pass into the sea

threat to reefs as well as other ecosystems.

Marine

Conservation

District

PHP

1999

In

was declared

to

the

untreated, although

newer developments tend

sewage treatment

facilities.

^B

to include

These islands have the

us Virgin

British Virgin

Rico

Islands

Islands

Puerto

General Data
\

Population Ithousandsl

GDP

(million

US$1

Land area (km'l

Marine area (thousand km^)
Per capita
kg/yea rl

fish

consumption

3 916

121

20

40 865

na

210

9 063

350

161

205

81

10

na

100

100

100

11

Status and Threats

:

have

is at

rain).
St.

to

Reefs at risk 1%)

Recorded coral diseases

Biodiversity

Reef area [km^l

Coral diversity

Mangrove area (km^l

No. of

mangrove species

No. of seagrass species

480

200

330

31/57

34/57

28/57

92

10

na

na

na

Eastern Caribbean and Atlantic

greatest

of charter yachts

concentration

and anchor damage

is

in

world

the

widespread, particularly

in

the

more popular anchorages where wide areas of benthic

communities have been destroyed. There is some eutro-

more enclosed bays which

phication in the

part related to these vessels.

is at

least in

Although several hundred

moorings are available these are clearly insufficient

the

numbers of

boats.

for

There are only relatively few com-

mercial fishers (less than 200). with a total catch of

some

800 tons

Despite

in 1998.

this, the

impacts of commercial

and recreational fishing remain substantial, notably on

groupers and snappers.

lobster, conch,

Although

number of marine protected

been declared, active management

sures of tourist

numbers

is

limited.

in existing sites,

areas have

The

pres-

together with the

impacts of legitimate activities within their boundaries,

including

fishing,

many of these

further

reduce

the

effectiveness

sites.

Protected areas with coral reefs

Site

name j

Abbreviation

Designation

lUCN

cat.

Size

ikm'l

^ei

Puerto Rico

Boqueron
Cayos de

RVS

IV

2.37

1964

Nature Reserve

RNat

IV

0.88

1980

Hunting Reserve

HR

IV

11.33

1981

Wildlife
la

Cordillera

Estuarina Nacional Bahia Jobos

Refuge

Isla

Caja de Muerto

Nature Reserve

RNat

IV

1.88

1988

Isla

de Mona

Nature Reserve

RNat

IV

55.54

1986

La Parguera

Nature Reserve

RNat

IV

49.73

1979

NaM

III

3.56

1961

NWR

IV

0.06

1977

MarCD

IV

41.00

1999

53.08

1956

US Virgin

Islands

Buck Island Reef

^
National

Monument

National Wildlife Refuge

sgen Cay

Hi Bank

Marine Conservation

Virgin Islands

National Park

NP

II

Cooper Island

Bird Sanctuary

BS

IV

1.38

1959

Dead Chest Island

Bird Sanctuary

BS

IV

O.U

1959

Bird Sanctuary

BS

IV

0.12

1959

IV

0.15

1978

na

30.00

1990

District

British Virgin Islands

Fallen

Jerusalem Island

Park

Fort Point

Horseshoe Reet

Protected Area

PA

Mosquito Island

Bird Sanctuary

BS

IV

0.50

1959

Necker Island

Bird Sanctuary

BS

IV

0.30

1959

Peter Island

Bird Sanctuary

BS

IV

4.30

1959

na

0.95

1988

Prickly Pear

Park

Prickly Pear Island

Bird Sanctuary

BS

IV

0.70

1959

Round Rock Island

Bird Sanctuary

BS

IV

0.08

1959

Salt Island

Bird Sanctuary

BS

IV

0.78

1959

Bird Sanctuary

BS

IV

0.11

1959

St.

Eustatia

The Baths

Natural

NM

III

0.03

1990

The Seal Dogs

Bird Sanctuary

BS

IV

0.03

1959

Wreck

Marine Park

MP

III

3.24

1980

of the

Rhone

Monument

of

158

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

The Lesser Antilles,

Trinidad and Tobago

Lesser Antilles are a group of islands lying in

The

an 800 kilometer long arc, stretching from the

Anegada Passage due

southwards

east

Grenada which

to

South

close to the

American continental shelf These islands form

the

eastern margin of the Caribbean Sea, with the oceanic

6c and d

and coral diseases have severely affected

annularis,

populations of the two shallow species of Acropora.

of the Virgin Islands,

lies

MAPS

In the following account, brief descriptions are

given

of the islands of the Lesser Antilles, following a sequence

from north

to south. Trinidad

from the Lesser Antilles,

is

and Tobago, although distinct

also considered here.

waters of the Atlantic to the east. The deep waters of the

Puerto Rico Trench

trench

is

lie to

the north and northeast. This

under the Caribbean

plate.

Towards the south, these deep

waters rise up towards the island of Barbados, which

about

Anguilla

the result of the subduction of the Atlantic plate

150 kilometers east of the main

Geologically

the

islands

quite

are

island

varied,

lies

chain.

but

are

Anguilla

is

an overseas territory of the

UK, and

a small carbonate island together with a

offshore cays. Fringing reefs are widespread particularly

on the south

coast,

and there are other reefs on the offshore

dominated by two types, older sedimentary islands and

cays. Anguilla has suffered fewer impacts than

more recent volcanic ones.

islands in the region.

There has been progressive degradation of reefs

throughout the Lesser Antilles over the

Many

have

lost large

have been considerable increases

numbers have

many

species

also decreased,
is

last

two decades.

amounts of live coral cover and there

Antigua

is

islands

in

significant,

it

has had

little

direct impact.

Dog

some

Island,

distance off to the northwest, has reefs which are

cover.

as large individuals

which takes place across

damaging

island of

due
bird

to

Sombrero have recently been overturned,

environmental concerns.

among

colony,

and

its

It

largely

harbors an important

surrounding reefs are considered

important, although they remain poorly documented.

surrounded by intermittent banl< barrier reef structures, a number of wfiich

Right: S(. Eustatius. Netherlands Antilles, clearly

the Lesser Antilles.

point-

source runoff, and although tourism development has been

Plans to establish a satellite launching pad on the small

now much reduced

19941.

most other
little

is

the least impacted and visitors are actively discouraged.

algal

important reef-building species such as Montastrea

Left:

rivers there

Fish

in

the region. Recent hurricanes have been very

15TS064-76-BB.

With no

and the average size of

rarely survive the intensive fishing

to

consists of

number of smaller

showing the volcanic

fall

within protected areas

origin

common

to

many

MAP
6300'

6330'

6230'

6c

6100'

6r30'

ea-oo'

Anegada Passage
Sombrero

(ANGUILLA)
Sandy

IB-SO'

Island

Salt Fish Tail Real

(Diamond Raaf) MNP

MP

1830'
'

Northeast
Aruhipelago PRes

Seal Island and PricMy

/ Pear Cay East MP

DogL

Shoal Bay

(ANGUILCA)
LC\)

>^r
^

MP

"~*

ST. JOHN'S

ANGUILLA

THEVALLEYj^,;"
'^

(mg

LiWeBayFNR

'

St Martin NRy'i<!K
'^

St Martin

(GUADELOUPE)

>

Antigua
Fftyes

DaricwwdPRes-

IB-OO'

.a...
St.

Bay PRes~"

;.

'.& St Barthilemy NR

Cades Bay
6

Graen Island

1^

^i'V
_r^

""

"sa'sPRes

.^-\^::^r}^^
'

^ :.:.;.

3^^i^#^;
M

Maarten

(NETH. ANTILLBS)

. *^'

j*

-^h^^Maon
SayNP

Nelson's OockyarrI

IB'Off

NP

Km
61 'S?

St Barth6

6r44'

(GUADELOUPE)

Saba

Leeward

ANTILLES)
St.

trSff

Saba
Bank

Eustadus

(NETH. ANTILLES)
St.

Eustatius

rN

Codrington*

'^

Barbuda

Islands

^ Palaster Reef MNP

MP

^r3Cf

ANTIGUA

AND
BARBUDA

ST.Knrs

AND NEVIS
BASSETEI
Southeast
Peninsula NP

'

Antigua

\TOff

iiroff

Redonda L

MONTSERRAT (UK)
PLYMOUTH

CARIBBEAN SEA
W3a

Fox's

Bay

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Bird

Sanctuary PrivR

i63(y

MAP6d
62

60
erro'

eo'57'

Cas-en-Bas

Rodney Bay
Artificial

Pricheur/Gd
RM6m LICA

MARTINIQUE

MR

Reefs

MangmvesMR

^i^^K-^^/i-^vr^"'^'^""^

Choc Bay -..

Mangroves MR

14'30'

.-.

tsperance
Harbour

~"

Caravella LICA

\ CaravelteNR

Artificial

Reef MR

'

Marquis

..

LUCIA

ST.
MarlgotBay
Mangroves MR

Grand Anse
Beach and
Mangrove MR

Coction

Ansa Galet'Anse
Cochon Reefs MR

artificial

reef

MR

MangTOves

Anse

MR

Louvet

n&QTS Mr\

RNaP^l

Martinique

Village

de

la

Polerle RS,

'^.'Ht

'*f-

Village el

-Ll^^^'''

da Pitons

MscaiwiMi

Moma.--t*- rjr-T^--:-"-- lUCAr-Ttt?

I _ v-J^i^^jA^^j^^
v i^

Anse

Champagne RS

Mome Larcher UCA

Zone des Caps RS^-'

Bate des Anglais

lletsde

Petrifications

:'

La Paz Island

WR

St.

KINGSTOWN

VINCENT
AND THE
GRENADINES

13

Young

Island

West Cay WR
Big Cay WR
Island

WR

de Quatre

km

Artificial

Reef MR

WR /

Barbados

WR

NR

BARBADOS
Barbados

MR

^.
^'
1

Milligan

Cay

WR

BRIDGETOWN'

Northern endofBequia

..

''^

13'

WR

WR
All Awash Island WR
Battowia Island

Pigeon (Ramier)'
Isle

MR

Islands

Moute-i-Chique

"

Vincent

t,

WR^

Islet

Mana

,\ii

Mathurin

to

Point Reefs

Chateaubelair

Anse Pointe

Sable-Man Kote
Mangroves MR

MR

Caesar Point

RS

ST.

Savannas Bay
Mangrove Area MR

Matgrttoute
13M2'

'"'

SalntaAnnaNR

Savane des

MR

Point

L'lvrqgne

Reef MR
Reef at

">^

RS

Mangroves
Reef Between
Grand Callle
and Rachette

MR

14

FondD'Or
Beach MR

Pra^in

SoufrleneMR

Grand 3!^'

14-30'

'

MR

Reef MR

'

,1

Mangroves

AnseMamin

Ansa Chaslanet

WR

Sevan Islands WR
Canouan WR

Petit

8'

Sail

CARIBBEAN SEA

Rock

WR

SL Vincent
Grenadines

Windward
I

a n d s

HmBcsboe

i.

Catholic

Rocks

Mayero

GRENADA
ST.

12

GEORGE'S

Oi
> Sk

f^^

Tobago

CaysWR

k
,,
Union J

ttcef

\ ^J ^

WRXi^

Toba
Tobago
Cays

Or
World's

End

>;... _
Pnjne (Palm)
Island

Frigate

WR

Petit SI. Vincent

WR..
_

%
iO'42"

St Giles Island GS,

Reef

Rock

^.
"^a
^

WR

Petit

SL Vincent

Petit

eo'do*

Martinique

(GRENADA)

-\

Grenada
Buccoo

TOBAGO

ReetNR

\i

Ll

Grenadines

UtUe Tobago

GS

12*25'

f
5

WAS

60*36'

:60'*2'

Peninsula de Paria

15

10

61 "SO'

60"30'

Sautd'EauGSt

NP

...j(

CARIBBEAN SEA

Chaguaramis ETC
Cronstadt Island

^,

GS

Caroni

Swamp

-..Nariva

ProhA

62"--

GS

Swamp ProhA

-cBush Bush GS

TRINIDAD

Gulf of Paria

Solado Rock

Reserve FoR

GS
^

Southern Watershed

61 25'

. PORTOF-SPAIN

>Caroni Swamp

_yENEZUELA
;la

km

Mome I'Enfer WS

9 km
6V20'

12'

Eastern Caribbean and Atlantic

Antigua and Barbuda

Antigua and Barbuda, together with the tmy uninhabited
island of Redonda, are an independent Caribbean nation.

Coral reefs are relatively widespread

Antigua has some fringing

in the coastal waters.

reefs, but also

more

extensive,

though intermittent, bank barrier reef structures offshore.

Barbuda has extensive fringing

reefs, particularly

along

its

eastern coastline, topped by a well developed algal ridge.

The

reefs, particularly in nearshore areas, are reported to

have been degraded

in recent years,

possibly due to in-

creasing sedimentation and nutrient enrichment associated

with coastal development. Offshore reefs and those to the

north of Barbuda generally have higher coral cover and

Hurricanes Luis and Marilyn caused

species richness.

damage when they

further

struck the islands in 1995.

Netherlands Antilles
(Windward Group)

A number of islands

region

in the

make up

the

dependency

of the Netherlands Antilles. These include two islands close

to

Venezuela (Bonaire and Curasao) and the islands of

Saba.

St.

Eustatius and the southern half of

northern part of

Maarten

St.

French Antilles). Saba and

with steep

cliffs

and

little

St.

(St.

Martin)

is

Maarten
a part

structural reef development, but

St.

Eustatius Marine

1998 to protect four areas,

in

Offshore from Saba, there are again extensive coral

(the

of the

Eustatius are both volcanoes,

important coral communities. The

Park was established

St.

communities

All benthic

some

user fee

rapidly,

from

000

Visitor

costs.
in

1997 to 8

300

numbers

are

growing

sales
for

in 1999.

Anguilla

000

The precipitous

areas.

in the

to a depth

very

are minimal.

of 60 meters

1997. and the park

1998) together with souvenir

in

and yacht fees generated the majority of the income

management of the

park.

Ant igua and

Neth erlands

St. Kitts

Barbuda

A ntilles*

and Nevis

General Data
Population Ithousands)

12

66

210

39

GDPImiUion US$1

64

450

1813

171

Land area Ikm^l

86

462

810

275

Marine area (thousand km^l

90

110

79

10

consumption

na

37

22

37

100

100

100

100

Per capita

fish

Ikg/yearl

Status and Threats

Reefs

at risk 1%)

Recorded coral diseases

10

Biodiversity

Reef area (km^l

Coral diversity

WL

<50

240

420

180

na/57

na/57

40/57

na/57
>0.71

13

11

No, of mangrove species

na

na

No. of seagrass species

na

na

na

Mangrove area (km^l

Including Bonaire and Curacao

Small gobies Gobiosoma

sp.

in

Saba Marine Park. There were

visitors to the island in

(US$3 per dive

coastline

this is a

human impacts

communities down

Saba are protected

including coral reefs and wrecks along the coast. Visitors to

management

many

development and, although

popular diving destination,

the park are required to pay a small user fee which helps to
offset

in

limits coastal

on a boulder star coral Montastrea annularis.

na
na

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

About

7 kilometers

west of Saba

platform, the Saba Bank, which

may be

Although only recently studied

coral cover in places, and

is

is

a large shallow

submerged

atoll.

appears to have high

it

St.

growth and

reefs of the south

Barthelemy

Earths) and

(St.

calcareous.

dramatic expansion of tourism. The

and west coasts are seriously threatened

by sewage pollution and

St.

Maarten has shown rapid

coastal development in recent years, paralleling fast population

administers the island of

the northern half of St. Martin (see above). Basse Terre

is

of

entire island

proper, together with the nearby

des Saintes and Marie-Galante. The territory also

lies

important for lobster and

snapper fisheries.

The

make up Guadeloupe

siltation.

while there

recreational boating and anchor damage.

To

is

also

date,

much

no pro-

high and volcanic, while Grande Terre

communities but no major reef

structures.

and

flat

is

The western coast of Basse Terre has

coral

There are some

fringing and bank barrier reef structures, particularly on

Grande

the southern coastline of

and eastern coast of

ridges.

The

this island

Terre, while the northern

have well developed algal

best developed reefs are in the

Grand Cul-de-

Sac Marin, a shallow embayment fringed with extensive

tected areas have been created.

mangrove areas and dominated by seagrasses. There

several patch reefs within this bay, while

St. Kitts

and Nevis

bounded by

its

are

outer edge

is

and groove formations

a barrier reef with spur

This small independent state consists of two volcanic

and a reef slope with coral growth down

islands with steep mountainous slopes. There are fringing

meters. Discontinuous fringing reefs are found in a few

reefs along

much of the

submerged reef

mation about these

and a number of deeper

coastline,

structures.
reefs.

There

Tourism

is little

is

published infor-

an important industry

and there are now a number of dive operators.

parts of the other islands, notably on the southern shores of

Marie-Galante.

in

at

Barthelemy and

UK

is

forest cover. Since

Martin have limited

is

an important activity

with a further

000

in

Guadeloupe, and

also thought to be fishing regularly.

These have a considerable impact on the nearshore

1995 however, the Soufriere Hills volcano has been active

communities,

most of which are considered

overexploited.

The annual catch was about

Small scattered reefs and coral communities were

originally described along

seems

likely that they

much of

the coastline, but

it

have been severely impacted by the

massive inputs of sediment, and possibly chemical

influences, associated with volcanic activity.
island's

people have

Plymouth was

itself

Most of

now been evacuated and

the

the capital

in

000 professional fishermen,

almost continuously, with major pyroclastic flows into the

sea.

in

September when water temperatures reach 29C.

1998 there were more than

This small island - an overseas territory of the

St.

Mass bleaching was reported

Guadeloupe, but some bleaching occurs every year

Fishing

mountainous and includes considerable

St.

coral reef development.

1998

Montserrat

depth of 55

to a

from these islands

the islands,

is

in

to

be

500 tons

2000. Tourism, a major activity for

further driving the problems caused by

coastal development and pollution. Diving

activity.

The Pigeon

are a popular dive

Islets (to the

site,

but there

is

a popular

west of Grande Terre)

is

evidence of damage

being caused by an estimated 80 000 divers per year.

destroyed in 1997.

Donninica

Guadeloupe and dependencies

Guadeloupe

is

an overseas territory of France, consisting

of the twin islands of Grande Terre and Basse Terre which

Left:

The Grand Cul-de-Sac Marin

communities ISTS092-316-U.

sponges

in

the

in

is

an independent

state.

There

is

only limited reef deve-

lopment on the narrow coastal shelves, although there

Guadeloupe has important mangrove, seagrass and patch and barrier reef

20001. Right:

Saba Marine Park.

Dominica, a high volcanic island with steep topography,

A school

of yellow goatfish MuUoidichthys martmicus,

among

corals

and

Eastern Caribbean and Atlantic

although south of Presqu'ile de

la

Caravelle a barrier reef

continues along the shore for about 25 kilometers. The

lagoon behind this reef is up to 30 meters deep

and

in places

there are extensive seagrass communities. Fringing reefs

have developed along the coast behind the barrier reef

Algae, including Sargassum, Turbinaria and Dictyota. have
proliferated on the reefs of Martinique since the
die-off.

from the

Eutrophication

may be combining

city

Diadema

of Fort-de-France

with the lack of grazing organisms in

maintaining this situation. Overfishing

about 900 registered fishers in

is

a problem, with

1997, but

many

others

000 wire-mesh

operating. There were an estimated 50

fish

traps around the island in 2000.

several

are

important

communities, particularly

coral

of whale and dolphin are found

Dominica, which

is

fast

the

in

waters around

Lucia

St.

on the south, west and northwest coasts. Several species

Lucia

St.

is

another high volcanic island. Coral reefs are

positioning itself as the leading

generally poorly developed, often only forming a thin

The small

veneer over the underlying volcanic substrates. The best

whale-watching destination

in

region.

the

mean that
impacted by human

south and east, although the

population and minimal coastal development

developed reefs are

the corals have not been severely

best studied and most heavily utilized coral

activities,

and Dominica has been spared from a direct

communities

occur along the west coast. Certain reefs around Soufriere

showed up

hurricane since Hurricane David in 1979.

in the

to

50 percent

live coral cover, but these sites

were strongly impacted by Hurricane Lenny

Martinique
Martinique, like Guadeloupe,

is

France. Reefs are absent on the leeward northern, northwest

is

narrow and there

is

high sediment load from the erosion of Mount Pelee. There

however, some coral communities along this coastline.

are,

1999,
coast.

Fishing

an overseas territory of

and west coasts, because the shelf

in

which brought strong wave action on the leeward

Similarly, there are

no true reefs along the northeast coast.

IV

fll

is

is

around the island

Concerted efforts

problem.

have recently been undertaken to manage the nearshore

fisheries,

and

in the

Soufriere Marine

number of no-take

reserves

Management Area

have been established,

shown

interspersed with other use zones. Studies have

huge increases

Guadeloupe*

Montserrat

a very important activity

and overexploitation

in

fish

biomass

Dominica

in

the reserves,

while

Martinique

General Data
Population (thousands)

GDP

(million

US$1

Land area (km^l

fish

426

72

2 085

191

consumption

415^
65^1

735

732

101^1

90

29

4^H

na

28

35

na

100

100

105

Marine area (thousand km^l

Per capita

40

(kg/year)

2^
fl

Status and Threats

Reefs at risk (%)

Recorded coral diseases

locH

Biodiversity
J

250

<100

na

na/57

na/57

>0.02

40

na

na

na

^
'm
naS

na

na

na

na

Reef area (km?)

1.

Coral diversity

Mangrove area (km?)

No. of mangrove species

No. of seagrass species

na

240

34/57fl

Including St. Martin and St. Barthel.emy

A view

of

Simpson Bay Lagoon, from

development on

this island.

f/ie

French

St.

Martin

to f/ie Dutcli St.

Maarten, showing the significant coastal

163

164

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

fishermen have reported significant increases

Vincent

St.

shown a

north.

of fish biomass in the marine reserves,

tripling

while fishermen have reported significant increases in

from adjacent

their catches

in the islands,
sites in the

and diving

is

areas.

Tourism

best

is

now

example

a relatively

young volcanic

island.

To the

Soufriere most recently erupted in 1979.

young

new

together with

coastline,

The

volcanic

sediments, have prevented the development of extensive

also popular

reefs.

There are no reef developments around the north

and east coasts, and only

few coral communities are

management

found on rocky headlands along the west coast. Small

self-financing. This provides perhaps the

areas of fringing reefs occur on the south and southeast

the

in

multiple uses with

full

community

on the same

that the

of reef management

region

marine management area

further north

is

Mount

relatively

marine management area. Fees from divers,

and anchor fees from yachts, mean

authority

is

increasingly focussed towards

Vincent and the Grenadines

St.

their

in

catches from adjacent fishing priority areas. Studies have

is

participation.

coasts.

for

A new

now under development

IH^^^^^HP

^^^^^m^
^B

St.

Lucia

St.

the

main island

is

the chain of

where there are considerable areas of reef

Large bank barrier reef complexes have developed on the

"

coast.

Running south from

the Grenadines,

windward

side of

some

islands.

Among the best developed

^^^
Grenada

Barbados

Vincent
and the

Grenadines

General Data
Population (thousands)

156

115

GDPImiUionUS$)

i78

237

Land area Ikm^l

27A

89

768

223

605

390

AAO

367

Marine area (thousand km^l

15

38

186

25

Per capita

22

20

40

28

100

96

100

100

fish

consumption

(kg/yearl

Status and Threats

Reefs at risk (%l

Recorded coral diseases

Biodiversity

160

UO

<100

150

na/57

na/57

33/57

na/57

>0./15

>0.07

na

na

na

na

Reef area (km^l

Coral diversity

Mangrove area

(knn^l

No. of mangrove species

No. of seagrass species

Left:

A banded

Barbados

butterftyfish

t)ave declined

ISTS05 1-72-95.

19931.

na

^^

Chaetodon striatus amidst gorgonians and

over

many decades

although there are

still

soft corals. Right: Fringing reefs

submerged

reefs off the west

around

and southeast coasts

Eastern Caribbean and Atlantic

reefs are those around the small islands of the

Tobago

in

coral cover and diversity have been reported on offshore

Cays. Each island has a fringing reef, the larger Horseshoe

reefs

Reef encircles them

urbanization and tourism developments.

the larger World's

to the east, while

End Reef The

beyond

this there

reefs of St. Vincent,

is

since

the

1980s,

linked

to

from

eutrophication

and

particularly the Grenadines, support important fishing and

Grenada

tourism, while large numbers of yachts visit these waters.

The Tobago Cays

are particularly

important, but their

Grenada

is

the most southerly of the Lesser Antilles,

and

of storm

the country also governs the southernmost islands of the

damage, white band disease, physical damage from fishing

Grenadines. There are some fringing and patch reefs

gear and boat anchors, and pollution from visiting yachts.

around

condition

has deteriorated recently because

all

the coasts of

Grenada

itself,

although the total

^^^^^1
Barbados
Barbados

is,

in

many ways, an anomaly.

main Lesser Antilles chain

It

lies east

is

a small fringing

on the leeward west coast. There

are also sub-surface reefs along this coast,

where a gently

sloping shelf extends about 300 meters seaward to a depth

of 10 meters. At the edge of the shelf, the sea floor drops

evenly to a depth of about 20 meters. Seaward from this
there are further

submerged patch reef structures, together

with two larger bank barrier reefs, 12-20 meters deep and

up
are

to

Trinidad an d Tobago

^^^1

of the

Ocean. Fringing

in the Atlantic

reefs are largely absent, although there

structure near Folkestone

P^f

General Data
Population (thousands)

176

GDP

499

ImiUion US$1

Land area (km^l

Marine area Ithousand km^
Per capita

fish

5 152

lU

consumption Ikg/yearl

Status and Threats

Reefs at risk (%l

100

Recorded coral diseases

100 meters wide. Offshore, submerged bank barriers

also

Atlantic,

found off the southeast coast. The eastern,

coast

is

subject to

throughout the year, and

very high wave energies

much of

this

coastline

is

Biodiversity

<100

Reef area Ikm^j

Coral diversity

na/57

>^^M

bare carbonate platform extending out to deep water.

Mangrove area (km^l

Nearshore reefs

No. of nnangrove species

No. of seagrass species

Reef

flat

in

Barbados have suffered considerably.

corals disappeared over 100 years ago with the

intensification of agriculture, while considerable declines

French grunts Haemulon flavolineatum against a

Caribbean such scenes are

now rare

thiriving

colony of Acropora cervicornis. Over wide areas of

as a result of overfishing and coral disease.

thie

16S

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

of reef

area

Carriacou

not

is

and

great.

Off the eastern coasts of

Martinique relatively large bank

Petit

to

south and discharges huge volumes of sediment

into the sea, creating turbid conditions

which predominate

of the shallow reefs

along the south and east coastlines of the island. The

have become overgrown with algae

western coastline faces the Gulf of Paria which, along

barrier reefs have been formed.

were reported

lies to the

Many

during the 1980s, probably linked to the

Diadema

die-off,

with

high

levels

of sediments,

near

has

estuarine

but possibly exacerbated by sewage and agrochemical

conditions arising from the high freshwater inputs and

pollution and increased sedimentation.

semi-enclosed nature of this gulf There are small, low

diversity coral

Tobago

Trinidad and Tobago

lies

communities

places on the north shore.

in

close to the edge of the continental shelf, and

here reef development

is

much

better,

with a number of

lie

fringing reefs, particularly on the north shore and in the

well south of the chain of the Lesser Antilles, on the

southwest. Tobago has a considerable tourism industry,

The

large island of Trinidad and the nearby

Tobago

continental shelf of South America.

Reef development

and the impacts of tourism have undoubtedly led

around Trinidad

The Orinoco River

degradation of some coastal reefs.

is

severely restricted.

to the

Protected areas with coral reefs

Site

L^

name

Designation

Abbreviation

lUCN

cat.

Size

ikmi|

Year

Anguilla

FNR

na

na

na

Marine Park

MP

na

na

na

Marine Park

MP

na

na

na

Marine Park

MP

na

na

na

Green Island Reefs

Park Reserve

PRes

IV

na

na

Northeast Archipelago

Park Reserve

PRes

IV

na

na

Palaster Reef

Marine National Park

MNP

II

5.00

1973

Marine National Park

20.00

1973

na

1999

Little

Fish Nursery Reserve

Bay

Sandy Island
Seal Island and
Prickly Pear

Cay East

Shoal Bay

Antigua and Barbuda

MNP

II

Marine Reserve

MR

ETC

Marine Reserve

MR

II

2.30

1980

National Park

NP

II

5.31

1986

Marine Reserve

MR

na

na

Grand Cul-de-Sac Marin

Nature Reserve

NR

IV

37.36

1987

Petite-Terre

Nature Reserve

NR

IV

9.90

1998
1996

Salt Fish Tail Reef

(Diamond Reetl

Cades Bay

Barbados
Barbados
Dominica
Cabrits

Soufriere/Scotfs Head

Guadeloupe

St.

Barthelemy

Nature Reserve

NR

IV

12.00

St.

Martin

Nature Reserve

NR

IV

30.60

1998

Ramsar Site

200.00

1993

UNESCO

697.00

1992

Grand Cul-de-Sac Marin

DE la Guadeloupe

Archipel de la Guadeloupe

Biosphere Reserve

Eastern Caribbean and Atlantic

Protected areas with coral reefs

[site

namc^^^^^^^^^^^fc

Designation

Abbreviation

lUCN

cat.

Sizeiiim'i

Year

Martinique
Caravelle

Littoral

Conservation Area

LtCA

IV

2.57

1988

Caravelle

Nature Reserve

NR

IV

4.22

1976

Grand Macabou

Littoral

Conservation Area

LtCA

Unassigned

1.13

1982

Pointe Rouge

Littoral

Conservation Area

LtCA

Unassigned

0.54

1985

Marine Park

MP

na

na

1998

Marine Park

MP

na

8.20

1987

National Park

NP

Marine Reserve

MR

IV

na

1990

Netherlands Antilles (Windward)

Eustatius

St.

Saba
St. Kitts

and Nevis

Southeast Peninsula

26.10

St. Lucia

Anse Chastanet Reefs

Marine Reserve

MR

IV

na

1990

Anse Galet - Anse Cocfion Reefs

Marine Reserve

MR

IV

na

1990

Anse L'lvrogne Reef

Marine Reserve

MR

IV

na

1986

Anse Mamin Reef

Marine Reserve

MR

IV

na

1986

Anse Pointe Sable Man Kote Mangroves

Marine Reserve

MR

IV

na

1986

Caesar Point - Mathurin Point Reefs

Marine Reserve

MR

IV

na

1990

Maria Islands

Nature Reserve

NR

IV

0.12

1982

Marine Reserve

MR

IV

na

1990

Other Area

ETC

III

0.20

1978

Marine Reserve

MR

IV

na

1986

Marine Reserve

MR

IV

na

1986

IV

na

1986

1986

Anse Cochon

Artificial

Reef

Artificial

Reef

Pigeon Island
Pitons

Reef at Malgretoute
jute
Reef between Grand
and Rachette Point

Caille

Marine Reserve

MR

Rodney Bay

Reefs

Marine Reserve

MR

IV

na

Marine Reserve

MR

na

na

na

Marine Reserve

MR

IV

na

1990

WR
WR
WR
WR
WR

IV

na

1987

IV

na

1987

IV

na

1987

IV

38.85

1987

IV

na

1987

Artificial

Soufriere
Vigie
St.

Beach

Artificial

Reef

Vincent

Frigate
Isle

Rock

de Quatre

Wildlife

Reserve

Wildlife

Reserve

Prune (Palm] Island

Wildlife

Reserve

Tobago Cays

Wildlife

Reserve

West Cay

Wildlife

Reserve

Trinidad and Tobago

Buccoo Reef
Little

Tobago

Nature Reserve

NR

la

6.50

1973

Game

GS

IV

1.01

1928

Sanctuary

167

168

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Venezuela and Aruba,

Bonaire and Curacao

V6n6ZU6l3
north-facing

a large country with a long,

is

coastline delimiting the southeastern

edge of the Caribbean Sea. In the east

line

is

this coast-

dominated by the vast delta of the Orinoco River,

which carries considerable quantities of freshwater

into

the Western Atlantic, just south of the island of Trinidad.

Further west, the coastline generally has higher

there are
is

numerous smaller

rivers.

relief,

and

Coral reef development

thus highly limited by freshwater and sediment runoff,

and nearshore coral reefs are scarce. Small reef systems

exist at

Morrocoy and

coral

Between these two locations

communities

in

Mochima.

there are a few other small

MAP6e

Montaslrea cavernosa, M. annularis and several species

of

soft coral (Pseiidoplerogorgia spp.,

Eunicea

spp.). Further reefs are located

coastline around the

diversity

is

Mochima

Plexaura spp. and

on the continental

National Park, although

lower here, with only about 25 scleractinian

coral species recorded.

1996 there was mass coral mortality

In January

Morrocoy, which

left less

All corals except Porites poriles. Sideraslrea siderea

Millepora alcicornis
killed.

In

addition

recorded amongst

at the

to
fish,

main monitoring

corals,

station

mass mortalities were

derms and sponges. The ultimate cause of

Bay and Cienaga de Ocumare Bay. The

remains unclear. The more protected

Nacional Morrocoy occur along the seaward margins of

small cays

at the

mouth of the Golfete de Guare (Borracho

and Cayo Sombrero) and

This

wave

is

to the south

of Punta Tucacas.

a generally low energy area with

activity,

and hurricanes are very

moderate
rare.

to

low

Mangroves,

mainly Rhizophora mangle, grow on the leeward side of

these islands, which are separated from the mainland by

extensive seagrass beds.

The reef platforms

imately 50 meters wide and typically slope

are approx-

down

to a

depth of 12 meters. Until recently, they were dominated by

The reefs of Los Roques

in

coral cays and

and

were

crustaceans, molluscs, echino-

reef developments, for example in San Esteban, Turiamo

reefs in the Parque

at

than 5 percent live coral cover

this

event

reefs, in the lee

away from open water, appeared

to

of

show

greater levels of survival. Given the proximity of these

reefs to an oil refinery, petrochemical plant

other industries,

it

and various

has been suggested that an unreported

anthropogenic impact such as a chemical

spill

may have

been responsible.
Venezuela also holds jurisdiction over a number of
offshore islands, most lying in oceanic water

at

some

distance from the continental shelf These include Las

Aves, Los Roques, Isla

la

Orchilla and La Blanquilla,

Venezuela, a large marine protected area where coral cover remains high ISTS077-719-

105, 19961.

MAP6e

170

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

2000, but reaching 60 percent in some

of 5

whole archipelago was declared

park

1972 and

in

parks

localities.

total

hermatypic coral species have been recorded. The

in the

is

Venezuelan national

one of the largest marine national

Caribbean.

Water moves through these offshore islands

in

westerly direction, the current being a branch of the

Caribbean Current. This probably protects the offshore

reefs

from most of the

terrestrial

mainland. The principal threat

particularly

not intensively developed.

is

many of

fishermen

runoff from the

intensive

fishing,

on the fringing reefs of Los Roques. Reef-

based tourism
control

is

The military

the smaller islands and the exclusion of

and tourists may be the most effective

protection for reefs in the country.

More remote from

and extremely remote

these

islet in

is

the Isla de Aves. a small

200

the Caribbean Sea. over

kilometers west of Dominica in the Lesser Antilles, and

about 550 kilometers north of mainland Venezuela. There

is

very

little

information describing the marine com-

munities around this island.

Aruba, Bonaire and Curacao

Politically

Bonaire

and

Curasao

are

part

of

the

Netherlands Antilles, and are sometimes referred to as the

which

a chain parallel to the coast.

lie in

a high species diversity, including

coral reef fish.

Los Roques

islands, including

remains high

species of

an archipelago of 40 small

one rocky island and 39 coral cays

atoll-like formation.

south but nearly

is

These reefs have

some 270

The continental shelf is narrow

in

the

Kingdom of the

still

oceanic islands surrounded by deep water, but Aruba

located on the South

of

is

American continental shelf only 27

^^H

^^^^MH

^1

^^^^^^^^

Aruba

^^^1

General Data
23

GDP

56 0/12

US$1

5/13

916 560

Land area (km^l

522

Marine area (thousand km^l

fish

a part

create markedly different physical regimes between the

Venezuela

(million

forms

Netherlands. Bonaire and Curasao are

kilometers north of Venezuela. The easterly trade winds

Population (thousands)

consumption (kg/year)

20

Population (thousands)

GDP

(million

US$1

Land area (km^l

Marine area (thousand km^l
Per capita

fish

consumption (kg/year)

at risk (%l

Ai.

Recorded coral diseases

na
183
6
9

Reefs at risk (%l

94

Recorded coral diseases

Biodiversity

Biodiversity

480

(knn^l

23/57

Coral diversity

Mangrove area (km^l

500

Reef area (km^l

Coral diversity

Mangrove area (km^l

No. of mangrove species

No. of mangrove species

No. of seagrass species

No. of seagrass species

A coney Cephalopholis

70

Status and Threats

Status and Threats

Reef area

of the Netherlands Antilles. Aruba

averaging 27 percent in 1999/

General Data

Reefs

islands

maintains a separate constitution, but

kilometer wide to the north. Coral cover

at this site,

HP^V
^m^^^^^

Per capita

an

to the

leeward

fulva with

sponges behind.

<50

na/57
4
2

na

--

Eastern Caribbean and Atlantic

Protected areas with coral reefs

Bsite name ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^.Designatiot

Abbreviation

lUCN

Size

cai.

Yean

ikm>i

Netherlands Antilles (Leeward)

Bonaire

Marine

Curacao

Underwater

Klein Bonaire Isund and

adjacent sea

Ramsar

MP

Parl<

1979^

26.00

UP

Parl<

na

Site

10.36

1983

6.00

1980

Venezuela
Archipielago Los Roques

National Parl<

NP

II

211.20

1972

Mochima

National Park

NP

II

949.35

1973

Morrocoy

National Parl<

NP

II

320.90

1974

San Esteban

National Parl<

NP

II

A35.00

1987

Archipielago Los Roques

Ramsar Site

2 132.20

1996

CUARE

Ramsar

99.68

1988

Site

leeward and windward sides of these islands. The reef

and Curasao

profile of Bonaire

is

generally similar: a

development. This pressure

arrived in 1994 (25

000 of

is

70 000

in

offshore, and ending in a drop-off at a depth of 8-12

damage

to the coral

meters which slopes steeply to 50-60 meters. There

3 percent of colonies affected.

at

80-100 meters ending

growth occurs across

Prolific coral

sandy

in a

this terrace

is

increasing: 57

whom

submarine terrace extending between 50 and 100 meters

second drop-off

by divers remains low, with

plain.

and on

feature of the Bonaire reef slope, especially along the

northwestern shore. Along the eastern windward shore

is little

in depth.

coral growth in any water less than 12 meters

Shallower waters harbor an abundance of crus-

tose coralline algae and dense

though

Sargassum platycarpum

grow down

in places these also

to a depth

meters. Being located on the continental shelf

of 40

Aruba does

not have sharply sloping underwater relief

Coral cover

at

depths of 10-20 meters

at

four sites on

Curagao and Bonaire decreased from 50-55 percent

to

25-30 percent between 1973 and 1992, but was mostly

unchanged
as

at a

30-40 meter depth. Bonaire

is

widely cited

one of the regions best examples of a self-financing

marine park. Divers are charged a fee of

to dive

on the

reefs, contributing

US$10

per year

about 60 percent of the

running costs of the park, with a significant proportion of

the remainder being generated from the sale of souvenirs.

Studies have

shown

that the user fee is seen as a positive

thing by the majority of visitors, raising awareness of

conservation issues while giving them

participation

or ownership.

cover around this

island

wide declines, perhaps

is

The

some sense of

deterioration

linked to the

in

coral

Caribbean-

slightly exacerbated by tourism

The waters around Bonaire are one of the best known marine parks

in ttie

visitors
to

1999. Despite this pressure, direct physical

the shallower slope. Conspicuous spur and grooves are a

there

000

were divers), rising

Caribbean ISTS075-706-4I.

19961.

less than

MAP6f
42

38

34

30

Sao Pedro e
Sao Paulo

Parcel Manoel Luis SMP

and Parque Estadual Mannho
/ do Parcel Manoel Luis

Ramsar

Site

ATLANTIC OCEAN
Manoel Luis Reefs

Reentrancias

Maranhenses

Ramsar Site
Lengdis Maranhenses

^; >*i^t/a-

NP
Jericoacoara

EPA

Pamaiba

Rosdrio

SEP

Lagoa da Maraponga

,.Atol

das Rocas BIR

Recife Joad Dias

Rio Coed

SEP

Recife do Tubarao

Balbino

MuEPA

* Aiacati

'^^J,

Tereslna

-_

'

Recife Minhoto

Recife Conceicao

'

Manguezals da Foz do

Natal

Rio
Igautu

Mamanguape AOEI

Rio Itapessoca

Vmbd SEPA
Cniz SEPA
Rio

Canal de Santa

Fernando de
Noronha MNP

SEPA
Megao SEPA

Rios Goiana e

...,

Rio Paratibe

SEPA<

Rio Capibanbe

'

"

Rio Beberibe

SEPA

Rio Fomtoso

SEPA

^ Recife

SEPA

RIos Serinha^m e

Maracaipe

;;

SEPA

rt:::

Rio

Juazeiro

Cam Quebrado SEPA*'^

SalUnhoBiR

Manguezals
da Lagoa do
Roteim SER

'Rio Una SEPA

BRAZIL
Rios Jaboatao e Pirapama

Plagabugu EPA'

SEPA

Santa RJta
'

Saco da Pedra

SEPA

SER

ES

Foz do Sao Francisco

Santa Isabel BIR

39*00'

arso'

**

38*30'

Recifes da Coroa Alta

13

* Recifes da Ponta
da Coroa Vennellia

* Eunapoljs

"^ Porto Seguro

16'30'

'i

* Itabela

Recifes Sofia

Recifes de Pitiacu

^ Recifes Itacolomis
* ttamaraju

'Prado
17

S/^

\*|^Timbebas

Abrolhos

MNP

\mi
' Recifes de Guaiatibas
I

Akscfttacaji

Reci&s das ^hocli

:.4
I^^V Paicel das
^^^Paredes

Sebas^^ttOomes
Coroa Venneiha

10

20

San Baibaia
Santa

j"^ {^,?eBxi dos

^.'
Siiiba
''t* Abrolbos
Sueste-"'

'

Vigosa

Redonda

30

km

Recife California -

21*
34

30

Eastern Caribbean and Atlantic

West Africa

Brazil and

MAP6f

of both Brazil and West Africa are

having a low species diversity yet a high degree of

separated from the Caribbean reefs by vast barriers

endemism. Just 19 species of reef-building coral are

inimical to reef growth. For the Brazilian reefs these

recognized, of which at least six (including

waters

The

barriers include the

huge

mouths of

river

the

Amazon and

all

three

species of the genus Mussismilia). and possibly as

many

nowhere

Another interesting feature

Orinoco, as well as the intervening sediment-rich coastline

as ten, are found

of the Guyanas. The coastlines of West Africa (and the

of Brazilian coral communities

intervening Atlantic

islands)

are

from the

separated

Caribbean center of diversity by large expanses of open

ocean. For these reasons there
larval recruits

Africa.

Hence

is

virtually

from the Caribbean either

no supply of

to Brazil or

West

the coral reef organisms found in these two

else.

is

there

are

no

elsewhere in the world.

The westernmost reef systems,

proximity to

in closest

Manoel Luis

the Caribbean, are the recently described

Reefs, lying relatively close to the

These reefs are some 10 kilometers

areas are ecologically isolated.

that

acroporid corals, which are the major shallow water corals

Amazon

river

in length

mouth.

and consist

of numerous pinnacles rising from a depth of 25-30 meters

up to the surface waters. Some 16 hermatypic corals have

Brazil
Coral reef growth in Brazil

limited to the northeast and

poorly known, but their location, as the

still

closest reefs to the Caribbean,

may be

dominated by areas of massive riverine input, with

movements of species between

these regions.

Most of

freshwater and sediments dominating the continental shelf

over wide areas to the east of the Amazon. This coastline

is

reefs are

the northern coastline of Brazil

eastern shores.
is

is

been recorded, including 12 scleractinian species. These

also swept

by the west and northward flow of the

northern arm of the South Equatorial Current, and these

factors
result

Left:

combine
of

to isolate Brazil

from the Caribbean.

this is that Brazil's coral

Mussismilia

harttii,

fauna

is

notable for

one of several species endemic

Atlantic species, found in the Caribbean, Brazil

JEN

Veronl.

and West

There are
Brazil.

few oceanic islands

important for any

to the northeast

structures, but not true reefs,

on the islands of Fernando

de Noronha. The nearby Atol das Rocas

some

of

form dense

Coral communities of 12 species

a true atoll

is

3.7 kilometers across, encircling a shallow lagoon.

The carbonate

to Brazil (photo:

JEN

Africa. In Brazil

it

deposits,

Veronl. Right:

typically

forms

which are some

Madracis decactis
tall

grey columns

10 meters

;s

a truly

Iphoto:

173

174

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Narrow

formed by pinnacles oi Siderastrea

reefs,

stellata

and Millepora alcicornis, are found along the coast

north of Natal. Further south there are
to the coast.

many

to the

reefs parallel

These are characterized by an emergent reef

two species of coral (Favia gravida and

crest with only

Siderastrea stellata) and an algal ridge of Melobesiacea

and Dendropoma spp. There are typically three zones on

dominated respectively by Millepora

the seaward slope

alcicornis, Mussismilia harttii and, at depth, Montastrea

cavernosa. Gorgonian corals are particularly abundant

on these

reefs.

In the State

of Bahia, the continental shelf widens

considerably, extending from 5 to 65 kilometers offshore,

and reaching 200 kilometers

Abrolhos Archipelago. This

in the far south

is

around the

the largest and richest area

of coral reefs in the South Atlantic. Sixteen species of

stony

coral

20 percent

are

recorded,

some

in

and coral cover approaches

areas of shallow reef Reefs include

fringing reefs and offshore banks.

is

the development of

A common growth form

mushroom shaped

pinnacles called

chapeiroes, highly characteristic of Brazilian reefs.

15

km
are

are

thick,

deposits.

predominantly the result of coralline algal

Only eight coral species have been recorded of

which Siderastrea
1

slellala is

dominant

000 kilometers northeast of

Paulo

is a

in all areas.

Brazil,

group of some 15 rocks and

Nearly

Sao Pedro e Sao

islets.

They

lie in

the westward flowing South Equatorial Current and hence

there

is little

or no migration of coral larvae to these rocks.

Only two species of hermatypic coral (Scolymia

wellsi

and

The

eastern continental shelf of Brazil

^^^^B

il

is

in

of irregular

most places.

"m

General Data

GDP

(million

8 507 Q80

Marine area (thousand km^l

fish

172 860

503 484

US$)

Land area (km^j

Per capita

vertically to a height of

in

diameter,

between

3 661

consumption (kg/year)

and 25 meters. The

tops of chapeiroes close to shore frequently fuse together

with open spaces beneath the coalesced surface. Channels

between individual chapeiroes sometimes

fill

up with

sediment. The tops of some of these inshore reefs are often

completely exposed

at

low

Further out to sea the

tides.

chapeiroes do not fuse together and the reefs consist of

very large individual chapeiroes

water about 15-20

in

most extensive

reefs,

and also includes some small islands

and sand cays, with some areas of mangrove. Coral

bleaching was reported from northern Bahia and the

Abrolhos reefs

Many of

in 1998, but levels

of mortality were low.

the coastal reefs of Brazil exhibit signs of

degradation, particularly close to

human

settlement.

expansion

in

Reefs at risk (%l

The
the

tourism, increased sedimentation from inland

deforestation for agriculture and rapid coastal development.

The number of

visitors

to

increased fourfold between

the Abrolhos

Marine Park

1988 and 1993. Associated

problems such as anchor damage,

litter,

collection of

84

Recorded coral diseases

West Africa

Biodiversity

True reefs do not occur along the West African coast or the

Reef area [km2|

200

Cape Verde and Gulf of Guinea archipelagos, although

Coral diversity

na/17

mature coral communities are found

Mangrove area (km^l

13 400

In all

No. of mangrove species

No. of seagrass species

some

at

various locations.

15 species of hermatypic

and ahermatypic

corals have been recorded.

drains through several major rivers, principally the Niger,

jBHHEE...

mi--^i^-:;'\

of the islands

is

souvenirs and reef walking are of considerable concern.

Status and Threats

Some

They

and extend

major concern for the coral reefs of Abrolhos

Population Ithousands)
j

meters

meters deep. The Abrolhos Archipelago incorporates the

Madracis decactis) have been recorded.

and limited width (about 50 kilometers)

2-50

typically

The

region's heavy rainfall

and creates a large freshwater input

to the

and reefs of the Abrolhos Archipelago. Additional structures, including the marine

offshore lSTS05i-86-l

19931.

Gulf of Guinea.

parif, lie

further

Eastern Caribbean and Atlantic

Protected areas with coral reefs

Site

name^^^^^^^^^^_

lUCN

Abbreviation

Designation

cat.

Size

Yeai

ikm^i

Brazil

Abrolhos

Marine National Park

Atol das Rocas

Biological Reserve

MNP

II

913.00

1983

BiR

la

362.49

1979

Fernando de Noronha

Marine National Parl<

MNP

II

112.70

1988

Parcel Manoel Luis

State Marine Parl<

SMP

II

452.37

1991

Recite de Fora

State Marine Park

SMP

IV

Parque Estadual Marinho

DO Parcel Manoel Luis

Ramsar

17.00

A52.37

Site

2000

k
This warm, low salinity water
the Grain Coast
feature of the

is

permanent feature of

and the Bight of Biafra. and a seasonal

whole coast from Mauritania

to

Angola.

Outside this region the marine waters are generally

colder, the result

graphic

of currents or upwellings. These oceano-

factors

growth

to

number of

much

combine

to

restrict

shallow protected bays,

significant

outside

coral

which the

species and size of coral colonies rapidly

tinian

coral

(Phyllangia americana,

Tubastrea

Dendroplnilia dilaiala). This type of community

mainly

in

brackish

the

though

islands,

coastal

it

also

sp.
is

and

found

occurs in more

The second community type

waters.

consists of colonies of the monospecifc genus Schizoculina

which

is

endemic

Gulf of Guinea. Various theories

to the

exist as to the evolutionary origin

coral communities.

It

of the West African

has been proposed that they have

decrease. In open water, hermatypic corals are generally

developed either as a result of long distance dispersion

temperature limited to depths shallower than 20 meters

from the Caribbean via Bermuda and the Azores, or from

with some exceptions

Brazil, or even that they could include

Two

in the

offshore archipelagos.

different types of coral

described.

community have been

The more common one comprises Millepoia

some

relict species

from the ancient Mediterranean-Tethys Sea. Very

known about

sub-tidal

little is

benthic communities over wide

alciconiis and three species of Forties, two species of

areas of West Africa, and

Sideraslrea, Favia and Madracis. as well as Monlastrea

important and diverse coral communities in a number of

cavernosa, with three species of ahermatypic sclerac-

areas which are yet to be documented.

The great barracuda, Sphyraena barracuda, can grow

its

Atlantic range.

to

nearly 2 meters

in length.

it

Brazil

is

is

quite possible that there are

the southernmost portion of

176

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Selected bibliography

HAITI,

THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

AND NAVASSA ISLAND

In:

Kjerfve B led).

Reef, Seagrass

CARICOMP

and Mangrove

Sites.

TW et al 119931.

Luczkovich JJ. Wagner

Caribbean Coral

UNESCO, Pans,

France.

Discrimination of coral

seagrass meadows, and sand bottom types from

reefs,

space - a Dominican Republic case-study. Photogrammetric

Engineering and Remote Sensing 59131: 385-389.
UNDP 11995). Creation of Les Arcadins Ivlarine Park and

UNDP

Document.
UNESCO 119971. Coasts of Haiti - Resource Assessment and
Ivlanagement Needs. Results of a Seminar and Related Field
Activities. Coastal Region and Small Island Papers 2.
Fisfieries Project.

Project

UNESCO, Pans, France,

Kimmel
Williams EH Jr. Ctavijo
I,

JJ, Colin PL, Diaz

RH, Garcia JR 119831. A checklist

Boulon

marine plants and

of

south coast of the Dominican Republic. Carib

animals

of the

JSa

39-53.

19:

Carela C.
L.

Sheppard CRC. Matheson

119951. Habitat mapping

Puerto Rico. Coral Reefs

Bythell JC, Bythell

119971.

Outbreak

of coral

in

PJ 119911. Extent and effect of black band disease on

Caribbean

reef.

the Caribbean for

D.

ViUamizar

A.

Penchaszadeh

Parque Nacional Morrocoy, Venezuela.

CARICOMP - Caribbean
UNESCO, Pans,

Sites.

De Meyer K

Myers

Blake B

C.

management and
277-298.

5:

P. Klein

In:

CARICOMP

Mangrove

Sites.

E (19981.

Kjerfve

ledl.

Coral Reef, Seagrass and Mangrove

France.

119981. Bonaire, Netherlands Antilles.

In:

Kjerfve

Caribbean Coral Reef, Seagrass and

UNESCO, Pans,

France.

Leendert PJ, Pors J, Nagelkerken lA 11998). Curacao,

Netherlands Antilles. In: Kjerfve B ledl. CARICOMP Caribbean Coral Reef, Seagrass and Mangrove Sites.
France.
R.

Willemsen

RMW (1991).

and Bonaire coral

P.

Pennartz

R,

Sub-rubble communities
Reefs

reefs. Coral

BRAZIL AND

et al 119931. Initial results of a long-

171-183.

in

10:

Roebers G.
of Curacao

189-197.

16141: 260.

term coral reef monitoring program - impact of Hurricane

Hugo at Buck Island Reef National Monument, St-Croix,
United States Virgin Islands. J Exp fJlar Biol Ecol 172(1-21:

Edmunds

K. Bythell JC. Blair

VENEZUELA AND ARUBA, BONAIRE AND CURACAO

BoneD, Perez

van Soest
disease

Ecol Prog

Ivlar

Conservation: fvtarine and Freshwater Ecosystems

UNESCO, Pans,

Bruckner AW, Bruckner RJ

Barbados.

conservation: use and assessment of aerial photography Aguatic

Meesters EH, Knijn

PUERTO RICO AND THE VIRGIN ISLANDS

in

Serl31:97-113,

ledl,

Bardales AT. Armstrong RA. Bunkley-Williams

marine reserve on the

119961. Effect of a

distribution of coral reef fishes

Geraldes FX 119981. Parque Nacional del Este, Dominican

Republic.

Kramer DL

Rakitin A.

Coral Reefs 10131: 161-165.

Amaral FD

WEST AFRICA

119941. Morphological variation in the reef coral

Montastrea cavernosa

in

Brazil.

Coral Reefs

Amaral FD. Hudson MM, Coura MF

113-117.

13:

Levantamento
preliminar dos corais e hidrocorais do Parque Estadual
Mannho do Parcel do Manuel Luiz IMAl, Resumos do XIII
Simposio de Biologia Marinha. Sao Sebastio, Cebimar-USP. 13.
(19981.

Fong P 119971. Patterns of damage to the branching

coral Acropora patmata following Hurricane Andrew:

Laborel J 119741. West African corals: an hypothesis on their

damage and

Leao ZMAN, Tellas MD, Sforza

Lirman

D,

recruits.

Macintyre

survivorship of hurricane-generated asexual

J Coas( Res
IG,

13111: 67-72.

Raymond

history of a fringing

reef,

Island, Puerto Rico. Atoll

Rogers CS. McLain LN

Stuckenrath R 119831.

B,

Bahia Salina del Sur, Vieques

Res Bull 268:

in St.

Proc 2nd

Hurricane Hugo

John. USVI. f^ar Ecol Prog Ser

78121: 189-199.

Y,

Louis M. Bouchon C (19971. Trends

species distribution

in

in fish

Reef Symp]. 987-992.

Gabrie C (2000). State of Coral Reefs

Departements and

in

French Overseas

Territories. Ministry of Spatial

Environment and State Secretariat

for

Overseas

Planning and
Affairs. Paris.

Humphrey JD

(19971. Geology and hydrogeology of Barbados.

Developments in Sedimentology, 54: Geology and Hydrology of Carbonate Islands.

Elsevier Science BV. Amsterdam, Netherlands.
NowLis JS, Roberts CM. Smith AH, Siirila E 119971. Humanenhanced impacts of a tropical storm on nearshore coral
Vacher HL. Quinn T

of the Colloguium

RKP

RN

Ginsburg

(edj.

of

Proceedings

on Global Aspects of Coral Reefs: Health,

History,

1993.

University of

Miami,

Miami,

Flonda, USA. 255-260,

Leao ZMAN, Ginsburg RN (1997). Living reefs surrounded by

Sazima

sediments: the Abrolhos coastal reefs, Bahia,

Proc 8th

(1

R,

999).

Int

Coral Reef

Symp

2.

1767-1772.

Martins Rodrigues MC. Francini-Filho RB,

Unexpected nchness

of reef

corals near the

Amazon river mouth. Coral Reefs 18: 170.

Maida M, Ferreira BP (1997). Coral reefs of Brazil: an overview.
263-274.
Proc 8th Int Coral Reef Symp
Testa V (1996). Calcareous algae and corals in the inner shelf
of Rio Grande do Norte. NE Brazil. Proc 8th Int Coral Reef
southern

[edsl.

Werner TB,

CM

Ivlar

in

Dutra GF, Pereira PG do P (2000).

coastal

biodiversity

Management

into

the

next

century.

Coastal

2S: 99-108.

Map sources
biomass and value of
two small Caribbean marine

(1993). Greater

coral-reef fishes

reserves.

Pinto LP.

Abrolhos 2000: conserving the Southern Atlantic's richest

reefs. 4mfa/o 26/8: 515-521.

Polunin NVC, Roberts

target

452-443.

Symp: 737-742.

France.

In:

Bulhoes HA, Kikuchi

In:

Leao de Moura

the West Indies. Proc 8th int Coral

Symp

R,

the Abrolhos area, Brazil.

Brazil.

Bouchon-Navaro

Coral Reef

development on the coral reefs

siliciclastics

THE LESSER ANTILLES, TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO

Int

(1994). Impact of tourism

Hazards and

-6.

et al 119911. Effects of

119891 on a coral reef

Recent

origin.

Ecol Prog Ser ^00: 167-176.

Map 6a
For the

Dominican Republic coral reefs are taken from

Hydrographic Office 11970. 1985. 1986. 1990. 19911. Most

of

Eastern Caribbean and Atlantic

this

information

19805, although

derived from data gathered during the

is

some surveys were conducted

For Haiti coral reef data

some

with

(19901*.

UNEP/IUCN

in

added

areas

reef

from

Mapie
For Curacao and Bonaire, coral reefs have been taken from

Hydrographic Office 119701. Eastern Part of Haiti to Puerto Rico

including Mona Passage, British Admiralty Chart No. 3689.

1:6U 000. Taunton, UK.

Hydrographic Office (19851. West Indies Plans on the North
Coast of the Dominican Republic. Punta Mangle to Pointe

Samana and Approaches.

Bahia de

British

UNEP/IUCN

British

Haina.

Admiralty Chart No.

A67.

been taken as arcs from Petroconsultants SA

additional reef areas for Morrocoy, Isla la

reef data have

(19901*, with

some

OrchiUa and La Blanquilla added from

ChartNo.

Map

702. 1:100 000.

Hydrographic Office 11990). West Indies Dominican Republic

and Puerto Rico. Mona Passage. British Admiralty Chart No.
472. 1:200 000, Taunton, UK.
Hydrographic Office (19911. West Indies Dominican Republic -

South Coast. Cabo Caucedo to Isla Alto Velo. British

Admiralty Chart No. 471. \ :200 000. Taunton. UK.

if

approximate scale

of 1:10

and 1:100 000 respectively. For the

are based on

DOS

DOS

British

(1982).

Luis reefs based on sketch

and
in

Leaoet

maps

al

Leao de Moura
1:1

el al 119991

000 000 sketch

map

R. Martins Rodrigues MC. Francini-Filho RB

and Sazima (1999), Unexpected richness of reef corals near
the southern Amazon River mouth. Coral Reefs 18: 170.

Leao de Moura
I

British Virgin Islands reefs

Directorate of

1:63 360.

Islands.

Virgin

following

countries:

Barbados

at

Antilles at

UNEP/IUCN

1:90 000;

Dominica

:300 000; St. Lucia at

1:150 000;

at

Netherlands

1:90 000;

at
:1

(1988a)* for the

Barbuda

Antigua and

50 000 (and below).

For Guadeloupe coral reefs are derived from IGN 11988). For

Martinique coral reefs are derived from Hydrographic Office

11991a. 1991b), which are based on French

Government charts

1988 with later corrections. For Montserrat, coral

to

reefs are derived from Hydrographic Office (19861. For Saba,

were

digitized

from a sketch

map

at

c.

:30

000 prepared

by K Buchan (Park manager. Saba Marine Parkl. For

and Nevis reefs are derived from DOS

1:25 000

DOS maps prepared from

979),

1968

air

which

is

St. Kitts

based on

photography and

surveys to 1972. Additional coral reef data for

taken from Hydrographic Office 11995a). For

St.

St.

Lucia are

Vincent reefs

are taken from Hydrographic Office 11995a. 1995b), which

is

mostly based on admiralty surveys from 1858-89 and 1933-35.

of

for parts of

Leao ZfvlAN. Araujo TMF, Nolasco MC (19881. The coral reefs

off the coast of eastern Brazil. Proc 6th Int Coral Reef Symp:

(19821.

Coral reef data were taken from

DOS

(1988al* at an

000 000

(19881

Maps 6c and 6d

field

in

Abrolhos region based on a

for the

Overseas Surveys, UK.

reefs

1:2

339-347.

US Virgin Islands coral reefs have

been taken from UNEP/IUCN |1988al*. at scales of 1:700 000
For Puerto Rico and for the

198A

UNEP/IUCN

000 000 (and

northeast Brazill. Further detail has been added for the Manoel

Map 6b

of

Il988al.

August 1987. Taunton. UK.

Coral reefs are largely taken from

1:200 000. Taunton, UK.

UNEP/IUCN

Hydrographic Office (19871. Aruba and Curacao. British Admiralty

to

(1988al' at 1:550 000. For Aruba, coral reefs are

taken from Hydrographic Office 119871. For Venezuela, coral

Admiralty Chart No. 463. :200 000. Taunton. UK.

Hydrographic Office (19861. West Indies Dominican Republic.
Bayajibe

Institut

Geographique National. Pans. France.

taken from Petroconsultants SA

is

additional

I1988al*.

Yaquezi and

IGN (19881. Guadeloupe. Carte 510, Editions. 1:100 000.

the 19A0s.

(1979), Saint Christopher

and

Nevis.

:50 000.

Department

Overseas Surveys, London, UK.

Hydrographic Office (1986). Montserrat and Barbuda. British

Admiralty Chart No. 254.

:50 000. July 1986. Taunton.

UK.

Hydrographic Office 11991a). Northern Martinique: Pointe

Caracoli to Fort-de-France. British Admiralty Chart No. 371.
1:75 000. April 1991. Taunton, UK.

Hydrographic Office (1991b). Northern Martinique: Fort-deFrance

to

Pointe Caracoli. British Admiralty Chart No. 494.

1:75 000. April 1991. Taunton, UK.

Hydrographic Office (1995a). West Indies: Southern Martinique

to Saint Vincent. British

Admiralty Chart No. 596. 1:175 000.

January 1995. Taunton, UK.

Hydrographic Office (1995b). West Indies: Saint Vincent

Grenada.

September

British

Admiralty Chart No. 597.

1995. Taunton, UK.

to

1:175 000.
*

See Technical notes, page 401

178

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Part
The Indian Ocean and
Southeast Asia

The
IS

Indian

Ocean

is

the third largest ocean.

It

closed to the north, and a large proportion

of Its

waters are tropical or near

Unlike the Atlantic

largely

is

it

Bay

of

Bengal

in

the northeast, which

riverine discharge

conditions

of

from a number

high

is

and the Arabian

development. To the

Gulf,

terrestrial runoff.

relatively dry.

of the

Red Sea

with very different tectonic

histories, but both occurring in highly

little

massive

of rivers, leading to

northwest are the enclosed sea areas

The coast

of

Maldives

most recent end

lying at the

sediments and low, fluctuating

salinities - inimical to coral reef

the

active vulcanism on Reunion.

to this is the

fed by

India,

tropical.

receive particularly high inputs of freshwater or ter-

The great exception

in

bounded

by relatively arid countries and does not

restrial sedinnents.

Islands

and regions with

East Africa

is

also

Continental shelf areas are generally

narrow, although there are a few nearshore island

and

the

Chagos

Archipelago. Reunion and Mauritius are high islands

more complex group

of this volcanic trace,

with

The Seychelles form

of islands with varied

origins.

To the east there are fewer remote oceanic islands,

and the region blends

Southeast Asia

into the reefs of

with the island chains of the

Andaman and Nicobar

Islands,

and the Mentawai Islands

Sumatra

in

to

the west

of

Indonesia.

There are large areas

of coral reef right

across

making up nearly 20 percent of the world

Fringing reefs predominate along much of the

this region,
total.

Red Sea,

particularly

Further south

in

northern and central parts.

the Red Sea and Arabian Gulf coastal

sediments and high

salinities

restrict

fringing

reef

development, though there are extensive offshore

groups which are important for coral reef development.

patch reefs. Cool upwellings limit the development of

There are also several oceanic island groups, notably

true reefs along parts of southern Arabia and Pakistan.

in

the west and central parts of this ocean. The largest

Further south there are fringing communities on the

chain of islands follows the Chagos-Laccadive Ridge,

coasts of East Africa, and particularly along the shores

a volcanic trace

which has formed the Lakshadweep

of continental islands.

Some

of the best

developed reef

The Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia

structures occur

numerous

are

isolated oceanic locations. There

in

atolls

and platfornn structures

west and central regions

oceans,

the

of

the

in

and the

on reefs. Tourism too

economies

is

sporadic, but

is critical to

the

Kenya. Tanzania and the islands

of Egypt,

Ocean.

of the Indian

Maldives and Chagos Archipelago include the largest

structures

atoll

the world. The continental coast-

in

and

lines of India

Sri

Southeast Asia

Lanl<a have very limited reef

one

most important areas

development as there are various adverse conditions,

Southeast Asia

including high turbidity, fluctuating salinity and high

the world for coral reefs. Over 30 percent of the world's

wave energy. There are important though

Andaman and Nicobar

reefs around the

to the north of

known

little

Islands and

Sumatra. Australia also has significant

communities, including extensive fringing reefs,

reef

latitude

Chapter

barrier structures and

platform and

offshore

high

communities (these are considered further

in

diversity

across the

high

is

following a narrow band of high diversity

in

region,

the Central

Ocean and forming two distinctive sub-centers

Western Indian Ocean and the Red

Indian

of diversity in the

Elsewhere there

Sea.

notably

mainland

reduced

greatly

is

diversity,

the Arabian Gulf and along the shores of

in

reefs are found

in this

of the

complex region which straddles

the waters between the Indian and Pacific Oceans. The

Despite their high latitude there

India.

The most extensive coastlines, however, follow the

great complex of islands which are dominated by the

is

50 000 square kilometers

percent of the world
this region,

and also has

Africa and

of

diminishing species diversity. The coastlines define

a large

number

of partially

enclosed seas. While the

waters around the continental shores are generally

1998

were affected by the

of this region

warm

waters swept across wide areas

in

of the

Indian Ocean, leading to bleaching and massive levels

of coral mortality

on reefs from Western Australia

the shores of East Africa.

Seychelles (which together

the world's coral reefsl.
died

in all

lost in

the Maldives.

In

make up

over 5 percent of

more than 60 percent

of corals

areas, and up to 100 percent of corals

some

places. Recovery has

areas, but the overall scale of this

may

that full recovery

to

Chagos and

were

now begun in most

event was so large

may be repeated

Indian

human pressures

Ocean are highly

on coral reefs

varied.

is

chronic

oil

reserves

pollution

oil

exacerbated by occasional massive

traffic also carries

the threat of

oil

oil

of

the

in

in

the

this sea.

spills.

Tanker

pollution to other

areas, notably the narrow straits at the

Arabian Gulf, and

in

The Arabian Gulf con-

tains the largest concentrations of

world, and there

mouth

of the

northern and southern ends

at the

the Red Sea. Coastal development

is

sporadic -

there are vast areas of the Arabian coastline with

little

development, but

major ports and some

Africa, coastal

here,

To

in

others, such as around the

of the

development

in

almost

is

tourist areas of East

having a direct impact

in

close contact

number

of

the great center

and there are more species

animal groups, than anywhere else.

all

some degree

is

this diversity

is

encouraged or main-

tained by the complexity of coastline and the great

range

of habitats

found

the region, but

in

ultimate

its

origins can be traced back over geological timescales.

While extinctions were occurring

in

would appear that species were able

region,

and even

to diversify

other regions

it

to survive in this

as sea levels fluctuated

and areas became isolated and then reconnected with

one another.
Unfortunately

region

this

threatened and disturbed by

82 percent

with global climate change.

Direct

and near-atolls. This region

of coral reef biodiversity,

take years or decades, while

there are concerns that such events

come

areas.

also extensive barrier reef systems, and a

atolls

Nino Southern Oscillation event, and

El

many

in

Fringing reefs predominate, although there are

in

both southern

Western Australia.

Wide areas
1997-98

in

on the edges of

a considerable area of reefs

shallow, deep oceanic waters

species numbers, and as a consequence

lies

surrounding island chains which follow natural dines

with offshore islands

the development of reefs themselves,

nearly 18

coral reefs,

of

Japan

total.

relatively little diminution of diversity in the reefs of

in

Myanmar

region includes the continental coastlines of

and Thailand. Malaysia. Cambodia. Vietnam and China.

the northern Red Sea. By contrast there are latitudinal

declines

in

Philippines and Indonesia. Indonesia alone has over

111.

Species

is

of

human

study Most

rapidly growing
region.

most

Some

the region's reefs were considered to

be threatened by
at Risk

the

activities.

also

is

human

of

activities in the

1998 Reefs

these threats are linked to the

economies and populations

These are

driving

in

massive changes

in

this

the

landscape, with forest clearance and agricultural

intensification

leading

to

increased sedimentation

and pollution from agricultural chemicals. Massive

urban expansion has also led

problems close
are

ubiquitous,

to

to

enormous

pollution

urban centers. Fishing pressures

from chronic overfishing

consumption and the highest rates

the world, to target species overfishing even

the remotest parts of the region.

for

local

of blast fishing in
in

many

of

179

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Chapter 7
Western Indian Ocean

in

with limited fringing reefs on the most recent islands,

is

but wide fringing and barrier reef development on the

marked by the Seychelles and the shallow

Mascarene Ridge which extends down

older ones. The Reunion hotspot also produced the vast

towards Mauritius. East

Central Indian Ocean (Chapter

The

Western Indian Ocean

terms

of coral reefs. Its

is

distinctive

eastern boundary

these

of

is

a con-

reef areas of the Chagos-Laccadive ridge across the

siderable expanse of deep ocean separating the reefs

of this region

from those

of the

Maldives and Chagos.

The region's southern margins are the oceanic waters

to the

south

while

on

Mauritius, Reunion and Madagascar,

of

the

continental

coastlines

Mozambique and northern South

cooling

of

diminution

southern

Africa the gradual

water temperatures
in

of

is

mirrored

by

coral diversity. The growth of reefs ceases

The reefs

authors

of a

East

Africa

are

pre-

dominantly fringing, closely following the coastlines

mainland and islands on the continental

Madagascar has some discontinuous

off

its

damaged by the
many areas suffering

badly

some

of

shelf.

fringing

reef

barrier reef systems

west coast. The remainder

some

much

combined with

areas. This region

over 50 percent mortality.

much

of

the region

is

reefs for food. Unfortunately there

the

utilization

of

of the coastline

traditional or formal

areas

of reefs

Comoros and the ReunionBoth show classic reef development,

management regimes, and

in

new pressures

in

areas, however

is
it

leading to
is

also providing an econo-

mically powerful incentive for protecting

there

Rodrigues chain.

sustainable tourism developments.

is

considerable

in a

reefs,

giant

anemone.

countries or regions. Right: The brightly colored Fromia monilis

on reefs throughout the Indian Ocean and

is

and

environmentally

potential for

The Seychelles anemonefish Amphiprion fuscocaudatus with dominos Dacyllus trimaculatus

to particular

large

or destructive fishing techniques. Growing interest

volcanic island chains, the

The anemonefish are often restricted

control over

have been degraded through overfishing

some

islands and fringing reef systems. There are also two

is little

these resources, either through

are actually a remnant of continental crust, with high

common

lacking for

are very poor, and heavily dependent on the adjacent

the reefs for tourism

starfish is

some

coral bleaching event of 1998,

populations along

dominated by oceanic islands. The northern Seychelles

Left:

is

by

of diversity.

are rapidly increasing. Most of the coastal populations

oceanic currents.

development, as well as

of national security in

Human

here by cold water upwellings associated with regional

the

species

related to a lack of

is

infrastructure and indigenous expertise

with

mainland

which

region, a factor

was

of

Western Indian Ocean center

Detailed knowledge of the reef biotas

of the

the region ends along the eastern coast of Somalia

The reefs

of

those of the

Central Indian Ocean, there are distinctive and endemic

where coral growth again becomes

in

to

species which have led to the recognition

problems

patterns

81.

have high levels

Although they are similar

diversity

close to this international border The northern edge of

highly restricted,

of this region

a regionally important grazer of algae.

MAP?

MAP

7a
41

KENYA

"^C
""j

'

'

Bajuni
Archipelago

DoddrlNaR

Lamu
^ ATCmpeiagt^

Arrhirvlaoiv
Matpndoni

-..

Klutg^ Manne
National Reserve

aiasahem Reserve
Biosphere

Formosa Bm

..X

:^

Mallndi

9
Malindi-Watamu
Biosphere Reserve

Momba^l

INDIAN OCEAN
S

PembaL
(TANZANIA)

30

60
41

90

120

150

km

Western Indian Ocean

Kenya and
southern Somalia

K6ny3

has a relatively narrow coastal plain to

is

reversed,

is

countered by the southward

flowing Somali Current. Around Malindi the two currents

platforms above the present day intertidal platform.

meet and flow out

dominated by older sedimentary

relatively

narrow continental

shelf,

plains.

There

5 kilometers offshore south of Malindi, broadening to

60

permanent

rivers, the

Athi-Galana-Sabaki which reaches

the coast in an estuary just north of Malindi,

lies further

and the Tana

forming the North Equatorial

Fringing reefs are well developed

However,

to the north,

in

southern Kenya.

where there are large areas of loose

sediment and significant freshwater influences, levels of

development are lower. There are fringing reefs

off the

Lamu

islands,

in places

and also along many of the barrier

islands further north.

north again and reaches the coast in

Patterns of biodiversity appear to follow patterns of

swamps, mangrove com-

reef development, with generally higher diversity in the

a large delta with associated

munities and shifting dunes. There are several nearshore

Lamu

Archipelago in the

mouth of Lamu and Manda Bays, but

also a chain of about

islands, notably those of the

50 calcareous barrier islands further north around Kiunga.

Patterns of coastal

to sea,

Counter Current.

is a

only extending about

kilometers offshore in the north. There are two major

which

it

7a

the south, with a series of raised Pleistocene reef

North of Malindi the coastal plain becomes much broader

and

however,

MAP

currents are

largely

driven by the

south. Active coral growth

fringing reefs, but

is

is

not continuous along the

interspersed with extensive seagrass

and algal beds. Where hard substrates occur,

live coral

cover was typically about 30 percent prior to 1998.

Some

55 coral genera and up to 200 species have been recorded

Kenya. Mangroves are widespread

in creeks

and

inlets

major oceanographic currents. South of Malindi, the East

in

African Coastal Current flows northeast throughout the

as

year coming up from Tanzania and originally driven by

communities are also found on the leeward shores of

same

offshore islands and on their corresponding mainland

the South Equatorial Current. North of Malindi this

East African Coastal Current continues to flow for part of

well

coasts.

as

the

terns and gulls

During the

Monsoon (April-October).
Northeast Monsoon (December-March),

the

A saddleback

butterflyfish

falcula over a

estuaries.

Important mangrove

There are very important nesting communities of

the year during the Southeast

Chaetodon

larger

barrier

shallow reef scene.

on a number of offshore

islands

in

Kiunga.

Much

islands, notably

of the

Kenyan

183

18A

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

was severely affected by

coastline

the

1998

coral

increasing. Exploitation

heavy and stocks

is

in

several

with 50-90 percent of corals appearing to

localities are

bleach and

many of these subsequently

marine parks and reserves have been established, however.

soft corals

were even more severe.

bleaching,

dying. Impacts on

Fishing

Coastal areas of Kenya are densely populated and

there are large-scale artisanal and

commercial

fisheries.

Fishing using handlines. traps, spearguns and

seine nets

is

common, with

and

gill

artisanal fishing concentrated

is

considered to be overexploited.

prohibited in the parks and only "traditional"

methods of handlines and traps are permitted

with increases

in fish

live coral cover.

abundance and diversity as well as

Sea urchin densities are notably higher

non-protected reefs, and this

sail-powered dhows. Other fisheries, including netting for

and topographic complexity.

aquarium

fish

and sport fishing

in

offshore waters, are

the

in

reserves. Protection of these areas has had clear impacts,

lagoons and commercial fishing also operating from

in

number of

Tourism

is

may be impacting

in

coral cover

major industry for Kenya, and of the

750 000 holiday makers

visiting the country annually,

70

percent spend at least part of their time on the coast.

Kenya

Coastal tourism

is

particularly focussed in the southern

Mombasa and

areas, including Malindi,

General Data

Diani.

Many

the hotels have direct frontage onto the marine parks

Population (thousands]

GDP

(million

30 3^0

US$1

9 621

Land area (km^j

so visitor numbers are high. Diving

many of

is

of

and

a popular activity in

the southern reefs, but there

is

only a limited

587 709
infrastructure for recreational diving in the north. Diving

Marine area (thousand km^l

117

fish

consumption (kg/yearl

from October

peak

activities

Per capita

until

when water

April

conditions tend to be clearer and calmer

Overexploitation

Status and Threats

Reefs

at risk (%)

91

Kenyan

although policing

Recorded coral diseases

is

a continuing

problem on many

reefs, including illegal activities in protected areas,

is

increasingly effective in places. There

has been local opposition to the establishment of the Diani

Biodiversity

Marine Reserve due

Reef area (km^l

630

na/237

Coral diversity

Mangrove area (km^l

530

No. of mangrove species

No. of seagrass species

13

efforts are being

made

to a
to

perceived loss of benefits -

address

sediment load arising from ex

this.

situ

Increasing levels of

changes

in

landuse are

a problem, particularly in the Athi-Galana-Sabaki River,

and are probably affecting reefs near Malindi. Direct

physical

damage by

divers (primarily coral breakage) has

been clearly demonstrated, but only affects small areas

Left: Zoanthids, tike fh/s

one

in

Kenya, are closely related

fa/enny Ecsenius nalolo shelters

to scleractinian

corals

under the protective spines of a sea urchin.

and sea anemones.

Right:

nalolo

Western Indian Ocean

1^
Protected areas with coral reefs
1

Site

name

Designation

lUCN

Abbreviation

Size

cal.

ikm'l

Year

Kenya
Diani

Marine National Reserve

Kisite

Marine National Park

Kiunga

Marine National Reserve

Malindi

MNaR

VI

75.00

1993

MNP

II

28.00

1978

MNaR

VI

250.00

1979

MNP

II

6.30

1968

MNaR

VI

177.00

1968

MNP

II

10.00

1986

Marine National Park

'

Malindi-Watamu

Marine National Reserve

Mombasa

Marine National Park

Mombasa

Marine National Reserve

MNaR

VI

200.00

1986

Mpunguti

Marine National Reserve

MNaR

VI

11.00

1978

MNP

II

Watamu

Marine National Park

32.00

1968

Kiunga Marine National Reserve

UNESCO

Biosphere Reserve

600.00

1980

Malindi-Watamu

UNESCO

Biosphere Reserve

196.00

1979

and

Bi OSPHERE

Reserve

probably countered by the increased protection

is

given to important tourist

protected

areas

is

sites.

Anchor damage

through

limited

in

the

system of user

moorings, however these are rarely used outside protected

areas.

There do not appear

to

be major impacts associated

with eutrophication.

utilization

by local human populations

number of

years.

The

in

Somalia for a

instability is clearly a

problem

security

is

weakest. There are currently no effective legal

controls on the exploitation of natural resources, and these

are clearly not a priority. In

may

some

areas natural resources

actually be protected by such instability, but over-

exploitation

is

likely to be an issue.

Southern Somalia
The

coastline of southern Somalia in

the patterns of northern Kenya.

many ways

continues

The continental shelf

^^^^^

Somal ia

begins to narrow again. The Shabelle and Juba Rivers

converge and enter the sea near Kismaayo where there

General Data
is

an estuarine and mangrove system. Close to the Kenyan

border there
islands,

is a

known

continuation of the chain of small barrier

as the Bajuni Archipelago.

The same

northern Kenya. During the Northeast

flows

Current
Southeast

Monsoon

the

the Somali

East African Coastal Current

reaches considerable strengths, generating cold upwellings

which are responsible

further

north

along

for

this

inhibiting

7 253

US$1

686
639 129

Marine area (thousand km^l

Per capita

fish

828

consumption (kg/year)

Status and Threats

Reefs

95

at risk l%l

Recorded coral diseases

reef development

Fringing reefs are

coastline.

[million

pat-

from the northeast while during the

Monsoon

Population Ithousandsl

GDP

Land area (km'l

terns of ocean currents are found in this region as in

Biodiversity

well developed in the south and around the

Reef area (km^l

710

islands of the Bajuni Archipelago, but further north the

Coral diversity*

59/308

relatively

diversity

and abundance of living coral decreases,

Mangrove area jkm^l

910

although fossil structures remain. Data on biodiversity are

No. of mangrove species

unavailable for southern Somalia, but

No. of seagrass species

it

is

likely that the

trend of decreasing diversity towards the north continues.

The higher coral

overestimate as

Political instability in southern

Somalia has preven-

ted the gathering of information about the reefs, or their

for

where

biodiversity protection, particularly in the south,

it

diversity figure
is

is

ikely to be a considerable

based on the biogeog raphic

includes the Gulf of Aden and Socotra

regi on

whrch

185

186

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Tanzania

The

Tanzanian coastline runs approximately north-

south and

is

dominated by three large offshore

islands, those of

these. Zanzibar

Pemba, Zanzibar' and Mafia. Of

and Mafia, together with most of the

mainland coast and numerous smaller islands and

are largely

islets,

formed by raised Pleistocene reef platforms,

providing a low-lying coastal plain occasionally broken by

deposits associated with the major rivers.

alluvial

continental

shelf

kilometers wide,

is

narrow,

relatively

typically

The
8-10

Coral reefs are well developed

to the

many

in

MAP

7b

20

km

places. Close

mainland there are fringing and patch reefs along

much of the

coast to the north of the Pangani River, with

a wide lagoon with only occasional patch reefs fiirther

south around Dar es Salaam. Coral cover

is

highly varied,

with estimates on different patch reefs varying between

1

and 80 percent. Clearly

actively

occasional

coral

in

some

areas reefs are not

and represent

developing,

little

more than

growth on Pleistocene reef deposits.

over 40

Coral diversity increases with distance from the coast,

Pemba

Island

is

and up

also limestone, but dates back to the Miocene.

Pemba

is

individual patch reefs off the

but extending to a

kilometers around Zanzibar and Mafia.

little

separated from the mainland continental shelf by the

Pemba Channel which reaches over 800 meters

to

39 genera of coral have been reported from

Tanga

coast. Fringing reefs

begin again off the mainland coast south of the Rufiji

in depth.

Delta and are very well developed, with deep spur and

There are fringing reef systems along much of the

groove formations on outer slopes. These are particularly

mainland coast and the offshore

well represented in the areas around and to the south of

are broken around

some of

islands, although these

the bays and estuaries,

most

notably around the Rufiji Delta and northwards where

there are considerable inputs of riverine sediments.

coastline

is

The

swept by the northwards flowing East African

Coastal Current throughout the year, though this

Mtwara where undamaged

offshore, often

is at its

reefs, especially those further

show over 50 percent

live coral cover.

Offshore reefs are highly developed around the main

three islands, their associated islets, and the

Archipelago

in the south.

Songo Songo

Reefs around parts of Pemba are

most powerful during the Southeast Monsoon (April-

prolific, with corals

recorded to 64 meters, and cover on

October), and

western reef slopes

at

the Northeast

Left:

fishing

is

reduced by northeasterly winds during

Monsoon (December-MarchJ.

dhow just beyond

Zanzibar Channel

in

low

(rarely

the reef, with an uplifted coralline shore of

Tanzania, with

numerous important patch

21-60 percent. Cover tends to be

above 15 percent) on eastern shores of

Chumbe

reefs ISTS026-42-85.

Island,

19881.

Zanzibar Right: The

all

the

MAP
41

7b

42

Pemba I.

''^t'/

'Pangani

River Atr^

'.*

Maziwi Island MR
Zanzibar I'

/
"^ifigcai
Saacfan; G/S

jiiver

^.'

y.Ziinzibqi',
Iv

tOulioni

Chamiel'<

Wami

*H

";

'ft

i'

Pangavini
Doriya*V f%Doriya

MbudyaMR 1:

Fungu

\-i

Bongoyo

MR
MR
MR

Yasini
,

CbanguuL^

j.,

Island

OAR ES SALAAM

Murogo'L'*^
Nyange I^^

r tSZanzlbar
;

'

js^^V Paige LI.

.
V
ChiinieL,^-.
^

River R\f*

cnumbe

TANZANIA

I,

si:

Xathaml

Chflpwam

v-^.^..

BawiLy^
^'"'
C'

Island

Coral Parif

(CHICOPj

MeneiBeyCA
> r^
Kiwml/
",

%^:^M
Kwaler

._,

\T^ MenaiBay

fe.
Mafill.

Kisimani"

'

Mafia Island

Channel

\
M':

<5,

As.
Kllvra

10

NachingWea

39

'^

Song
V^^ Songo Songo
>J A

<4

Kivinje^>

Arcmpelag(
To

vv
1

Pungume

Channel

^V.

MR

Zanzibar

,^

12 tan

M'20'

""
8

MP

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

due

larger islands, probably

to the

very high wave energies

which impact these coasts. Misali

Pemba, has been singled out

for

Island, just

west of

with 40 genera of coral and 350 fish species.

Chumbe and

was noted

in Zanzibar.

The

having some of the

highest recorded coral cover, and high species diversity

Mnemba

variation in the degree of impact between reefs

population in Tanzania

coastal

is

very large,

mostly concentrated in Tanga, Zanzibar, Dar es Salaam and

Mtwara.

Rapid population growth along the coasts,

islands off Zanzibar have been similarly singled

combined with poverty and poor management and under-

out as offshore islands with diverse and well protected

standing of coastal resources, has led to the rapid and

reefs.

It is

possible that similar diversity

from other

may be recorded

many of which have

reefs,

detailed scientific attention.

reefs, particularly in the south,

good condition. Some 380

yet

to

receive

Mafia Island has extensive

many of which remain

fish

species and 45 coral

genera have been recorded from this area. Likewise there

are

many important

reefs

around the Songo Songo

Archipelago, with the slightly deeper reefs, and those

furthest

from the mainland, remaining

Finally,

Latham

Island

in

(Fungu Kisimkasi)

good condition.
is

Tanzania

in

a tiny island

General Data
35 306

Population Ithousandsl

GDP

(million

na

US$i

9a

Land area (km^j

Marine area (thousand km^j
Per capita

fish

983
241

consumption (kg/year)

10

with an associated fringing reef system lying off the

continental

shelf

Status and Threats

some 80-100 kilometers

east

of the
Reefs at risk (%|

99

mainland south of Dar es Salaam. There are no detailed

descriptions of the reefs but the island has

some very

important bird colonies.

Mangroves

Biodiversity

are well developed in

most

river

mouths,

and seagrass ecosystems are widespread, particularly

the shallow waters around the

Archipelagos. The

in

Mafia and Songo Songo

1998 coral bleaching event had a

significant impact on

Recorded coral diseases

most

reefs,

although this was far

Reef area (km^j

3 580

Coral diversity*

na/3U

Ivlangrove area (km'l

No. of mangrove species

10

No. of seagrass species

from uniform. Around Mafia Island reefs dominated by

Acropora suffered 70-90 percent mortality, but those

and Tanzania combined

The higher coral

diversity figure

155

10
is

an estimate for

fvl

ozambique

with less Acropora were far less affected. Similar local

Left:

A hawksbili

turtle

the important areas of

Eretmochelys imbricata. Right: The

mangrove

forest ISTS026-42-87. 19881.

Rufiji Delta,

showing the large inputs of sediments, but also

Western Indian Ocean

Protected areas with coral reefs

Site

name

lUCN

Abbreviation

Designation

Size

i.

Year

ikin'i

Tanzania

Bongoyo Island

Marine Reserve

MR

II

na

1975

Chumbe

Marine Sanctuary

MS

II

0.30

1994

Marine Reserve

MR

II

na

1975

Marine Park

MP

VI

822.00

1995

Maziwi Island

Marine Reserve

MR

II

na

1981

Mbudya

Marine Reserve

MR

II

na

1975

Menai Bay

Conservation Area

CA

VI

470.00

1997

Misali Island

Conservation Area

CA

VI

21.58

1998

Mnazi Bay

Marine Park

MP

VI

650.00

2000

Mnemba

Conservation Area

CA

VI

0.15

1997

Pangavini

Marine Reserve

MR

II

na

1975

Fungu

Island Coral Park

Yasini

Mafia Island

number of areas. The Chumbe

extreme degradation of coral reefs and other coastal

tection measures in a

communities along large sectors of the

Coral Park provides the best example of "low impact"

critical activity,

coast. Fishing is a

providing a major protem source for

of the coastal population. Overfishing

is

much

problem on

most reefs, and has been exacerbated by destructive fishing

Most notable among these

practices.

fishing techniques in

which

a small

weighted foot rope

net with a

is

are various seine-net

mesh

(2-8 centimeters)

tourism

Zanzibar.

One

is

activity

that

has grown

commercial seaweed farming, now

practiced along the majority of the coastline of Zanzibar

Some

and increasing on Mafia, Pemba and the mainland coast.

This activity

up

from the water Dynamite

was also once widespread, but

fishing

further coastal

rapidly since 1989

poles to frighten fish into the net and/or use of a very

to haul fish

for an important

education program with schools and local communities in

techniques additionally involve beating the substrate with

mesh scoop

management, but also

dragged through the

benthos, either onto the beach or directly into a boat.

small

and tourism here provides support

in the region,

not only for reef

Island

its

at

the

is

low technology and hence

community and

is

being taken

individual family level and

may

be reducing pressure on fish resources.

Although a number of marine reserves were desig-

use has been

1975 none of these was

implemented.

reduced drastically throughout the country following a

nated

nationwide campaign in

Subsequent legislation under the Marine Parks and

1996-97. This involved major

community-driven action which included naming

but also an amnesty for

dynamite and made

Coral mining

is

all

those

who

culprits,

surrendered their

a public statement not to re-offend.

another highly destructive activity which

is

in

Reserves Act
are

now

in

1994 has rectified

fully

this situation

and there

marine reserves and two marine parks

five

designated under this

The

act.

latter

are

large

areas,

incorporating reefs and other ecosystems, with zoning

was

systems and focussing towards sustainable use. Protected

500 tons of coral were being mined every

areas are declared under separate legislation in Zanzibar

year from the Mikindani Bay area in southern Tanzania

and Pemba. The Menai Bay Conservation Area off the

also widespread along the entire coast. In

estimated that

alone.

Some

2000

it

12 percent of Tanga's reefs are believed to be

totally destroyed, largely

through destructive fishing, and a

further 64 percent are in poor to moderate condition.

There

Town, and
coast.

is

only primary sewage treatment in Zanzibar

little

Tourism

south coast of Zanzibar was established in 1997 and

is

one

of a number of new marine protected areas being operated

at the local level,

involvement

in

with local government and community

park utilization and management.

or no treatment on any of the mainland

is

growing and important sector of the

economy, but there are few environmental controls and

1.

Officially this island is

known as Unguja, while the term Zanzibar

refers to the administrative state which includes both this island and

there

may be

tourism

is

increasing impacts on the reefs. Nonetheless,

also providing impetus for further reef pro-

Pemba. Despite

this,

the term Zanzibar

relation to the single island,

and

this

is

is

most commonly used

the usage applied here.

in

189

MAP7C
34

TANZANIA

COMOROS

'
I Tecoimjt

Palma

/)

L Rongui

MaiflpaBay

^
Modmboa
da

^Tanbuzi

*.'.

14"

^^s-,

%^

Praia

LMetundo

14

5J

Quirimbass
Xrchipelago

MOZAMBIQUE

jf-^

^^^<-

*^

, *.

*.

.,

';

L Suva

"L

Moma

'LCasuariiia

CjOKO.

MADAGASCAR
\

n
Archipelago

A, Quelimane

18

Aichipelago

Epidendron

18"

jy

Manomeu GR.
v'Umtali

"^=7

Ramsar

Mozambique
Channel

SOUTH

SOUTH AFRICA

Beire

AFRICA

Greater St Lucia

Wetland Park
World Heritage Site

s
,-

Bassas da India
Bazaiuto
Archipelago

BazanitoNP

22

(FRANCE)
22-

\,

Beaches/Coral
Reefs of Tongaland

Turtle
I.

de L'Europa

Ramsar Site

(FRANCE)
Pomene GR

Greater St Lucia

S Inhambane

St Lucia S/stem

Ramsar Site

INDIAN OCEAN
10

*"

^,( Inhaca

30 km

Ilhas da Inhaca e
dos Portugueses FR

siif MAPUTO

-Oj

20

33*00'

32-30'

26 \
*-<>-

WP

26'

I.

Maputo

9
SOUTH

AFRICA

60
34

38

42

120

180

240

30

km

Western Indian Ocean

Mozambique
and South Africa

M0Z3mDJC|U6
Mozambique

ihe

has a long coastline facing

Cliannel and Madagascar. In

north, heavily faulted Cretaceous to Tertiary

tlie

sediments line the coast. South of Angoche the coastline

is

dominated by Quaternary

Recent sediments, largely

to

sands interspersed with heavy alluvial deposits, particularly

in

the

central

Island where

some 24

many

meet the coast, including

rivers

the large delta areas of the

In

Angoche and Bazaruto

region between

Zambezi and Save

areas the sands form

flat plains,

Rivers.

although high

dune systems are also common, particularly

southern third of the country where they often

in

the

offshore
coralline

island

groups,

islands

including

directly

south

number of small

of the border with

Tanzania, the Quirimbass Archipelago, and two short

island chains due south of

Angoche -

the Primeiro and

Segundo Archipelagos. Larger islands include those of the

Bazaruto Archipelago and Inhaca Island

The

continental shelf is less than

north, broadening to a
in the center

in the far south.

20 kilometers wide

maximum

in the

of about 130 kilometers

of the country and then narrowing again in

the south.

The South Equatorial Current which flows westwards

across the Indian

in the region

Ocean meets the East African

coastline

of the Tanzania/Mozambique border where

it

then divides, with one branch forming the constant south-

flowing

Mozambique

Current. Part

is

deflected eastwards

south of Inhambane and forms a gyre, circulating in the

Mozambique Channel, and

the

the remainder flows on to join

Agulhas Current off South Africa. Aside from these

main current patterns there

are

currents associated with the larger

coastline,

number of counter

embayments along

this

and these create quite strong north-flowing

coastal currents in places.

Fringing reefs

lie in front

of coastal barrier lakes and swamps. There are several

MAP7C

coastline

away from

islands, with

are
river

numerous along

the

northern

mouths and around the offshore

mangroves and patch

reefs

on the western

shores and simpler reef profiles along exposed eastern

Over 50 hard

shores.
fish

coral genera and over

300 reef

species have been recorded from the Quirimbass

Archipelago. Diversity and coral cover appear to be lower

in the

Primeiro and Segundo Archipelagos, which

may

be related to cold water upwellings, but this region has

extensive seagrass and

important

dugong and

turtle

populations. There are also reported to be large seabird

nesting colonies on

The

some of these

islands.

central section of the coastline has

large school of convict surgeon Acanthurus triostegus, which are important algal grazers on

been called

some shallow reefs.

191

192

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

swamp

dominated by riverine sediments.

can reach 90 percent, and some 27 scleractinian coral

These prevent any major reef developments, while there

genera have been recorded. Three small fringing reefs

the

coast,

and

is

are extensive

mangroves inshore. Further south again, reef

development

is

limited, but there are true reefs as well

as rocky structures with coral

communities around both

the Bazaruto and Inhaca Islands. At the former, reefs

are mostly patch reef structures,

and active growth

is

restricted to the shallowest waters, but here coral cover

have developed off Inhaca and Portugueses Islands, as

well as a

and

areas, but there have

at

Probably the

GDP

(million

19 1Q5

US$1

2 089

Land area Ikm^l

fish

found

565

consumption (kg/yearl

been few,

150 individuals

in

offshore

remaining population of

largest

in the

in

surveys of the

if any,

Bazaruto Archipelago, estimated

the early

1990s, but thought to

60-80 animals by 1999. Crown-of-thorns

to

number of reef

starfish are reported to have destroyed a

areas off Bazaruto and Inhambane.

The 1998

788 629

Marine area (thousand km^j

Per capita

is

have declined

Population Ithousandsl

These have been

Elsewhere there are anecdotal reports of

fish.

dugongs

General Data

reefs.

and have a high diversity of corals

extensive coral and gorgonian communities

region.

Mozamb ique

number of smaller patch

relatively well studied

coral

bleaching event appears to have

caused significant mortality of corals

in

Mozambique,

particularly in the north, but with considerable variation in

the degree of impact between localities.

Mozambique

Status and Threats

Reefs

76

at risk [%1

Recorded coral diseases

has

majority of these people

civil unrest

which ended

large

moved
in

coastal
to

population.

The

urban areas during the

1992. These are a source of

considerable pollutants to nearby coastal waters as most

Biodiversity

sewage

Reef area Ikm^j

is

untreated.

860
the coastline

19^/3U

Coral diversity*

Mangrove area (km^l

925

No. of mangrove species

The

lltgher coral diversity figure

is

an estimate for Mozambique

and Tanzania combined

these urban areas

which releases sediments and nutrients

is

Away from

much of

dominated by slash-and-burn agriculture,

waters. Tourism

10

No. of seagrass species

is

is

into

nearby

growing, particularly in the south, and

generally considered detrimental to the environment,

especially vehicular or camping-based tourism from South

Africa which brings few benefits to the country, and

may

lead to unsustainable levels of recreational fishing and

Left:

The Quinmbass Archipelago has

The shore crab Grapsus

is

some

of the

most important reef areas

widespread on rocky shores throughout the region.

in

Mozambique

IST551I-31-45. 19851. Right:

Western Indian Ocean

Protected areas with coral reefs

Site

name

lUCN

Abbreviation

Designation

Size

cat.

Year

Ikmil

Mozambique
Bazaruto

dos Portugueses

llhas da Inhaca e

National Parl(

NP

II

Faunal Reserve

FR

VI

Wetland Park

WP

II

150.00

1971

20.00

1965

586.86

1895

2 395.66

1999

395.00

1986

South Africa
Greater

St.

Greater

Lucia ISouth Africa]

St. Lucia

World Heritage

Wetland Park

Ramsar

Turtle Beaches/
Coral Reefs of Tongalano

damage

may

this

been poorly controlled to date, although

be changing. Most reef-based tourism operates

around the Bazaruto Archipelago and there

significant

damage

Fishing

is

to reefs

is

evidence of

caused by divers and boats.

an important activity

in

Mozambique.

Trawling for prawns dominates the commercial fishery

and generates 40 percent of the country's

is

mangroves and estuaries which

act as nursery areas. There

agreement about the overall size of the artisanal

catch, with estimates that these

between 20 and 70 percent of

total

may make up anywhere

total

landings (estimates of

landings similarly vary between 18 500 and 90 000

tons per year). Fishing

is

reefs and seagrass systems, and there are

fishermen coming

Archipelagos
nent

human

is

to the lack

of perma-

settlement and often rough seas. Removal of

reported to be of signifi-

is

number of reefs.

Mozambique

still

many

has

heavy human impact, however

rapidly in

Primeiro and Segundo

low due

relatively

molluscs for the curio trade

cance on

now migrant

to the region, bringing the potential for

E.xploitation of the

overfishing.

foreign

highly dependent on the

exchange earnings. This catch

is little

Site

Site

to turtle nesting beaches. Efforts to develop coastal

resorts have also

some

areas.

reefs

which have escaped

this is

changing, and quite

There are only two protected areas

which incorporate reefs and, while there are active

management measures

place at these

in

no immediate proposals

sites,

there are

for any protected areas

on the

important reefs in the north of the country.

considerable on the Quirimbass

South Africa
South A< rica

Although reef communities extend

Africa

General Data

Imilllon

1U585

US$)

Land area (km^l

Marine area (thousand km^l
Per capita

fish

223 124
1

525

consumption (kg/yearl

into the waters

of South

arguable whether these are true reef structures.

southern reef complexes. All are submerged communities

growing over

late

na

at risk |%|

Pleistocene dune and beach sequences,

and reaching a minimum depth of about 8 meters. Diversity

is

lower than the reefs of more northern countries, with

only 43 species of scleractinian coral recorded. Coral cover

(hard and soft)

Status and Threats

Reefs

is

There are three main areas: the northern, central and

^3 421

Population Ithousandsl

GDP

it

is

high, however,

making up almost 50

percent of benthic cover (and 95 percent of the live cover).

These reefs were largely unaffected by the 1998 coral

Recorded coral diseases

bleaching event. Large numbers of divers

Biodiversity

<50

Reef area (km^l

Coral diversity

Mangrove area Ikm^)

visit the reefs,

with over 90 000 recreational dives per year, mostly

na

na
11

visiting

offshore,

sources

Two Mile Reef

these

in the

areas are

central complex.

Lying

not threatened by terrestrial

of pollution or sedimentation, and they are

No. of mangrove species

protected within the

No. of seagrass species

the wetland park). Artisanal fishing

of the reserve.

St.

Lucia Marine Reserve (a part of

is

permitted in

much

193

194

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Madagascar
MAP7d

Madagascar

is

one of the world's

largest

it

was

separated off from the rest of Africa during the

and was then separated from the Indian sub-

Jurassic,

continent

(and the granitic

Jurassic/early

Seychelles)

The west

islands.

Along with the Indian sub-continent

during the

late

Cretaceous. There are clear differences

numerous
coast

coast consists of a wide coastal plain, with

rivers,

and also a wider continental shelf This

swept by the northward flowing currents of the

is

Mozambique Gyre and

ranges.

further affected

is

Reef development

and southern parts of this

is

coast.

The southernmost

between the physical conditions and resulting ecological

offshore around Banc de I'Etoile and

communities on the east and west

are extensive fringing reefs along

coasts.

steep and, in places, mountainous. This

The
is

east coast is

matched by a

Androka

as far as

Cap

St.

by large

tidal

extensive in both the northern

reefs are

Nosy Manitsa. There

much of the

coast north of

Vincent, varying between 500

steeply shelving bathymetry and narrow continental shelf

meters and a few kilometers offshore, and separated from

The

the shore by a generally shallow channel.

Around Tulear

more complex system of offshore

is

centra!

and southern sections of

this coast are

domi-

nated by vast sandy beaches and barrier islands and there

is

no offshore reef development. Further north the coastline

becomes more complex, with

number of embayments and

rocky headlands as well as offshore islands. There are a

number of emergent
sections

of

widespread

this

fossil reefs

coastline.

in the north,

along the more northerly

Active coral

growth

is

also

often growing on fossil structures

offshore, although not always contributing to active reef

accretion.

There

is

submerged and fragmented barrier

reef described off Toamasina, although the recent status of

this is unclear.

Discontinuous fringing reefs also occur off

the coast around Foulpointe and Mananara,

(Sainte Marie Island), and the

Left:

One

of the best

known

Masoala Peninsula.

reefs In

Terrigenous sediments impact or

Mangoky

Delta.

Nosy Boraha

Madagascar

inhibit reef

reefs

present, with

shoreline fringing communities, a series of inner lagoon

reefs,

and a well developed barrier reef- the Grand Recif-

which runs continuously for 18 kilometers. Between the

Bale des Assassins and

Morombe

sequence of reefs, many

with associated sand cays, has developed offshore, forming

a

fragmented barrier reef system. This same barrier system

reappears north of the

Mangoky

submerged banks and emergent

most of the

Delta with a series of

reefs with sand cays.

central section of the west coa.st there

is

Along

no reef

development, probably due to the terrigenous sediments

discharged from

rivers.

Offshore, however, there are reefs

towards the edge of the continental shelf associated with the

Is

the

Grand

Recif, a barrier reef close to Tulear ISTS065-84-92, 19941. Right:

development along considerable lengths of Madagascar's

coast,

as here at the

Sedimentation has been greatly increased by poor landuse practices often far inland ISTS033-7I-94,

19891.

MAP7d
:46

:44

50

;4B
^

12

Capd'Ambre

BancduBisson

12

'-i

COMOROS

Banc du Borneo

^^'',

Banc du Geyser

NosyMitsio
'f.

iiosy Bi^^Ambaro!^

MAYOTTE

OI6goSuarez

. Ambilobe

(FRANCE)

Voh6mar

Ambanja

NosyRadama'

14

Radama

f^.f.
>

14*

\'^

Archipelago

^'

^'^

Mozambique
Channel

* Antalaha

rSo!^"

Maroantsetra

Masoala

Peninsula
.

Mahaianga

^^^..

16

Reserve de la biosphere
du Mananara Nord
flosp/iere Rese/ve

?.

Marovoay

4.

/T'-^#'*

-*

Pracel

Juan de Nova

16^

Mananam

Marine

NP

Bancdu

.'/ Cap Masoala

Baie d'AntongU

Nosy Boiaha

Maevatanana

(FRANCE)
Fenerive

* Foulpointe
18'

18

i
lies

Barren

'^i

MADAGASCAR

ANTANANARiVO

<
Vatomandry

Mozambique
Channel

^V
Antsirabe

20

20

Ambostoa
Belo-Sur-Mer

" Mananjary

ioky

^rN*"*'

Rive''

Cap SL Vincent

/ij

r^_.

?2'

22

f Manakara

Bme des Assassins i i^

'

thosy

Farafangana

INDIAN OCEAN

Betroka

Grand RecifV^"*^

^/v^rO//ohy

r
24

w...

+
Androita

NosyMfflilsa

42

;44

It

Dauphin

50

Lavanono
"'''I'Etoile

46

48

100
50

150

200

250

km
52

196

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Protected areas wi th coral reefs

name

Site

Designation

iUCN

Abbreviation

Year

Size (km'l

cal.

.1

Madagascar
Mananara Marine

National Park

Reserve de la biosphere
Du Mananara Nord

UNESCO

NP

10.00

1989

/iOO.OO

1990

II

Biosphere

Reserve
"

lies

Barren and the Banc du Pracel, although these remain

poorly documented.

northeast,

the

In

fringing reefs re-

appear along the coast and the offshore islands, notably

Nosy Be and

their distribution

and bays.

Radama Archipelagos, although

the Mitsio and

On

is

discontinuous around the

many

rivers

the outer edge of the continental shelf in the

another series of raised banks, actually

far north, there is

forming a near continuous ridge which

may

of a large barrier reef system. Coral cover

be the remains

is

reported to be

provide

critical

foreign

with

at least

50 percent of arrivals visiting the coast.

One of

the greatest threats to Madagascar's reefs

systems and

erosion affects nearly 80 percent of the

soil

with massive sedimentation offshore. Urban and

island,

industrial

waste

poorly controlled and a problem near

is

formations of the sheet coral Pachvseris speciosa.

have greatly increased

and 700

coral

fish species

off Tulear, but

it

500

may be 200

whole country.

mangroves form a major

are widespread, often forming

the dominant communities in the channels behind fringing

reefs.

It

would appear

that

significant

- fishing

and there

is

levels

evidence

of reduced yields. Despite the considerable potential for

ecotourism most developments seem to have been poorly

fish species in the

community and seagrasses

may be

in recent years

planned and contribute to pollution, while also causing

have been recorded on the reefs

the western coastline,

Overfishing

species of scleractinian

little is

has been estimated that there

coral species and

Along

Some 130

cities.

known about

north and Tulear in the south, and very

the intervening reef areas.

most reefs were

hit

conflicts with local fishing communities.

There

marine protected area with coral

Mananara Marine

reefs, the

is

only one

National Park on the northeast coast which incorporates

three coral islets, including

rangers and there

is

management. There

Nosy Antafana. This

site

has two

some community involvement

in its

new

parks.

are a

number of proposals

for

by the 1998

bleaching event, although data on the impacts are only

available for a

few

sites.

Some 30

at

Belo-sur-

General Data

Mer, but bleaching-related mortality was relatively low.

For

its

size.

Madagascar

The majority of

is

relatively

sparsely

the coastal population

is

con-

centrated on the eastern coast, while the western coast

from the larger

less developed, aside

Mahajanga.
the

It is

majority

this

is

is

of Tulear and

west coast, however, that also supports

activities.

a critical activity, accounting for an

estimated 55 percent of
estimated

cities

of fishing and tourism-based

Artisanal fishing

all

Madagascar

percent bleaching was

observed on the mid-west coast, for example

populated.

fishery production from an

Population (thousands)

GDP

(miUicn US$1

Land area Ikm^l

Marine area (thousand km^l
Per capita

fish

consunnption (kg/year)

3 26^

59^ 85^
1

205
7

Status and Threats

Reefs at risk (%|

87

Recorded coral diseases

Biodiversity

species are heavily relied upon, accounting for 43 percent

Reef area Ikm^l

of

Coral diversity

It

remains a largely traditional fishery,

although there are increasing numbers of migrant fishers

Mangrove area (km^l

who do

No. of mangrove species

scale

15 506

250 fishing villages operating over 20 000 small

vessels (pirogues, mostly without engines). Reef-associated

total production.

is

Madagascar's land area has been converted from natural

major

in the

is

from inappropriate landuse practices. Most of

siltation

very high along the outer slopes, heavily dominated by

Most research has been centered around Nosy Be

exchange earnings. Tourism

another important and relatively rapidly developing activity,

not observe existing customs and taboos. Larger-

commercial and export fisheries make up the

remainder of the fishery and, together with aquaculture.

No. of seagrass species

2 230

135/315

3A03
9

10

Western Indian Ocean

MayottGp Comoros and

outlying islands

13

There

number of small oceanic

are a

MAP 76

km

Mayotte

islands lying

between Mozambique and Madagascar The most

Mayotte "s reefs are

important of these are the four large

than 200 species of coral. They were adversely affected by

islands

volcanic

of the Comoros Archipelago situated

at

relatively well studied,

a bleaching event in 1982-83,

the

and harbor more

which apparently caused mor-

northern entrance to this channel. Mayotte, the eastern-

tality

and degradation on about 36 percent of the fringing

most of these islands

reefs.

Crown-of-thorns starfish outbreaks since 1983 have

a collectivite territoriale under

is

French control, while the remaining islands form the

Mayotte

Federal Islamic Republic of the Comoros.

geologically the oldest and

is

which reaches 70 meters

in

some 3-15 kilometers

The remaining

is

still

this event is

volcanically

in 1998.

now

The 1998 bleaching event caused

some

few parts of the coastline. Mwali

being noted particularly on the inshore

and tourism are important

reefs. Fisheries

and barren shores and fringing reefs

are restricted to only a

000 collected

even more widespread mortality, with greater than 90 percent mortality recorded on the outer slopes. Recovery from

islands are

although Ngazidja (Grande

Comore), the youngest island which

active, has very steep

depth before a barrier reef

reefs,

600 fishermen and 9 000

the late 1990s.

Two

activities,

protected areas have been established,

although these only cover some 2 percent of the

fringing reefs on

East of these islands lies the

of the lagoon.

7d), a horseshoe-shaped reef

lagoon was under development in

Banc du Geyser/Zelee (Map

which

is

with

visitor arrivals per year in

(Moheli) has the most extensive reef systems, with

all coasts.

in

fishermen collecting large numbers, with a peak of some

is

surrounded by a wide lagoon

offshore.

surrounded by fringing

been a major problem, although a bounty system resulted

total

area

comprehensive management plan for the

late

2000.

probably part of the same volcanic system. This

reef breaks the surface during low tides, and lies between

Mayotte and the French

of these reefs

lie

in the

Comoros

territory of lies Glorieuses. All

path of the westward flowing

The densely populated Comoros

is

one of the world's

Equatorial Counter Current, which coincides with the

poorest countries. Deforestation and conversion of land to

Mozambique Gyre.

agriculture are creating massive problems of soil erosion.

northern leg of the

Left:

Mayotte has a number of fringing reefs and

Right: Algae, including fleshy

is

almost completely encircled by

green varieties such as

massive coral mortalities of 1998.

this,

were quick

to colonize

its

barrier reef ISTS5W-41-3,

many of the

19851.

bare surfaces following the

197

MAP

76

s
?

J
I

o
Q
fe;

.^-

t
I

I
^

Western Indian Ocean

Protected areas with coral reefs

'

Site

name

Designation

lUCN

Abbreviation

cat

Year

Sizeikm^i

Mayotte

Passe de Longogori

Strict Fishing

Saziley

Parl<

particularly in

Reserve

Nzwani (Anjouan) and Mwali. The sub-

may be

sequent heavy siltation

affecting large areas of

the reefs offshore. Fisheries are important, with over

4 500

SFiR

VI

II

and small fish

Blast fishing

There

is

is

4.50

1990

41.80

1991

causing some degradation of reef

flats.

also reported to be a problem on Mwali.

is

little

or no information regarding overfishing

in the

Comoros, although

registered fishermen operating from traditional boats in

problems

nearshore waters. Reef walking by fishers gathering octopus

continue to rise this

may

as population densities

create significant problems.

r
H^^^^l

Comoros

Mayotte

General Data

General Data
156

Population (thousands)

GDPImillion US$1

Land area

fish

consumption (kg/year)

US$1

Land area (km^l

Marine area (thousand km^l

na

Per capita

fish

consumption (kg/yearl

660
175

20

Status and Threats

Reefs

100

at risk (%l

Recorded coral diseases

99

at risk (%]

Recorded coral diseases

Biodiversity

Biodiversity

Reef area (km^l

570

Reef area (km^l

na/313

Coral diversity

430

na/3U

Coral diversity

Mangrove area (km^l

10

Mangrove area (km'l

26

No. of mangrove species

na

No. of mangrove species

na

na

No. of seagrass species

No. of seagrass species

(million

lU

Status and Threats

Reefs

578

235

375

(km-'l

Marine area (thousand km^l

Per capita

Population (thousands!

GDP

na

^^^

' '-^

'"

bicolor cleaner wrasse Labroides bicolor follows a coral grouper Cephalopholis miniata. Cleaner fishes play a critical

role in

removing parasites and

otfier material

from

many reef fist).

199

200

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Seychelles
MAPS

The

Seychelles

is

and

The low

a very large archipelagic nation in

The 115 named

the Western Indian Ocean.

atolls together

islands

with their associated reef sys-

largest

and g

coralline islands to the south and west of the

Seychelles Bank

The

7f

is

fall into a

that

number of geographic groups.

of the Amirante Islands, which extend

tems can be clearly divided into two distinct regions: the

along a shallow north-south ridge, with the Alphonse group

high islands to the north and the low coralline islands

forming a

spread over wide areas to the south and southwest.

Further south are two small and more disparate island

The Seychelles Bank

the

31

Mascarene Ridge and

of this chain.

northernmost point of

groups, those of Providence-Farquhar and the Aldabra

a large, shallow area (some

group. Finally, directly to the south of the Seychelles

lies at the
is

slightly separate southern section

000 square kilometers) of water, mostly above

a depth

Bank

number of high

granitic

reefs in these outer island areas are highly varied,

of 100 meters. In

center are a

its

islands of continental origin. These have been described as

a "micro-continenf

having been

left

behind during the

northwards migration of the Indian sub-continent about 135

and Coetivy. The

are the isolated islands of Platte

include true atolls

submerged or

atolls (Aldabra),

and

Joseph, Alphonse, Farquhar), raised

(St,

partially

submerged

atolls

(Desroches, Coetivy), and platform or bank structures

million years ago. These are surrounded by widespread but

(African Banks, Providence-CerO- Coral cover varies con-

Mahe

siderably between localities, ranging from close to zero on

discontinuous, fringing reefs. Along the east coast of

and the west coast of Praslin such fringing reefs are well

some banks and

developed. Reef

Cerf Bank),

and terminating

flats

in a

reaching over 2 kilometers in width

clearly

zoned reefs are

locations

less apparent in

more

sheltered

where more complex reef formations have

reef slopes (notably the large Providence-

60-70 percent on some

The Seychelles

high algal ridge are followed by a reef

slope descending to a floor typically at 8-12 meters. Such

to

diversity.

Some

101

fish species have

cal

lie in

atoll slopes.

an area of relatively high faunal

hermatypic coral species and 920

been

listed.

The reef fauna

is fairly

typi-

of the Western Indian Ocean, as exemplified by the

many

developed. Coral cover varies, being virtually absent from

reef fish:

some former reef

wider areas of the Indo-Pacific, however about 15 percent

structures, but

abundant

in other areas,

including non-reefal slopes and granitic surfaces.

Aldabra Atoll

is

248-4i, 19941.

are confined to the western part.

a raised atoll in the southwest Seychelles

on land, including the last giant tortoises

in the region,

are widespread across the ocean basin or

and a World Heritage

Site.

There are

The

coral reefs of the

many unique

species

while the reefs are important and relatively pristine ISTS068-

MAP7f

;
tt^

!9

^
I

to

i^
ffs

>
g

^^i\

MAP 79

.a

^
O4

r^;^
s

V*"'

iM

Ki

b
F^-

f-

=3

s,

K]^1

^1U

to

r^

.
s

<E3

"

5
^

J!b

1
s

i|

-.1

a.

>,

B
0

"

^3

""

f
a

:^

<

,2

g
b

23

<a

u
s

J
D

Q
g:

r
b

fc;

<

n
a
I

.2

<

fe;

-I---,
-a

^
-|
s

ill

i^
a

<
G

t
o
CA

Western Indian Ocean

entire

archipelago were very heavily impacted by the

Fishing pressure in the southern islands, by contrast,

1997-98 El Nifio event, with bleaching occurring on

relatively low.

There

is

some

some small commercial

60-95 percent of corals, and subsequent coral mortalities

from the granitic

of 50-90 percent. The longer-term impacts on the reef

fisheries operations run

communities are somewhat unpredictable given the scale

The offshore tuna populations

of damage

export fishery, with a tuna cannery in

in all areas.

Human

impacts on the reefs are varied, but clearly

significant in the granitic islands.

consumption

is

Most of the

Tourism

national fish

of nearshore fishes, a large proportion

islands, but also

number of vessels from

is

from a few of the inhabited

Mahe

a critical industry in the Seychelles, being

one of the main providers of employment and the main

foreign exchange earner. In 1996 there were
visitors,

documented examples of overfishing from

Above: Shrimpfish Aeoliscus strigatus

a few localities.

in their

all

tie

Cocas and

its

with receipts totalling

tourism

is

US$147

surrounding shallow reefs are

some

131 000

million. Virtually

coastal and beach orientated, with a large

unusual liead-down swimming motion over a shallow reef

Left:

The massive

many former corals to be overgrown with algal

one of a number of protected areas in the Seychelles.

coral mortalities associated with the bleaching event in 1998 allowed

species. Right:

serving a large

the Indian Ocean.

Bank

and there are clearly

islands.

are the center of a major

of which are reef associated. The reefs of the Seychelles

are thus quite heavily utilized,

is

fishing by vessels visiting

204

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Seyche lies
General Data
79

Population (thousands)

GDP

(miUion US$1

i/i9

Land area (km'l

A89

Marine area Itliousand km^)

Per capita

fish

334

consumption (kg/year|

65

Status and Threats

Reefs at risk (%l

17

Recorded coral diseases

Biodiversity

Reef area (km^l

690

206/310

Coral diversity

Mangrove area Ikm^l

29

No. of mangrove species

No. of seagrass species

proportion of visitors on diving holidays, and

making day

trips to reefs.

Most

granitic islands, but there are

now

also

many

of sewage pollution, sediments, and solid waste are

others

remain on the

tourists

problematic, while the increases in tourism are bringing

some exclusive

these problems to

developments on the outer islands, while boat-based

There

holidays take tourists to most areas.

Land reclamation has

built

at the

upon, and destroyed, a

fringing reefs of east

Mahe, which

were once the best developed fringing reefs

in the country.

large

area of the

is

new

areas.

a clear awareness of environmental issues

governmental level and efforts are being made to

improve sewage treatment

in

some

areas.

number of

marine protected areas have been established and active

management

is

underway. The remote island of Aldabra has

This work has also had impacts on the adjacent reefs

long been recognized for

through heavy sedimentation. Elsewhere

well protected, with a research station and permanent

terrestrial

sources

its

unique flora and fauna and

is

staff.

Protected areas with coral reefs

Site

name

Designation

Abbreviation

lUCN

cat.

Size

(km!l

Year

Seychelles

Aldabra

Special Nature Reserve

SpNR

la

350.00

1981

Aride Island

Special Nature Reserve

SpNR

la

0.70

1973

Bale Ternaie

Marine National Park

MNP

II

0.80

1979

Cousin Island

Special Nature Reserve

SpNR

la

0.28

1975

Curieuse

Marine National Park

MNP

II

U.70

1979

PA

Unassigned

0.01

1987

II

1.58

1979

II

30.45

1987

lie

Cocos

Protected Area

Port Launay

Marine National Park

Silhouette

Marine National Park

St.

Anne

MNP
MNP
MNP

Marine National Park

Aldabra Atoll

World Heritage

Site

U.23

1973

350.00

1982

II

The bank of shallow water around Providence and Cerf Islands has the appearance of a true platform
recent studies have

shown

seagrass ISTS033-76-43,

that there

19891.

is

very

little living

coral on

its

reef,

seaward margins, while the surface

is

although

dominated by

Western Indian Ocean

Mauritius and Reunion

MAP7h

15knn

Mascarene
TheReunion

islands of Mauritius, Rodrigues

the southern

lie at

and

about 20 meters there

end of the Mascarene

Ridge and are geologically relatively young. All

islands are of volcanic origin

three

Still

volcanically active,

it

lies directly

is

the youngest.

8),

well

as

southerly parts of the Mascarene Ridge.

flats

as

Moving

the

coral

reefs

are

by

reefs, with

extending out from the shore to

50 meters

in places but is
at its

lagoon, and reef

The

wide shallow reef

in

more

the

east this

typically 1-2

widest extent in the west

it

in the

and mangrove communities are

flats

reported to be increasing. The outer slopes are steep, and

both better developed and

which

main islands
fall

main islands and

bleaching event affected 30-40 percent of corals, though

listed here there are

under the jurisdiction of

Mauritius and of Reunion. These

the

the oldest

have 50-70 percent coral cover In Mauritius the 1998

In addition to the

others

is

developed reef

reaches 10 kilometers. Seagrasses are widespread

further offshore.

several

totally encircled

kilometers wide, while

the

east-

wards the islands become comparatively older, and with

this

is

narrows

entire

a highly

structure, although a true barrier reef has not formed.

island

over the hot spot

which has provided the geological origin of the

Chagos-Laccadive Ridge (Chapter

of the volcanic islands and has

and show a clear

sequence of reef development. Reunion

usually only a thin veneer of coral

is

rock overlying volcanic rocks. Rodrigues

lie at

some

distance from

very few died. The high rates of survival have,

been related

to overcast

in part,

and windy conditions for much of

February and March, which were associated with cyclone

are considered separately, below.

Anacelle and which mitigated the warming impacts

observed elsewhere

Mauritius and Rodrigues

Mauritius
reefs,

is

almost completely encircled by

Many
fringing

with substantial lagoon and barrier reef develop-

ment on the

east

and southwest coasts. The lagoons are

dominated by algae, but with some areas of seagrass. The

reef slopes have a clear spur and groove zone.

Left: Mauritius tias fringing reefs

Right: The schooling bannerfish

on most of

its

Below

in the region.

of the reefs around Mauritius have been

degraded by human

activities.

levels of sedimentation

Problems include high

and pollution arising from the

clearance of the forest and subsequent agricultural runoff.

Further pollution comes from domestic and light industrial effluents.

There has also been direct damage to the

coastiine, but also a barrier reef in the southeast ISTSt03-731-80, 19991.

Heniochus diphreutes

is

a butterftyfish which feeds on zooplanl<ton above the reef.

205

MAP7h
55

90

North

West

61

58

180

270

450 km

360

4-

Point

10-20'

Agelaga Islands

<\

___;
4

Agelaga Islands

(MAURITIUS)
Sava de

km

12

Malha Bank

Cargados

12

C^jos

tr

INDIAN OCEAN

54'30'

54'3V

lleTnanelm

Nazareth

is'j

Bank

\5]
Jromelin

lie

!,-,

"

iir

(REUNION)

63'20'

55-30'

ST.

j-im

is-w

55"45'

DENIS
St Suzanne

Le Pott ,

yT'

Cargados Carajos
(IkfiURITIUS)

Cap

la

Rodriguesl.

v*

St Benoit

Houssaye ,

63-30'

Hell-Bourg

18

sjF^j

St Rose*
St.

Leu

^srx

REUNION

10

18

15

km

Cap la Houssaye
'

Saint Joseph
5

10 15

MP

St Joseph

km

RODRIGUES

^)i MAURmUS

lie
lie

21

..
2<"

NR

Ronde (Round Island)

Rale

(Flat Island)

NR

Coin de Mim
(Gunner'sQuoin) NR

'

.Ileaux
Serpents

-'*

tlot

^
Poll Louis FiR

"

NR

Gabriel

21

du
Rampart
- Pnitdm
Poudre FiR

Riviere

MAURITIUS

fi?

REUNION
(FRANCE)

f
'port LOUIS

Flacq FIR

Trou d'Eau
(

INDIAN OCEAN

RR

Mahetx>uru'

Black
River FiR
5 1015

55

Douce
GrandPort-

58

BR
km.

tlot

Marianne

NR
Ileaux Aigrettes

NR
64

Western Indian Ocean

reefs - blast fishing

damage

was

problem

of-thorns

starfish,

which have undergone population

explosions since the early 1980s. Tourism

is

a critical

Mauritms had 487 000

sector of the economy, and

in 1996.

and anchor

in the past

continues. Large areas are also affected by crown-

arrivals

Coastal development to cater for this industry has

added significant impacts, notably through pollution, but

and

also through coral

shell collection for sale to tourists

as well as direct diver impacts.

By

contrast the island of Rodrigues remains relatively

undeveloped, with a small

human

population. Fisheries

and there

are an important industry

is

a well developed

octopus fishery which exports to Mauritius. Tourism

and sedimentation are

visitors in 1997. Soil erosion

problem around

is

some 26 000

small, but growing, sector of the economy, with

this island, but overall the reefs,

still

which are

further offshore, remain in relatively healthy condition.

Mauritius holds jurisdiction over a string of islands

and reefs running north along the Mascarene Ridge - the

northernmost island

is

Albatross, although there are reef

communities on the Nazareth Bank some 240 kilometers

further north (and

still

within Mauritian waters). The main

group of islands and reefs

in this area lie

on a long reef

structure on the

Cargados Carajos Bank. These include

Brandon (North

Island), St. Raphael,

and

lie

Paul, plus a chain of over a

south. There
reefs,

is

little

He

dozen islands

in the

published information about these

however they are thought

to include a

in

the

Ocean. There are large and important seabird

colonies on a

number of

a private fishing

The

islands.

company which

meteorological station, on

St.

is

some 641

whom

registered commercial fishers in 1996, most of

were operating

in

nearshore areas. Overexploitation

of coastal fishes has been occurring for some time, and

destructive fishing practices have been reported.

Tourism

broad reef flat

and possibly the largest continuous algal ridge

Indian

St.

Perle, ile Fregate

is

the

main source of income on Reunion.

There were 347 000 visitors

in

1996 and, although diving

and snorkelling are not the major

percent of hotel bookings are on the west coast, close to

based, along with a

the coral reefs.

Also administered by Mauritius

The impacts of overfishing and

is

^H

isolated

the

Agelaga, a complex of two islands (North and South

little

Again there

is

very

published literature describing this island.

'

Reunion
Reunion,

a territory

communities

of France, only has a few fringing reef

restricted

to

its

leeward western shores,

although corals are found growing directly on volcanic

substrates in the southeast.
reefs have

Although not extensive, these

been well studied.

An

coastal

development together with sewage pollution are reported

Raphael.

Island) and a substantial reef area.

over 50

attractions,

islands are leased to

estimated

000 species

offish occur in the surrounding waters, including 250-300

"

'

General Data
Population Ithousandsl

179

GDP

5U

(million

US$1

Land area (km^l

2 035

Marine area (thousand km^l

Per capita

fish

consumption [kg/yearl

291
21

Status and Threats

Reefs

81

at risk (%1

Recorded coral diseases

reef-associated species, and 149 recorded coral species.

The 1998

had some impact, particularly

coral bleaching

where corals were already stressed by other

recovery was good

in

number of survey

sites

lagoons was

at

all

factors, but

areas. Coral cover at a

on the outer reef slopes and

30-50 percent after the bleaching.

The majority of
to the coast

almost

the people of

and have had

In addition to the

Reunion

major impact on

it.

live

close

Biodiversity

870

Reef area (km^l

Coral diversity

161

Mangrove area (km^l

/29i
na

No. of mangrove species

No. of seagrass species

There were

main Islands of Mauritius and Rodrigues, Mauritius also administers

notably the Cargados Carajos Bank ISTS033-75-92,

19891.

a large area of

remote

reefs,

208

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

to

Outlying French territories

have severely degraded nearly 30 percent of the reef

flats.

reefs,

reduce impacts on the coral

France administers a number of islands (Maps 7e and h)

including tighter controls on land-based sources

around Madagascar (administered alongside Madagascar

Efforts are

underway

to

of pollution.

Most of

prior to

the coral reefs are formally protected within

a marine park,

which had

area incorporates a

consideration

is

1 1

park rangers in 2000. The

number of

independence). Sometimes

its

of

lective title

are

all

lies

known by

administered from Reunion, although their owner-

ship remains disputed with Madagascar.

fishing reserves, while

being given to the designation of nature

located in the

on the

reserves or other additional forms of protection within the

status

On

park boundaries.

the col-

Eparses (scattered islands), these islands

of any of these reefs

same

the

Most of these

are

Mozambique Channel. Recent information

latitude as

is

unavailable.

Grande Comore, but close

to

Reunion
General Data
Population (thousands)

GDP

(million

721

US$1

Land area Ikm^l

Marine area (thousand km^j
Per capita

fish

U8

2 576

318

consumption kg/yea r|
(

10

Status and Threats

Reefs at risk (%|

100

Recorded coral diseases

Biodiversity

<50

Reef area* (kmz)

13^/295

Coral diversity

Mangrove area (km^l

na

No. of mangrove species

na

No. of seagrass species

The

lies

Eparses have

23

km2

in a

of

Above: Corals do not dominate

often

still

in all areas,

but reef

fish,

a further

marine area

of

na
243 km^

of reef.

with a land area

640 000 km'

_._._,.

._.

such as these humpback unicornfish Naso brachycentron are

found around rocl<y reefs. Below: Young hawksbilt turtles Eretmochelys imbncata. There are important turtle

nesting beaches on a

number

of the isolated Indian

Ocean

islands.

Western Indian Ocean

the northern tip of Madagascar,

lie

the lies Glorieuses, a

group of four small raised coral islands on

a 17

kilometer

much
its

closer to Reunion, east of northern Madagascar, and

ownership

is

disputed by Mauritius. This

a raised

is

long coralline platform. At the narrowest point of the

coralline islet surrounded by fringing reefs on

all

Mozambique Channel

with a reef

Some

lies

which was mined

island

Juan de Nova, another coralline

for

phosphates and had a resident

population until 1972. The island

almost 12 kilometers
the

in length.

Mozambique Channel

there arc

reef systems. Bassas da India

atoll

lies

on a coralline platform

Towards the southern end of

is

two more islands and

land at high

tide.

Europa

is

little

or no emergent

another atoll structure, about

of about

150 meters width.

scleractinian coral genera have

island,

The

and there are also

been described from

500-2 000 breeding green

island has an airstrip

and a meteorological

and

all

meteorological

except

stations.

Bassas da

declared nature reserves and, although there

management, they are perhaps

most important

sites in the

world for the breeding of green

with 8 000-15 000 breeding females.

turtles,

Tromelm

lies

turtles.

station,

also

have

all

been

is little

active

India

These islands have

14 kilometers across, but with a significant land area and a

also one of the

15
this

Although uninhabited, the islands have military

barracks

shallow, mangrove-fringed lagoon. This

is

sides,

although there are no permanent inhabitants.

a nearly perfect circular

about 12 kilometers across with

flat

better protected

by their

remote locations and the presence of military personnel

on the

islands.

Protected areas wi th coral reefs

Site

name

Designation

^^^^hreviation

lUCN

cat.

Size

(km'l

Year

Reunion
Marine Park

MP

VI

na

1998

L'Etang

Fishing Reserve

FiR

VI

na

1992

Pointe de Bretagne Pointe de I'Etang Sale

Fishing Reserve

FiR

VI

na

1978

Ravine Trois Bassins Pointe de Bretagne

Fishing Reserve

FiR

VI

na

1978

Cap

la

Houssaye -

Joseph

St.

Fishing Reserve

FiR

VI

na

1992

Saline rHermitage

llagoonl

Fishing Reserve

FiR

VI

na

1992

Saline ['Hermitage

Ireefl

Fishing Reserve

FiR

VI

na

1992

Fishing Reserve

FiR

VI

na

1992

Nature Reserve

NR

IV

na

1975

Nature Reserve

NR

IV

na

1975

Leu

St.

Pierre

St.

Ties

Eparses

Juan de Nova
Ties

Glorieuses

Nature Reserve

NR

IV

na

1975

Tlot

de Bassas da India

Nature Reserve

NR

IV

na

1975

Tlot

d'Europa

Nature Reserve

NR

IV

na

1975

Tie

Tromelin

Mauritius
Balaclava

Marine Park

MP

II

na

1997

Black River

Fishing Reserve

FiR

IV

9.00

1983

Flacq

Fishing Reserve

FiR

IV

6.00

1983

Grand Port - Mahebourg

Fishing Reserve

FiR

IV

22.00

1983

Port Louis

Fishing Reserve

FiR

IV

5.00

1983

Fishing Reserve

FiR

IV

35.00

1983

Fishing Reserve

FiR

IV

7.00

1983

Riviere du

Rampart

Trou d'Eau Douce

HIIBI

linill

Poudre d'Or

nHIIMHHHInm.

______

lUiJ,.^

209

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(1978a). Aldabra Island East 1:25 000

Senes Y852 (DOS

304PI 3rd edn. Department of Overseas Surveys, UK.

French Indian

(1978b). Aldabra Island

West 1:25 000 Senes Y852 (DOS

301PI 3rd edn. Department of Overseas Surveys, UK.

DOS

Map sources

(1978c). Farqubar Group 1:25 000 Series 304P

Department of Overseas Surveys, UK.

Map 7a
For

Kenya,

coral

reef

data

been combined from

UNEP/IUCN 11988b)*. The

have

Petroconsultants SA (19901* and

data were only available at a scale of 1:2 500 000.

Mangrove data were generously supplied by UNEP and were
derived from a more detailed (1:25 000) coverage originally
prepared for the Kenya Wildlife Service by W Ferguson in 995.
For Somalia coral reef data are taken from UNEP/IUCN [1988b)
latter

at a scale of 1:5

1st edn.

DOS

(1979). Cosmoledo Group 1:25 000 Series 304P 1st edn.

Department of Overseas Surveys, UK.
DOS (1993a). Providence Group INorthI 1:25 000 Series 30iP
3rd edn. Department of Overseas Surveys, UK.
DOS (1993b). Providence Group ISouthI 1:25 000 Series 301P
3rd edn. Department of Overseas Surveys, UK.

Hydrographic Office (1978). Anchorages

in

the Seychelles

group and outlying islands. British Admiralty Chart No. 724.

000 000.

Various scales. Taunton. UK.

Map 7b

Hydrographic Office (19941. Islands North

and mangrove data were generously

supplied by UNEP. These data were prepared by Christopher A
Muhando at the Institute for Marine Sciences in Zanzibar [with
support from the Swedish Agency for Research Cooperation
Detailed

ISAREO)

Map

coral

at a scale of 1:250 000.

7c

Coral reef and mangrove data were generously supplied by

UNEP. Coral reef data were originally prepared from MND

[19861. Mangrove data are based on 1:1 000 000 maps created
under project: FAQ/PNUD MOZ/86/003 C MQZ/92/013. For
South

Africa, coral reefs

have been taken from UNEP/IUCN

(1986).

1:200 000

map

series.

Maps: 'i2621-M, 42622-M.

'12623-M, A2624-M, A2625-M, 42626-M. 42627-M, 42628-M.

42629-M, 42630-M and /12630-M. Ministry of National

Defense of the Republic of Mozambique. 1st edn 15-X-1986.
Division of Navigation and oceanography. Ministry of
Defense of Russia.

Madagascar

UK.

Map7h
For the main island of Mauritius coastline, reefs and bathymetry
were obtained from Hydrographic Office [1984). For Rodrigues
coastline,
reefs and
bathymetry were obtained from
Hydrographic Office (1914). These data were largely derived
from a survey undertaken in 874, however comparisons with a
1983 Department of Overseas Surveys map showed minimal
1

differences

in

general coastal morphology and reef area. For the

Cargados Carajos Shoals and Agalega, islands and reefs were

based on

survey undertaken

a sketch survey of

934

in

1846 for Cargados Carajos, and

for Agalega, but with additions.

For Reunion, coastline and reefs are based on

[1988b)*, which

was

UNEP/IUCN

onginally prepared at a scale of 1:300 000.

For Tromelin, coastline and reefs were obtained from Hydrographic Office [1969). For this island these are largely based on

French Government survey

Map7d

of 1959. with additions to 1968.

Hydrographic Office (1914). Rodriguez Island. British Admiralty

Coral reef data have been combined from Petroconsultants

(1990)* and

of

718. Various scales. Taunton,

obtained from Hydrographic Office (19691. These are largely

[1988bl* at an approximate scale of 1:2 000 000.

MND

British Admiralty Chart No.

reef

UNEP/IUCN

available at a scale of

:2

11988b)*.

The

latter data

Chart No. 715. February 1914. Taunton, UK.

SA

were only

Hydrographic Office (1969). Cargados Carajos Shoals. British

Admiralty Chart No.

500 000.

1818.

January 1969

(last

major

corrections 1941). Taunton, UK.

Map7e

Hydrographic Office (1984). Mauritius. British Admiralty Chart

No. 711. 1:125 000. October 1984. Taunton, UK.

For the Comoros, coral reef data were generously supplied by

UNEP

and are derived from IGN (1995a, 1995b, 1995c]. For

Mayotte, coral reef data are taken from Hydrographic Office

See Technical notes, page 401

212

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Chapter 8
Central Indian Ocean

The

southern continental coastline

Asia, stretching fronn Pakistan to

has remarkably

little

most
are

of the

is

some

reef

There

Pakistan, while

off

western and eastern coastlines

dominated by high levels

preventing reef formation.

there

Central

reef development.

are no true reefs recorded

India

of

Bangladesh,

the far southeast of India

In

development and there are

important reefs around

of

species diversity on coral reefs (see Chapter

show how

maximum

tew

diversity

is

"Chagos Stricture"

of

clearly

narrow path

restricted to a

diversity - the

1)

of

- centered

on the southern Maldives and Chagos Archipelago.

sediments,

of

Maps showing patterns

the Western Indian Ocean.

Similar levels of diversity again

become widespread

further west along the coast of East Africa and the

Arabian Peninsula.

is

It

considered, from these patterns

stark contrast to

and others, that the Central Indian Ocean reefs could

these continental shores, the oceanic waters to the

provide a critical link between the eastern and western

south, and around the

Sri

Lanka.

In

Andaman and Nicobar

Islands

in

the east, abound with reefs. The dominant formation

is

a single arc stretching from the Indian islands of

Lakshadweep. along the chain

of the Maldives, to the

Chagos Archipelago. This follows the Chagos-Laccadive

Ridge, a volcanic structure

ment

of the

left

by the northward move-

oceanic crust over the Reunion hotspot.

These reefs include the worlds largest

Biogeographically this
India's

is

Andaman and Nicobar

of insular

biodiversity

includes

region

Islands

Southeast Asia, the region

in

many

atoll structures.

the world. The fauna

lie

of

of

transition.

on the edges
highest reef

on these reefs

species restricted to Southeast Asia, or

margins

of the Indian

Human

Ocean.

pressures on the reefs

the region vary

in

considerably The reefs of the Chagos and parts of

the

Andaman and Nicobar

Islands are

among

the least

impacted coral reefs worldwide. Studies on water

quality

in

Chagos Archipelago suggest

the

may be some

of the least polluted

waters

that these

in

the world,

and that even persistent organic pollutants from remote

sources

may be lower here

the coral reefs

are under

than elsewhere. By contrast

Lanka and parts

in Sri

of

mainland India

enormous pressure. Although

on the distribution
probable that

some

of reefs is scarce,

it

historical data

seems

highly

reefs have already been lost from

which have the Andaman and Nicobar Islands as the

these areas. The importance

of reefs to the social

westernmost edge

of their range. To the west, the reefs

economic well-being

regions people

from

to

the Chagos Archipelago include

more typically Indian Ocean species,
as well as small numbers of species which characterize
India

certain

Left:

south

elements

of

of the

recognized, and there are a

national level to restrict

number

damaging

is

and

widely

of efforts at the

activities

and set

aside areas for conservation.

A red-footed booby Sula sula and chick on one of the important seabird nesting islands in the Chagos Archipelago.
A school of bengal snapper Lutjanus kasmira swims over bleached corals during the 1998 coral bleaching event.

Right:

MAPS
'5 70

Jrl

PAKISTAN

.4

Fan

Arabian
Basin

ARAB!

^<

SEA

*
"S

MALDIVES

Ceylon Plain

INDIAN

Cocos

OCEAN
Nikitin

Basin

'

Seamnuttt

Mid-Indian
Basin

BRITISH INDIAN
,

OCEAN TERRITORY
(UK)

/
/
300

^^^k^^^

;70

900 kin^

600
80'

^/

Osb.
Osbom

Plateau

*^tL

MAP 8a

Central Indian Ocean

and

India, Pakistan

Bangladesh

InCliS.

despite

off

reefs

its

MAP

vast size, has only a few coral

mainland coast, mostly concentrated

its

around the Gulf of Kutch to the northwest, and the Gulf

of Mannar near Sri Lanka
highly developed

in

Lakshadweep and

the

in

the southeast.

Reefs are

more remote archipelagos of

the

Andaman and Nicobar

islands.

The

distribution and status of any reefs outside these areas

this area, but

reefs

coast there are

are predominantly patchy structures built

up on sandstone

or other banks or around the small islands on the southern

They have adapted

side of the gulf

to

extreme environ-

some

down

to

the

small, low diversity communities, but

conditions here are quite harsh, with low salinities during

the

monsoon and high

turbidity

and wave action. Corals are

also reported from the Gaveshani

Bank some 100 kilometers

off the coast from Mangalore.

The

and coral communities of the Gulf of Kutch

on average were much lower than on reefs

the south, with about 30 percent mortality. Further

remains largely unknown.

The

8a

in

best developed mainland reef structures are located

the southeast,

with fringing reefs occurring off Palk

Bay, and on the coasts and islands of the Gulf of Mannar,

including

Adams

Bridge, a string of reefs stretching across

towards Sri Lanka. Diversity

is

high in this area, with 117

mental conditions of high temperatures, fluctuating and high

hard coral species recorded as well as a number of eco-

As

systems including seagrass and mangrove communities.

salinities, large tidal

ranges and heavy sediment loads.

a result diversity

low. with only 37 hard coral species

Unfortunately reefs in this region were recorded as rapidly

recorded and no branching species. Coral sand mining was

deteriorating as early as 1971. associated with high levels

is

a significant industry in the

and may have added

oil

pollution in the area

There

an

is

parts of

oil

Gulf of Kutch

in the early

to already difficult conditions.

may

1980s

Chronic

also be affecting the reefs.

pipeline right through the national park,

which were impacted by

major

oil spill in

1999.

of siltation and the removal of coral rock combined with

cyclone impacts. Coral rubble mining
region,

still

occurs

and mining of sand from the beaches

is

in the

ongoing.

Fisheries are thought to have a considerable impact, with

some 47

fishing

villages comprising

a total

of 50 000

and the clearance of

people. Apart from overexploitation of general reef fish

of sedimentation. The

stocks there are concerns about other fisheries including

impacts of the 1998 coral bleaching were quite varied within

sea fans, sea cucumbers, spiny lobsters, seahorses and

Industrial pollution is a further concern,

mangroves may have increased

Pamban

Island

In

levels

the Gulf of Mannar. This region has

India IST5033-76-60. 19891

some

of the

most important

coral reefs off the mainland coast of

215

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

About

shells for mother-of-pearl.

000 marine

turtles are

the entire

bleaching event appears to have severely impacted the reefs

atolls

Gulf of Mannar, with 60-80 percent

in the

large proportion

of the reefs

Kutch and the Gulf of Mannar now

in

both the Gulf of

within legally

virtually

with

about

36 islands (with a

major submerged banks. Typically the

have shallow

lagoons, averaging a depth of 3-5 meters, with islands

The

Islands (Laccadives) are located

about 300 kilometers west of the southernmost

are true atolls

and five

reefs

atolls

mostly occurring on the eastern rims. The outer slopes of

the atolls descend steeply

They

area

weak

rescinded to allow for industrial development.

India.

land

total

and also four major submerged

inhabited,

cerns that the Gulf of Kutch Marine National Park will be

The Lakshadweep

form

no monitoring. There are con-

gazetted protected areas, but these suffer from both

management and

to

Chagos-Laccadive Ridge. There are 12 coral

of 32 square kilometers), about a third of which are

mortality.

fall

Reunion hot spot which went on

oldest trace of the

taken annually and dugongs are also hunted. The 1998 coral

tip

and related reef structures,

of

built

up over a volcanic base, marking the northernmost and

local

and have prolific coral growth.

population on

51 000, and fishing

largely focussed

is

these

islands

an important

numbers some
although

activity,

on offshore (non-reef) stocks. There has

been sand mining

in

some lagoons which

have impacted areas of

India

Pakistan

0U004

Ul

reef.

Tourism

is

likely to

is

small

but

Bangladeshi

General Data
Population Ithousandsl

GDP

(million

US$1

^18 720

Land area (km'l

3 089 857

Marine area (thousand km^l

Per capita

fish

consumption

55A

129

19-1

62 915

31

838

877

66/i

138/i70

297

233

80

10

61

na

100

(kg/yearl

Status and Threats

Reefs at risk (%|

Recorded coral diseases

Biodiversity

Reef area (km^l

<50

5 790

Coral diversity

208

Mangrove area (km^l

345

na

6 700

<50

na

na

683

na

5 767

No. of mangrove species

28

21

No. of seagrass species

15

na

na

Left;

Bay

A shallow scene

of Bengal.

of branching Acropora. Right:

Dense mangrove

forests dominate the

Sundarbans

in the

northern

Central Indian Ocean

Protected areas wi th coral reefs

1

name

Site

Designation

lUCN

Abbreviation

Size

cat.

lkm!|

ITear

India

Great Nicobar

Biosphere Reserve (National!

BR

Gulfof Kutch

Marine National Parl<

NP
S

GulfofKutch

Marine Sanctuary

885.00

989

II

162.89

980

IV

293.03

980

6.23

986

VI

Gulf of

Mannar

Marine National Parl<

NP

II

Gulf of

Mannar

Biosphere Reserve INationall

BR

VI

10 500.00

989

Marine National Park

NP

II

281.50

983

Wandur IMahatma Gandhi)

growing

activity:

numbers

are currently

below

000 per

warming event caused dramatic

Niiio

percent. This

is

in the

coral

El

bleaching,

Chagos-Laccadive chain.

The Andaman and Nicobar group

Many

islands.

The 1998

probably slightly lower than that experi-

enced further south

500

year.

subsequent coral mortality of 43-87

with significant

Pakistan

access requires a permit and tourist

consists of

While there
sub-littoral
is

little

published information describing the

marine communities of Pakistan,

this

country

not believed to have any true coral reefs. However, coral

communities on hard substrates are suspected, particularly

in the west.

some

is

Any such communities may

be very similar to

those described for southern Arabia.

peaks of a submerged

are the high

mountain range, a continuation of the Arakan mountains of

Myanmar. The
to the north

islands fall into

and Nicobar

by the 160

kilometer wide Ten Degree Channel. There are fringing

many of

reefs along the coastlines of

location

is

far closer to Indonesia

these islands. Their

and the Southeast Asian

center of biodiversity than to India, and species diversity

higher than

at

any other reefs

Bangladesh

two clear districts: Andaman

to the south, separated

in India,

species recorded and around 571

is

In

Bangladesh, as with

Bay of Bengal,

much of

the Indian coast of the

the high levels of turbidity and freshwater

influx prevent reef development. There

of reef development off the coast of

or Jinjiradwip, where

some 66 hard

is

St.

one .small area

Martins Island

coral species

from 22

with some 219 coral

genera have been recorded. These small reef areas are

species of reef fish.

considered seriously threatened by sedimentation, cyclone

Although only 38 islands are inhabited, the population has

damage, overfishing and anchor damage. Despite the small

been rising rapidly, largely through immigration, especially

area of corals, branching Acropora are harvested for the

Andaman District. Close to

now be some human impacts on

curio trade and are

in the

while sedimentation
are

opened up

many of the

is

may

now

reported to be rare.

the reef communities,

expected to increase as further areas

to logging.

reefs are

these areas there

still

At the present time, however,

largely free

from human impacts,

and pollution generally remains low. Despite access

difficulties, tourist

ators are

now

numbers

and dive oper-

are growing,

taking divers to the islands on "live-aboards",

usually departing from Thailand.

The

reefs

were apparently

very badly affected by the 1997-98 bleaching, with up to 80

percent mortality reported in

some

areas.

Recent surveys

have nonetheless shown an average of 56 percent

cover,

suggesting a varied impact

among

the

live coral
reefs.

detailed network of protected areas has been established in

the islands.
to

the

The majority of these

coastline,

offering at

are terrestrial but extend

least

partial

protection

to

adjacent reef communities.

Clear oceanic waters with

liigli

coral cover are found around

Lakshadweep and

although both areas were affected by the 1998 coral bleaching and mortality.

the

Andaman and Nicobar

Islands,

217

MAP 8b
80 15'

7930'

aroo'

INDIA

Point Pedro

KaraitivuJ.

Palk Strait

Eulaitivu

INDIAN OCEAN

'

I..

.Jaffna

Andalaitivu

I.

Nainatiyu

I.

:^

(-

Chundikulam S

930'

Delft

I.

Palitivu

I.

Punkudutivu

I.

GT
<S>

Mannar

Gulf
of

I.

Adams Bridge
Kokilai

Lagoon S fi

Mannar
Vankalai Reef
Ari/i,

845'

Arippu Reef
Ojfi
Silavatturai

''

'

Silavattural

Vavuniya

Reef

Trincomalee

Trincomalee Naval

'..Great Sober Island

Headworks S

>.*

Bar Reef
Marine S

Wilpattu

Block

\Senjwila

NP

'

-Altai

Kalpitiya

800'

U^

'

800'

Putlatan
Aun/

Oy^

^'
Chilaw

'

SRI

7"15'

LANKA

Kandy

715'

.QV

G^'

Negomlio^

Xe/ani GunS"

COLOMBO

Badulla

S
0'ing"

INDIAN OCEAN

Rutiuna
Block 1 NP

630'
^

Kudumbigala S

Yata East
Block 1 NP
'

-J-

vtil^
'yali^-

Beruwela

f^

630'

SNafR

^ Bentota

Bundata

D^ Hikkaduwa
Hikkaduwa

NR

n .Galle

545'

10

Marine

20

30

40

Tangalla

.Weligama

NP

Kalametiya

'j'^'

Katepuwa S

Basses Reef

Little

Basses Reef

Polhena

Reef
545'

50

Km
7930'

80 15'

8100'

8145'

Central Indian Ocean

Lanka

Sri

MAP

Sri Lankaof
coast

the Indian sub-continent.

of the land area

elevation).

narrow

is

About 30 percent

low-lying (less than 30 meters

Offshore the continental shelf

and

to the south

join that of India.

east,

Much

widening

is

particularly

to the northwest to

of the coastline

is

dominated by

high wave energy, while the southern and western coasts are

by considerable turbidity associated with

further affected

numerous

mouths. Largely as a consequence of

river

this,

coral reefs are not abundant in the coastal waters.

It

quality occur along about 2 percent of the coastline, mostly

along northwestern

many

coral

on non-coral, or

fossil

and eastern coasts. This

statistic

communities which have developed

reef platforms. Most reefs could be

is

among

not as high as

the reefs of

the oceanic areas of the Indian Ocean. Coral cover is

relatively low, although

the northwest

some of the
in

it

reaches more than 50 percent

hermatypic coral cover) on Bar Reef and reefs

(live

in

During the 1998 El Nirio warming event

reefs

underwent significant bleaching, notably

the south, with bleaching reported to depths of

42

meters near Batticaloa on the east coast. Shallow corals

down
all

has been estimated that fringing reefs of varying

includes

Marine diversity

a large continental island off the southeast

is

8b

meters were reported to have died

to 3-5

areas

except Trincomalee

the

in

in

almost

northeast,

where

bleaching did not take place. Significant reductions in

butterflyfish

and other coral-dependent species have

already been recorded.

Nearshore fisheries are a

critical

activity

in

Sri

Lanka, providing food, employment and income. Marine

are

fisheries account for 90-95 percent of the total landings,

mature structures with clear zonation patterns). Additionally

and nearshore fisheries some 70-80 percent of these.

described as fringing-type formations (although not

some

all

at

Although coral reefs are not widespread, one estimate has

Vankalai, Silavatturai and Bar Reef, while in the southeast

suggested that up to 50 percent of the nearshore capture

there

are

barrier reefs

on the northwest coast

corals have colonized offshore ridges at Great Basses and

Little Basses.

The

reefs around the Jaffna Peninsula in the

fishery depends directly on coral reef ecosystems.

other important economic activity

aquarium

grown considerably

some 250

species of reef fish

fish for the

The

over the past two decades:

Mannar

is in

the northwest between

and 50 invertebrates have been exported,

Island and the Kalpitiya Peninsula.

Bennett's butterflyfish

is

widespread across

ttie

Indo-Pacific. Feeding primarily on coral polyps,

which has been impacted by mass mortality of corals.

One

the collection of live

trade. This has

north are mainly fringing reefs, but not very well developed.
greatest reef development

is

it

is

in

one of

an industry

tfie

species

219

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Protected areas wi th coral ree fs

(

Site

name

Designation

lUCN

Abbreviation

Size

c.t.

Year

lkmz|

Lanka

Sri

Bar Reef Marine

Sanctuary

Hil<l<aduwa Marine

Nature Reserve

valued

approximately

USS3

IV

306.70

1992

NR

IV

1.01

1979

Other

Although

officially

species harvested for export in 1998 included 260 tons of

continues

in

sea cucumbers, and over 800 tons of molluscs.

providing relatively high income employment. Coral rock,

at

million in

Tourism plays an important part

1998.

the

in

economy, with coastal tourism estimated

to

national

contribute

many

banned

1983, mining in the sea

in

areas where

taken from living and fossil reefs,

in

is

it

is

a traditional activity

used as a raw material

lime production. In addition to direct destruction, coral

around US$200 million per year Although reef-related

mining leads

tourism

important

over wide areas of the coastline. Further threats to the

southwest, particularly around Hikkaduwa where

remaining reefs arise from destructive fishing practices,

in the

is

only a very small fraction of this,

the reef received over 10

The

000

likely that the total reef area

larger.

Many

is

visitors in 1994.

threats to Sri Lanka's reefs are

been much

it

of

numerous and

this nation

increased erosion

to

and high turbidity

including dynamite fishing, uncontrolled exploitation of

it

is

may once have

of the remaining reefs are highly

resources, and pollution arising from sewage and industrial effluent.

The combination of threats and current

state

of degradation of many reefs may slow recovery from

degraded. Principle causes of degradation include very

the 1998 bleaching event.

high levels of sedimentation arising from erosion of de-

place controlling such activities as coral mining, enforce-

forested land, poor agricultural practices and construction.

ment

Historically,

coral

mining has

led

to

almost complete

many reefs along the south and southwest

and may have had similar impacts in the east.

is

Although some legislation

clearly a problem.

Reef and Hikkaduwa)

Only two protected areas (Bar

are

designated

specifically

destruction of

the protection of coral reefs, and

coast

extremely weak or absent.

Sri

is in

management

Lanka

is

for

either

nH|

General Data
Population (thousands!

GDP

(million

19 239

US$)

10 738

Land area (km^l

66 580

Marine area (thousand km^J

Per capita

fish

531

consumption (kg/year|

21

Status and Threats

Reefs

at risk [%1

86

Recorded coral diseases

Biodiversity

Reef area (km^l

680

Coral diversity

100/318

Mangrove area (km^j

89

No. of mangrove species

23

No. of seagrass species

mm^^

-vfl

The highly camouflaged

devil scorpionfish

the reef. Its dorsal spines are

venemous.

Scorpaenopsis diabolis can be almost

invisible

when

resting on the bottom of

Central Indian Ocean

Maldives
MAPS

Maldives are a spectacular chain of 22 coral

The

atolls

which run for some 800 kilometers north

south

in the

to

These have the appearance of miniature

central lagoon,

Central Indian Ocean. These include

In terms

8c and d

atolls,

and often bear small islands on

with a

their rim.

of their biodiversity, the Maldivian atolls

the largest surface-level atolls in the world: the area of

form part of the "Chagos stricture" and so are an

Thiladhunmathi and Miladhunmadulu Atolls (with two

important link or stepping stone between the reefs of the

names, but a single

kilometers, while
3

atoll structure) is

Huvadhoo

some

680 square

Atoll in the south

is

200 square kilometers. (The Great Chagos Bank

south occupies an even greater area, but

is

now

over

to the

largely

submerged.)

are

200 coralline

islands, 199 of

inhabited (although only three of these are

larger than 3 square kilometers).

is

The maximum

altitude

only 5 meters above sea level. These islands and reefs

make up

the central and largest sector of the

Laccadive Ridge, which marks a volcanic trace

Reunion hotspot. The

the ridge,

atolls rise steeply

and are aligned

in

two

Chagosby the

left

from the base of

parallel chains.

rims are not unusual, with a wide reef

flat,

The

atoll

typically

bearing a number of islands and sand cays broken by deep

channels.

The

atoll

lagoons range from IS to 55 meters

depth, and within these are a

knolls, but also
are

common

therefore combines elements of both eastern

and western assemblages. Diversity

number of patch

some reef structures known

in the

reefs

as faros

in

and

which

Maldives, but very unusual elsewhere.

The atolls of Felidu, Wataru and Malaku

typify the

patch reefs and circular "faros" ISTS081-ESC-5863.

many atolls
19971.

is

very high. At least

209 scleractinian corals are recorded, with

diversity reported in the south.

There are an estimated

which

Eastern Indian Ocean and those of the East African region.

The fauna

Over

maximum

000 epipelagic and

shore fishes are recorded from the Maldives, a large

proportion of which are reef associated. Coral cover on
the atoll edges

and on the faros and lagoon knolls was

60 percent

prolific, over

to

depths of

at least

20 meters.

During the 1998 El Nirio warming event some of the

worst coral bleaching was recorded
to

in this

region and up

90 percent of hermatypic corals were reported to have

died in

some

areas.

Impacts of

this

subject of continuing study - while

corals

may

is

now

mortality are the

some growth of new

occurring, the impacts on the wider ecology

continue for decades, even assuming no further

extreme events.

More than any

Pacific, the

Maldives

other
is

nation

outside

the

Western

dependant on coral reefs for the

of this coral reef nation. The lagoons include

numerous

221

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

km

25

maintenance of land

area, food, export earnings

and foreign

currency from tourism revenues. The Maldivian people

have been estimated to have

among

the highest levels of per

capita fish consumption of any nation, at

160 kilos per

person per year The majority of this

consumption

is

of tuna

and other pelagic species, while the majority of export

on tuna. Some reef

fisheries are also centered

for local consumption, but the

is

fish are taken

most important reef fishery

the capture of live bait for the offshore tuna fishery. Fish

exports for the live fish markets of East and Southeast Asia

have also been significant through the

Maldives

is

General Data

Land reclamation has occurred on

Population (thousands)

301

GDP

215

(million

US$1

Land area (km^l

210

Marine area (thousand km^j

996

Per capita

fish

consumption (kg/year)

160

Reefs at risk (%)

11

Recorded coral diseases

8 920

Mangrove area (km'j

na

No. of mangrove species

No. of seagrass species

A wide shaltow reef fiat on an

atolt perimeter. Rigtit:

dearly foliowing two paraliei

reefs,

this coral reef nation, this latter

natural building material. In the early 1990s

mated

it

was

esti-

between 200 000 and a million cubic meters

that

specified reef areas.

The

is

now

restricted to a

first legally

few

gazetted protected

areas were designated in 1995 as "protected dive sites";

were established

sites

is

in 1999.

restricted to particular resort islands (88 in

1999), which are usually distinct from the local population

centers. In 1998 there

were almost 400 000

visitors,

and

diving and snorkelling were a major attraction for almost

all.

The

islands benefit from a relatively stable climate

all

year round, as well as easily accessible reefs with a high

abundance of

Ivlaidives.

number of

been the only means of acquiring

Tourism

212/244

activity has traditionally

more

Coral diversity

990s, and this

Given the geography of

Biodiversity

Reef area (km^l

while others have been severely impacted by coral mining.

were mined annually Mining

Status and Threats

Left:

late

having an impact on grouper stocks.

A broad view

cfiains ISTS056-i52-160, 19931.

of

fish (including

tf\e tigt)t

many of

the larger species

arrangement of atotls

in f/ie

centrai

MAP 8c
7400'

73^S

7230'

Ihavandhipolhu Atoll

'\,

^;
;73'40'

L'^-"-'V.^^.

645'
4-30'

IS

645'

''-

""K.

g-,

.'

^.'j

>

J^

**
'

".

**?''

'i

..t^

;MafcAtpU

^^.,.^...

4'2ff

Makunudu Atoll

^'

^"^

."

Si. *',

Makundhoo
Kandu OS
Thiladhumnathi Atoll

r-"

/,

HPReafDS

Nesimo Thila DS
Banana Reef DS
--

Miladbimmadulu Atoll

Kuda Haa DS
Hans Place

4'lff

600'

:"
*^
;

^.1^^

MALE

600'

12

. ugoofaam

Kuredhu Express

y-.:.V^.'
' .-'-'
tk:,-'

-!*^

^?"'"?
CrfyDS

^^^

H r'

^.

DS

r-

North

Malosmadulu

Banana

Q vSJ^

DS

Fushivaru Thila

DS

Fadhipolhu

.N^ifam

^.

5 15'

Malosmadulu
AtoU

1 ~-.- jat*t3>

515'

'^"'

?".

Sorth

Atoll

DhigahhaaDS

-v''a"

Kaaskidhoo Channel
Kaashicflioo Atoll

Horsburgh /^
(Goidu)
Goidu) Atoll
AtoU --"

'

INDIAN

OCEAN

_^

-"^

GaaFaruy^
AtoU

C_>

^&;"f?, TL

North Male AtoU

4'30"

4-30'

Toddu AtoU

RasduAtoU

1^1

Rasdhoo

Maaya

Thila

DS^

Kari Beyru
.

<.

PS

Thils,

msHeadDS
Head DS
clLuons
Ohmas

Thila

DS

W^m

''Hans Place DS

(yi/^J ChSZlDS
f'i-^-lS

South Male AtoU

fiV*i^0Naafu8hi
i !.iSl
tI5|^^j^

3'4S'

Kadu Rah

77i//a

Mailivanj

DS J

^^

c-*'**^'

DS-^

Guraidhoo Channel

345'

^
..-'

"

DS

^Mahibadhoo

Devana Kandu DS

,.

Filitheyo

Kandu DS
Vattaru

North
thNUandu

AtoU
7230'

V,.'^'*/

Kandu DS

C) Wataiu AtoU

^.>'

50

MulakuAtoU

;-./
7315'I<',;"-

7400'

km

MAP8d

Central Indian Ocean

such as sharks and manta rays). Whale and dolphin watching

is

in some areas. The impacts of tourism are

may be significant in certain sites. Impacts

beginning

localized, but

include direct diver and anchor damage, interruption of

sand movements through the building of groynes or jetties,

localized eutrophication from direct sewage discharge into

and thermal pollution from desalination

lagoons,

the

plants. Solid waste disposal

most

nation

entire

is

a significant

problem

Undoubtedly the greatest concern for

areas.

is

the

in

this

impact of climate change. Coral

bleaching and mortality have already caused significant

in the future

such events will be exacerbated by

sea-level rise, and

may

be further compounded by reduced

calcification rates

on surviving

problems:

corals.

Protected areas with coral reefs

f Site name

Designation

Abbreviation

lUCN

cat.

Size

ikm^i

Year

Maldives

Anemone

Dive Site

DS

Unassigned

na

1999

Banana Reef

Dive Site

DS

Unassigned

na

1995

Devana Kandu

Dive Site

DS

Unassigned

na

1995

Dive Site

DS

Unassigned

na

1999

Dive Site

DS

Unassigned

na

1995

Dive Site

DS

Unassigned

na

1999

Dive Site

DS

Unassigned

na

1995

Dive Site

DS

Unassigned

na

1999

Fushivaru Thila

Dive Site

DS

Unassigned

na

1995

Guraidhoo Channel

Dive Site

DS

Unassigned

na

1995

HP

Dive Site

DS

Unassigned

na

1995

Dive Site

DS

Unassigned

na

1999

Hans Place

Dive Site

DS

Unassigned

na

1995

Kadu Rah

Dive Site

DS

Unassigned

na

1995

City

Haa

Dhigali

Embudu Channel
Kandu

Filitheyo

Fish

Head

Fushi

Kandu

Reef

Hakura

Thila

Thila

Karl Beyru Thila

Dive Site

DS

Unassigned

na

1999

Kuda Haa

Dive Site

DS

Unassigned

na

1995

Kuredhu Express

Dive Site

DS

Unassigned

na

1999

Lions Head

Dive Site

DS

Unassigned

na

1995

Maaya

Dive Site

DS

Unassigned

na

1995

Madivaru

Dive Site

DS

Unassigned

na

1999

Makundhoo Kandu

Dive Site

DS

Unassigned

na

1995

Nasimo

Thila

Dive Site

DS

Unassigned

na

1999

Orimas Thila

Dive Site

DS

Unassigned

na

1995

Rasfari

Dive Site

DS

Unassigned

na

1995

DS

Unassigned

na

1999

Thila

Vattaru

During the

Kandu

Dive Site

998 coral bleaching event the majority of corals died. The darker branches on

and become overgrown with filamentous

algae.

this

colony have already died

226

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

British Indian

Ocean

Territory

MAPSe

The

Ocean

British Indian

Territory

(BIOT) covers a

very large area of reefs and islands, also

Chagos Archipelago. There

the

and

islets and,

although the

kilometers, there
true atolls

is

a mostly

only 60 square

submerged

in

atoll

(Great

the largest atoll structure in the world at

000 square kilometers), and

Centurion Bank). The southernmost

number of sub-

atoll,

Pitt

Bank and

Diego Garcia,

is

having a narrow but continuous land rim

extending around 90 percent of the

The

islands

These include five

merged banks (including Speakers Bank,

unusual

as

(Blenheim Reef, Diego Garcia, Egmont, Peros

Chagos Bank,
13

known

some 50

total land area is

a vast area of reefs.

Banhos and Salomon),

some

are

km

atoll's

circumference.

northerly atolls, by contrast, have only small islands

scattered around them.

As with

the Maldives, the

Chagos

corals in the Indian Ocean.

While recorded

currently lower than those for the Maldives,

many more have

reefs of the

fish faunas are

likely that

is

it

yet to be recorded. Like the Maldives, the

Chagos

lie

close to the mid-point between the

eastern and western faunas of the Indian Ocean. This fact,

combined with

their high diversity, lends support to their

role as an important biogeographic stepping stone in the

so-called
the

Chagos

stricture.

Chagos have close

The faunal

affinities to

characteristics of

both the Indonesian

high diversity faunas and the East African faunas. Further

interesting biodiversity features, including a small

of endemic or near endemic species,

may be

number

associated

with the isolation of the Chagos. Undoubtedly the most

interesting of these

is

the coral Ctenella chagius

be unique to the Chagos, although there

is

which may

one reported

Archipelago has grown up over the volcanic trace of the

observation from Mauritius. This species

Reunion hotspot, and forms the newest and southerrunost

representative of the family Meandrinidae in the entire

extension of the Chagos-Laccadive Ridge. The reefs and

Indo-Pacific, although this family

islands are highly isolated

those of the Maldives,

- the nearest reef structures are

some 500 kilometers

while the nearest continental land mass

Lanka, more than

to the north,

is

that

of

Sri

500 kilometers away.

Left:

are

among

the

most diverse known

The southernmost

atoll of

for

hermatypic

is

widespread

and the related

T.

nanus was

first

the only extant

was widespread

in

Chagos goby Trimmalom offucius

The

With some 220 scleractinian species, the reefs of the

Chagos

Cretaceous (and

is

is

the

endemic

to the area

reported from these reefs.

latter is the smallest fish species in the world,

maturity

at

in the

Caribbean). The

reaching

only 8 millimeters in length.

Prior to 1998, coral cover

Diego Garcia includes a major US military base. This

was high on both seaward

atoll is also

notable for the narrow

but nearly continuous island following the atoll rim ISTS038-86-W5, 19901 Right: Coralline algae, rather than scleractinian
corals,

dominate the reef crest on many of the reefs

in

the Central Indian Ocean, such as this on Peros Banhos.

MAP8e

72-12'

72-14'

5-1

lie

7230'

7ri6'

Salomon

500'

7200'

7r30'

i/roo'

500'

IleTakm

iI

aultuie

J^

Poule
1

Blenheim
Reef
5'22'

3 km

'4>

Salomon

PerosBanhos
Eastern Perns

Banhos Atoll

SNR

530'

5'30'

Victory

BRITISH INDIAN OCEAN

Bank

SNR

Nelson Island

TERRITORY

INDIAN OCEAN

Centurion

Bank
:

7r00'

i7r30'

7200'

14

7230'

21

28

35

km

228

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

British Indian

Ocean Territory

slopes, and

was close

addition to

its

home
General Data

In

GDPImiUion US$)
72

Marine area (thousand km^

booby

55i

some

areas. In
is

most diverse and one of the largest

in

Indian Ocean.

the

167 000 breeding pairs of 17

were

species

Siila siila.

A number

consumption Ikg/yearl

of the islands

in the

Chagos Archipelago,

inhabited from the late 18th century, were transformed

by the development of coconut plantations and the

Status and Threats

Reefs

1996,

in

observed, including critical populations of the red-footed

Land area Ikm^l

fisli

the

populations of breeding seabirds

Population'

Per capita

to

100 percent

to

important marine fauna, the Chagos

at risk (%l

introduction of rats and other animals. However,

it

is

unlikely that this had a major influence on the marine

Recorded coral diseases

environment as there was no major export fishery. There

Biodiversity

was

Reef area (km^l

3 770

172/329

Coral diversity

Mangrove area Ikm^l

No. of seagrass species

There

civilian

is

a non-resident population of

some

3 000 military

evacuation of the islands in the early 1970s

the military base

on the southernmost island of

Diego Garcia was established. This has some

na

No. of mangrove species

a forced

when

sonnel and large vessels permanently

the lagoon and

some mining of

the reef

flat,

as well as a

substantial recreational fishery. There are, however, strict

and lagoonal reef slopes, typically 50-80 percent of

to

the

and

many

depth of about 40 meters.

Personnel are

activities.

not permitted to dive, and snorkelling

down

in

lagoon. The impacts of this base have included dredging in

personnel on Diego Garcia

substrate

000 per-

environmental controls on

the

anchor

at

is

also forbidden

on the outer reef slopes. The remaining islands are now

uninhabited, although there are a

number of visiting yachts

Unfortunately this area was heavily damaged during the

and other vessels (commercial tourist-carrying vessels are

1998 coral bleaching event and, although no records of

not permitted). These

bleaching intensity were

made

at the

time, coral loss has

been estimated as averaging 80-85 percent on seaward

Left:

A red-footed booby at

Indian Ocean. Right, above.

rest in a

palm

tree.

The northern

A coconut or robber crab Birgus

remote Indo-Paclfic islands where

it

may be causing

localized impacts

through anchor damage and sewage pollution, notably in

the enclosed lagoon of

atolls of the
latro. This

Salomon

Atoll.

Chagos are a major stronghold

land crab can reach i kilos

in

for this species in the

weight,

and

is

found on

has not been hunted. Right, below: A black-spotted pufferfish Arothron nigropunctatus.

Central Indian Ocean

There
small

is

a large offshore tuna fishery as well as a

inshore

licensed

fishermen

who

fishery

visit the reefs for a

There have also been reports of

for

sharks

operated by

Mauritian

few months each year

illegal fishing,

notably

and sea cucumbers, although the BIOT

Administration has run a fisheries protection vessel for

part or

all

of the year over recent years.

islands and their associated

Site

They

are occasionally patrolled by

military personnel,

although the licensed fishing vessels are allowed to operate within their borders. Overall, partly as a result

of their

history and continuing isolation, but further supported by

current

management measures,

the reefs of the

Chagos

probably represent some of the most pristine and best

protected in the Indian Ocean.

th coral reefs
Designation

British Indian

Cow

name

of the

have been declared

reefs

Protected areas

A number

protected areas. These cover substantial areas of reef

Abbreviation

lUCN

cat.

Size

(km'l

Year

Ocean Territory

Island

Danger Island

Strict

Nature Reserve

SNR

II

na

1798

Strict

Nature Reserve

SNR

11

na

1998

199^

Diego Garcia

Restricted Area

RestA

na

Eastern Peros Banhos Atoll

Strict

Nature Reserve

SNR

II

na

1998

Nelson Island

Strict

Nature Reserve

SNR

11

na

1998

Three Brothers and Resurgent

Strict

Nature Reserve

SNR

11

na

1998

Islands

A shallow lagoon scene

which occurred

in 1998.

in

Salomon

Atoll in 1996.

These reefs were devastated by the coral bleaching and mortality

230

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

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GmbH, Neu

Isenburg. Germany.
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Verlags

GBRMPA,

The

Administration, London. UK.

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K,

Wafar MVM, Khan MSM, Whittingham E 12000). Status of

in South Asia; Bangladesh. India, t1aldives and

coral reefs
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Lanka.

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CR

Wilkinson

led].

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AE 11999). Ecological and socioeconomic Impacts of 1998
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dhman MC, Rajasuriya A, Linden
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southern

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Gujarat.

India.

the southeastern coast of India and the Laccadives.

SRI

The Percy Sladen Trust Expedition

the Indian Ocean. The Transactions of the Linnean Society of

Wilkinson

CS

Plllal

Ahmedabad,

Biodiversity

Stanley Gardiner J 11936). The Percy Sladen Trust Expedition to

UNEP

Goplnadha

8A7-868.

the Indian Ocean. The Transactions of the Linnean Society of

Ocean.

Reefs of the Gulf of Kachchh,

Coral

Applications Centre IISROI,

Report:

Ferguson, Australia.

Scheer G 1198A). The distribution of reef corals in the Indian

Ocean with a historical review of its investigation. Deep Sea
Res Part A 31: 885-900.
Sheppard CRC 11987). Coral species of the Indian Ocean and
adjacent seas: a synonymized compilation and some
regional distributional patterns. Atoll Res Bull 307: 1-32.
Sheppard CRC 11998). Biodiversity patterns In Indian Ocean
corals,

Bahuguna A, Nayak 5 1199ib). Mapping the Coral Reefs of

Tamil Nadu Using Satellite Data. Space Applications Centre
(ISROI, Ahmedabad, India.
Bahunguna A. Nayek S. Patel A. Aggarwal JP. Patel GA 11 9931.

Sri

and rock

patterns

in

the

communities. Ambio 27: 723-728.

A (2000). Sri Lanka. In: Sheppard C

Seas at the Millennium: An Environmental Evaluation.

Rajasuriya A. Premaratne
led).

11998). Coral

Lanka:

Elsvler Science Ltd. Oxford. UK.

Central Indian Ocean

MALDIVES
Anderson RC, Randall JE. Kulter RH
fish

and
(19981. Additions to the

fauna of the Maldive Islands. Part

2:

New

records of

fishes from the Maldive Islands, with notes on other species.

Ahmed M

JLB Smith Inst Ichth 67: 20-32.

Edwards AJ, Dawson Shepherd A 119921. Environmental

Em Cons

proposals for regulation.

NIO 119911.

in

New

Delhi,

Oceanography. Goa.

Institute of

December

1991.

Randall JE (19921. Diver's Guide

in

the South Asian

to

Fishes of the Maldives.

Randall JE, Anderson RC (19931. Annotated checldist

of

the

epipelagic and shore fishes of the Maldive Islands. Ichth Bull

Inst Ichth 59:

British Admiralty Chart No. 2738.

part.

:750 000. Taunton, UK.

Coral reef data are largely based on

UNEP/IUCN

were added

additional polygons

and

Vista Reef

Weerakkody P

L,

for individual

sites for the

from Karunaratne and Weerakkody 119951

Peninsula based on

for Kalpitiya

Karunaratne

|1988bl*. with

1:200 000. Small

original data at a scale of approximately

Ohman

et al

(1993L

(19951. Report on the Status

and

Ohman

MC,

Rajasuriya

Linden

A,

disturbances on coral reefs

Sri

Human

(19931.

Lanka:

case study. Ambio

22(71: 47i-480.

Maps 8c and 8d
names are provided on

Atoll

Topp J (1999). Natural History of the Chagos

3: Birds of Chagos. Friends of the Chagos.

Archipelago,

names

with the

some

these

are

which are used in

The spelling of Maldivian names varies
between sources. Coral reef and island
of the administrative units

boundaries are based on Hydrographic Office (1992a,

1986.

which was based on

of

supplemented by

aerial

satellite

imagery

photography

Hydrographic Office (1992a). Addoo Atoll

Atoll. British

Coral Decline and Weather Patterns

the

sources.

considerably

London,

(1999).

map,

the

geographic names, and do not always equate

traditional" or

much

London, UK,

UK
Sheppard CRC

Map 8b

1-16.

C,

British

Bio-Diversity of the Buona-Vista Coral Reef. Draft report,

BRITISH INDIAN OCEAN TERRITORY

Anderson RC, Sheppard CRC, Spalding MD, Crosby R (19981.
Shortage of sharks at Chagos. Shark News (newsletter of
the lUCN Shark Specialist Groupl 10: 1-3,
BIOT Administration (19971, The British Indian Ocean Territory
Conservation Policy, October 1997. British Indian Ocean
Territory Administration, Foreign and Commonwealth Office,
Sheppard

Lakshadweep.

of

Hydrographic Office (1989bl. Lakshadweep Sea northern

-47,

Sluka RD, Reichenbach N (19961. Grouper density and

diversity at two sites in the Republic of Maldives. Atoll Res

ButU38:

South Asia Regional Worl(Shop, Male, Maldives,

Admiralty Chart No. 705. Various scales. Taunton. UK.

Buona

Publishing. London. UK,

JLB Smith

an approximate

1995.

National

Maldives. lUCN. Gland. Switzerland.

3:

at

India.

Report: Marine Protected Area Needs

Seas Region. Volume

map

Ecosystem of Bangladesh - an
Paper presented at International Coral Reef

Hydrographic Office (1989al, Islands

19: 61-72.

Pernetta JC (19931. A Marine Conservation and Development

Immel

Initiative

the Maldives, with

the Republic of Maldives. Report submitted to Ministry of

External Affairs.

which includes a sl<etch

(19951. Coral Reef

Overview.

Report on Status of Atoll Mangroves from

Scientific

(19951.

scale of 1:33 000.

Ichth Bull

implications of aquarium-fish collection

For Bangladesh, small areas of coral were added from

bl.

Ahmed

Admiralty Chart No.

WIT

of

b, c, dl,

1984 and

of 1969.

to

North Huvadhoo

1:300 000. October

1992. Taunton. UK.

Chagos Archipelago, Central Indian

Ocean. A report commissioned by the Government of the
British Indian Ocean Territory, School of Biological Sciences,

Hydrographic Office (1992b). North Huvadhoo Atoll

University of Warwick,

Hydrographic Office (1992c), Mulaku Atoll to South

Maalhosmadula Atoll, British Admiralty Chart No. 1013.

over 20 years

the

in

Sheppard CRC, Seaward

Occasional

MRD

Publications,

(edsl (19991, Linnean Society

2.

Ecology

of

the

of

2.

1:300 000. October 1992. Taunton, UK.

Ihavandhippolhu

London, Otley and London, UK.

Reef Fishes of Chagos. Friends

Chagos Archipelago,

Atoll

of

Res Bull U9:

1-237,

Topp

J,

Archipelago,

4:

Coral reef and islands are based on

map

for this

(19991.

Natural History of the Chagos

Plants of Chagos. Friends of the Chagos,

USDMA

Anderson RC

(1997).

amendments

(1976). Indian Ocean,

6 1610.
R.

:360 000.

Center

revised checklist of

66: 1-28.

Map sources
Map 8a
Coral reefs of India were derived from relatively low resolution

000 0001 UNEP/IUCN (1988bl', and from

Petroconsultants SA 119901*, with additional higher resolution

data for the Laccadive Islands from Hydrographic Office (1989a

to the

area boundaries

Chagos Archipelago. Chart No.

Chagos Archipelago,
Central Indian Ocean. Ichth Bull JLB Smith Inst Ichth

to 1:2

Source data

US Defense Mapping Agency Hydrographic

the epipelagic and shore fishes of the

(1:10000 000

USDMA (19761.

include previous editions (original 1906, large

derived from 1976 Landsat data.

London, UK,

Winterbottom

to

1014.

1:300 000. October 1992. Taunton, UK.

corrections 19711 with

Seaward

Brihsh Admiralty Chart No.

Map8e

Chagos, London, UK,

Atoll,

Atoll.

of the

Stoddart DR, Taylor JD (19711. Geography and ecology

Diego Garcia

Mulaku

Hydrographic Office (1992d). South Maalhosmadula Atoll

Spalding MD, Anderson RC (19971. Natural History of the

Chagos Archipelago,

to

Admiralty Chart No. 1012. 1:300 000, October

1992, Taunton, UK,

Chagos

Archipelago. Westbury Academic and Scientific Publishing

and Linnean Society

Atoll. British

See Technical notes, page 401

MAP 9

Middle Eastern Seas

Chapter 9
Middle Eastern Seas

The

seas surrounding the Arabian Peninsula

are an area of striking contrasts,

geology and their biology, and

in

relation to

some
countries.

The vast majority

of

until the

communities

in

some

of the

most northerly

until the late 1980s,

mid

inflowing

also to high levels of solar insolation. Despite this, the

Geologically

Aden may be the most biologically

away from the Southeast Asian

defined

isolated as there are no true reefs along

is

of the

years.

coasts of Pakistan or eastern Somalia, which might be

seen as the edges

The region

of

is

into

five

major

wide,

as the Gulf or Persian

Oman,
Aden and the Red Sea,

Gulfl,

the Arabian Sea, the Gulf of

the Gulf of

Left:

mid

to late

1980s however.

corals.

Shallow platform reefs are

visible in the

Large monospecific communities are widespread

in

giving

Ocean

is

times

in

It

is

basaltic

and

has been separating Africa

for the last

70 million

rise

to

guite

different

becomes very
conditions and

very shallow, and has been closed

its
in

living in its

The northern Red Sea and Sinai Peninsula. Fringing reefs

visible at this scale.

sea floor which

system.

the yean

an ocean,

Although remarkably deep and steep-sided

changes

each with distinctive ecological and oceanographic

characteristics. Until the

its

rift

of
is

ecological communities. The connection to the Indian

waterbodies: the Arabian Gulf [alternatively referred

to

by

much

Red Sea

speaking, the

continental shelf south of about 19N

divided

of

along the northern two thirds of this coastline, the

the region.
clearly

Aden

of

from the Indian Ocean, and both have

from the Arabian Peninsula

relatively

much

and the Gulf

conseguence, many

surface currents for

spreading

diverse coral reef area

center of diversity. Biologically the area

Both the Red Sea and the Arabian Gulf are

partially isolated

extremes including high and low temperatures, but

of

As

marine communities.

reef

the world, subject to harsh climatic

Red Sea and Gulf

to late 1990s.

in

entirely

areas where there are highly distinctive and important

little

know/n, while others have been the focus of study for

decades. They include

The Arabian Sea coast was almost

the earlier reviews of this region have ignored wide

poorest

reefs are very

Red Sea and Arabian Gulf had been studied

detail.

unknown

their status

in

man. They are bordered by

the world's richest and

of

only the

any

their

in

line

mouth

history,

salinity

many

each time causing massive

and loss

of

most or

all

species

waters. The latest phase of isolation from

many of these

coastlines but are often too narrow to be

of the Gulf of Suez (STSOiO-78-88. 19911 Right: Pocillopora

the Gulf of Aden

and southern Arabia

Iphoto: Jerry Kemp).

233

234

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

the Indian Ocean took place during the Pleistocene,

and reconnection with the Indian Ocean probably only

some

occurred

whether

this latest

phase

refugia

in

actually relatively thin

areas of coastline most exposed to these upwellings,

modern veneers

of

endemic species, and

same

in

of reef

which have recolonized older Pleistocene

Red Sea and Gulf

certain

Aden have
it

may

large

deposits

reefs.

The

numbers

of

well have been these

Oman

southern

and eastern Yemen, macroalgal

rather than coral communities predominate, but

more sheltered areas such as

islands, extensive

some

including

the wider region. This

species. Areas

in

the Gulf of

was devoid

of

Aden may have acted

the Red Sea itself

when

the eastern Gulf of

Aden has

communities along both northern and southern shores,

new

as refuges for these species

in

unexpectedly extensive and diverse coral

revealed

reconnection that drove the development of

of

in

the leeward sides of

and high-cover coral communities

are found. Recent work

and

shifts

and periods

in

isolation

climatic

up-

led to the total extinction of

whether some survived

the reefs that are visible today are

of

to the regular cold

wellings associated with the Somali Current. Along the

It

the southern Red Sea and/or the Gulf of

Aqaba. Many

due

of Arabia,

remains unclear

17 000 years ago.

coral reef species, or

Reefs are poorly developed along the southern and

eastern shores

of the

most diverse
is

fish

communities

marked contrast

in

previously held view that this body of water

of

was

in

the

to

devoid

such coral communities.

The Arabian Gulf

life.

common

is

shallow sea with

a vast

little in

with the Red Sea, other than the fact that

it

too has been subject to periodic drying out over recent

geological history. The natural environment

harsh climatic extremes, relating

and shallow waters. As

latitude

development
diversity

Human

widespread
occurs

in

of

and biological

in

the region vary

Fisheries are an important activity

problem as

some

in

although there are few detailed

catch sizes. Overfishing

of

one

consequence reef

restricted

pressures on the reefs

countries,

records

is

both the high

very low.

is

considerably.

some

somewhat

is

to

many

in

may

not yet be as

other regions, but

areas, including around

Yemen and

the

Aden where lobster and shark fisheries are

having particular impacts. The region is the principal

Gulf of

world petroleum producer and exporter, and a major

global shipping route, with related risks of pollution,

and other discharges.

collisions, groundings, ballast

Chronic
in

is

higher

the Arabian Gulf than

in

any other coral reef area. Massive development has

occurred
in

pollution

oil

parts of the Saudi Arabian Red Sea and

in

the Arabian Gulf, leading to direct impacts from

land reclamation and sedimentation, and also

more

widespread degradation associated with urban and

and reef-based tourism

industrial pollution. Coastal

^^HHx^K^j^

'^^BiuP^^^B^H

has only really developed

in

the northern Red Sea.

but here the rates of growth have been massive, with

some areas and impormanagement in others.

significant negative impacts in

tant

1^^^^^

examples

Many

of

successful

the physical and biological features of this

of

region are best explained and understood from the

perspective

of

divisions, so the

natural rather than

main sections

of this

political

sub-

chapter follow

natural sub-divisions. Saudi Arabia, which dominates

the region

in

terms

of reef area, is treated separately.

However, detailed information about the biology and

*M

^"S^!

oceanography

Above: A grey reef shark Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos. Sharks are

Gulf of Aden. Below:

Red Sea racoon

Gulf of Aden (photo: Jerry Kempl.

butterflyfish

Chaetodon

of this

country can also be found

in

other sub-regional sections.

now being

fasciatus,

heavily fished in the southern

one of many species endemic

to the

Red Sea and

Red Sea and

the

Middle Eastern Seas

Northern Red Sea:

Egypt, Israel, Jordan

northern Red Sea includes the coastlines of

The

by a strike-slip

Egypt, Israel and Jordan, and a substantial part

moved both

of Saudi Arabia's Red Sea coastline. This section

faulting goes

9a

system as the Arabian Peninsula has

rift

in parallel

on

MAP

and apart from the

into the

Dead Sea

rift.

Sinai.

The same

The gulf is

actually

begins with a description of the coral reefs, together with

very deep, reaching about 2 000 meters and remaining deep

many of

right

up

there

is

and biogeographic characteristics

the physical

which are continuous between these countries. This

is fol-

lowed by individual descriptions of each country along

with the relevant
reefs.

human

and uses of coral

interactions

For this purpose, Saudi Arabia, which spans several

regions,

is

Red Sea

rift

number of important

system

splits into the

of Suez and Aqaba. Both of these are also

rift

Gulfs

systems, but

have markedly different morphologies. The Gulf of Suez

a spreading

rift,

is

subjected to con-

siderable climatic extremes associated with

its

northerly

and shallow waters, and hence species diversity

generally low

is

but has remained very shallow, averaging

a depth of about 30 meters. This area

latitude

compared

to the rest

is

of the Red Sea. There

are intermittent fringing reefs along

most of the western

while the eastern side has smaller discontinuous

side,

side. Inside the gulf itself

Left:

Reefs and islands

quite different.

in

southern "mouth"

only narrow fringing reefs have

flats are

characteristically steep to vertiginous.

South of the Gulfs of Aqaba and Suez, both eastern

and western shores of the Red Sea are lined by fringing

reefs.

These are continuous, often

It

has been formed

the souttiern Gulf of

northern and central Red Sea fringing reefs

reefs are well developed at the

both

Aqaba and Suez where

form reefs and

area

known

Jerry Kempl.

as

islands.

of kilometers,
flats.

Offshore

mouths of the Gulfs of

there are a

To the south of

number of

plat-

the region, in an

Gebel Elba, the coastal reefs

kilometers offshore. There are likely to be

lie

as far as

some

70

interest-

ing and important areas of shallow water communities in

this area,

although

it

has not yet been studied.

reefs in this region extend into high latitudes

have adapted

Suez ISTS026-4i-59.

Ipfioto:

for tens

and typically have relatively narrow reef

The
is

its

developed on the steeply shelving coastline. Reef

patch reefs.

The Gulf of Aqaba

At

and some relatively extensive areas of

high quality shallow water reefs, particularly on the eastern

and interesting geological and biogeographic features. In

the far north, the

sill

often only a few tens of meters wide, while reef slopes are

considered independently.

The northern Red Sea enjoys

to its northern shores.

a shallow

to relatively

1988i Right:

and

low temperatures. Mean surface

A steep reef slope,

typical of the

235

MAP

9a

Middle Eastern Seas

:- .^-^'^^*~'ii^i'i'fe<^:?**~ -*-r^"^^";^^

temperatures

dropping

to

Suez are

at

below IOC.

17.5C,

low extremes

with

Salinities are also very high in

the north, typically about 40.5%o (parts per thousand), but

reaching 42.5%o

in the

northern Gulf of Suez.

tip

some reduction
latitude in both

of the Gulf of Aqaba, there

species

in

is

at

the

gulfs. This

may be

role, particularly in the

Gulf of Suez.

species are found in the northern regions which

south.

rare or absent in similarly shallow waters further

Some 218

hard corals have been recorded in the

Gulf of Aqaba. Live coral cover

generally high

is

throughout the region, reaching 60-80 percent on

reef slopes.

The most northerly mangroves

Ocean region

many

in the Indian

mangrove areas

northern and central Red Sea, are composed of

monospecific stands of Avicennia marina.

No

were observed

be bleached in

1998.
in the

to

region, though outbreaks have affected a

in the

Egypt
Egypt's extensive

number of reefs

southern Gulf of Aqaba since 1998. These were

quite localized

and temporary, and large numbers were

found

Human

Generally,

human

unnoticed.

population densities are low along

most of the coastal zone and

are ahnost entirely confined to

urban centers. Fisheries are generally not a major industry.

Bedouins

in

significant

at

number of

activities

reefs

some distance from

along

the

this coastline are

highly varied, and include areas of quite intensive use and

considerable

but also

reef degradation,

areas

which

remain relatively remote and inaccessible, and which are

largely

unimpacted by humans.

Marine fishing
is

a small

is

not a major industry in Egypt. There

amount of commercial fishing

reef areas, and heavy trawling activity

in the late 1990s.

in the

southern

was reported

in the

However, many reefs are

only lightly fished. In contrast, pollution from shipping

and

oil spillage are a significant threat,

coastline of the Gulfs of

have also been

destruction to

to the

may have gone

deep water

continental shelf

potential

of Tiran. Similar out-

incorporates

Sea, including a small

in

from Gordon Reef

breaks in more remote locations

Red

in the

and islands lying

removed, including 70 000 from Tiran and a further 27 000

in the Straits

coastline

proportion and a considerable range of the coral reefs

Gulf of Suez

Crown-of-thorns starfish have generally been rare

reefs

is

countries below.

are located along the Egyptian coastline of

Sinai and these, together with most other

in the

Bedouin

a major mdustry, particularly in Egypt. Further details of

asso-

Despite this general picture, a number of other coral and

become

undertaken particularly by

clearly

ciated with the extreme winter cold, although high salinity

fish

artisanal,

numbers with increasing

of the northerly

probably also plays a

are

these and other impacts are considered for the separate

Although biodiversity remains high even

northernmost

Most

peoples using traditional techniques. Tourism, by contrast,

some

problem,
reefs,

causing

direct

physical

and raising concerns about the

economic repercussions arising from any damage

major

tourist

beaches and dive

also provides an additional threat.

opened

notably along the

Suez and Aqaba. Ship groundings

in

sites.

The Suez Canal

The canal

itself

was

first

1869 and provides a direct sea-level connection

between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean. Such a connection allows species to

the Sinai Peninsula, with the fringing reef clearly visible behind.

move between

these two seas

237

238

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

'

^
^U^

d
^IP^^^HRB^^^^^

^^^
.-ici^!-^^^^^^
and

to invade areas

recorded (although

where they have not previously been

in

degradation or loss of

New

conditions in the canal are

fact

Soma

very harsh and highly saline, making the transfer more

difficult).

Thus

far there has

few have made the reverse journey and

The

in Sinai

and along the mainland Red Sea

latter areas, especially

the

P"*

border

Israeli

Sharm

coast.

to

Ras

Mohammed

developments are being planned

around Hurghada and Safaga,

have been particularly poorly planned, leading

Ras Abu

at

On

the

Aqaba

and Nabq areas

rooms increased from nearly 600 in 1988 to over

6 000 by 1995 and 16 000 in 1999 - while massive new hotel

greatest impact on the reefs has been the explosion

towns

at localities further south.

tourist

of coastal tourism since the 1980s, with massive growth of

resort

but also

the tourist industry - in the

their

impacts on reefs are insignificant.

The

fringing reefs.

coast of Sinai there has again been a massive expansion of

been a quite considerable flow

of species from the Red Sea into the Mediterranean, but

relatively

many of the nearshore

developments are continuing, notably

el

boom,

at

Nabq Bay and

close to

Taba. The international airport

relatively

Egypt

week
strict

in the late

planning

1990s. Despite this

measures have been

Israel

Jordan
4 999

General Data
Population (thcusandsl

68 360

5 8^12

GDP

55 680

79 610

(million

US$1

Land area Ikm^l

982 940

Per capita

fish

20

242*

Marine area (thousand km^j

consumption

6 108

90 177

74/i

4.1*

0.2

23

61

100

75

(kg/yearl

Status and Threats

Reefs at risk (%)

Recorded coral diseases

Biodiversity
3 800

<10

126/318

U5/na

Reef area Ikm^l

Coral diversity

Mangrove area (km^)

No. of seagrass species

Manta rays Manta

'Marine area includes Mediterranean Sea

Left:

<50
na

na

861

No. of mangrove species

birostris are often

Ml^m.

seen wfiere reefs

anemonefish Amphiprion bicinctus, endemic

to the

lie

adjacent

Red Sea and Gulf

at

Sheikh was receiving more than 30 European

charter flights per

the

at

to

na

J^MM
deeper water. Right:

of Aden Iphoto: Jerry Kempl.

T/ie

two-banded

Middle Eastern Seas

Protected areas with coral reefs

name

Site

lUCN

Abbreviation

Designation

cat.

Size

Year

Ikmil

Egypt

Managed Resource

Abu Galium

MRPA

VI

458.00

1992

Protected Area

Dahab

Protected Coastline

PCo

VI

75.00

1992

Gebel Elba

Conservation Area

CA

IV

4 800.00

1986

Nabq

Managed Resource

MRPA

VI

587.00

1992

National Park

NP

II

460.00

1983

Red Sea Islands

Protected Area

PA

VI

na

1983

Sharm

Protected Area

Mohammed

Ras

Protected Coastline

PCo

VI

75.00

1992

Taba Coast

Protected Coastline

PCo

VI

735.00

1996

Tiran - Senafir

National Park

NP

II

371.00

1983

IV

0.50

na

MP

Unassigned

2.00

na

el

Sheikh

Israel

Reserve

Coral

Eilat

Jordan

Aqaba

Marine Park

adopted and enforced

south Sinai area and the direct

in the

impact on the reefs has been low.

A
all

all

those in the Gulf of Aqaba and

the important
(El

Red Sea

the fringing reefs around islands in the

There are 22 islands covered by

itself

this legislation, including

and remote offshore islands of the Brothers

Akhawein), Daedalus (Abu El Kizan). Zabargad and

Rocky. The reefs of the Sinai Peninsula have undergone

management

active

since the early 1990s.

Mooring buoys

have been installed and restrictions are enforced

sites.

user fee system,

(US$5 per day

in

at the

2000) helps

to

support these activities. The significant value of reefs

in the national

economy has

and ballast water discharges, and other

chemical discharges (including phosphates, detergents,

very substantial proportion of Egypt's coral reefs

are protected, including

effluents, bilge

led to the recognition and

establishment of a fine system for

damage

to the reef

pesticides, hydrocarbons).

On

the coast itself there has been

sand nourishment of the beaches (the addition of sand from

elsewhere to satisfy tourist requirements), and solid waste
IS

a problem.

ject to

Although protected, the reef

some of

is

further sub-

the highest diver densities in the world,

with an estimated 200 000 dives per year

in the late

1990s,

largely taking place in the nature reserve. Declines in the

reef are notable - even in a less heavily dived location live

coral cover dropped from 70 percent in 1996 to 30 percent
in

2000, and coral recruitment was also reported to be

declining. Direct

damage by

divers

high, although

is

it

has been reduced following the introduction of diver

education programs.

substrate (from ship groundings and other activities). This

has been calculated

at

USS300

per square meter for each

year until estimated recovery (up to 100 years

Jordan

if large,

Jordan has a short coastline, with considerable urban and

slow-growing Pontes colonies are damaged).

industrial

development

further south, although

Israel
Israel has only

which

is

now

entirely taken

up with urban and

development. Nearshore there

however the

in the future.

about 12 kilometers of Red Sea coastline,

stresses

in

is

a small

industrial

area of reef,

these waters are considerable,

including poorly treated sewage discharge, mariculture

north but relatively

in the
it is

likely to

Diving tourism

economy and most of the

is

in

the

Ras

little

to these areas

a significant part of the

reefs are protected.

has been a problem, although a

been trained

expand

number of

Mohammed

Enforcement

staff

have

now

National Park in

Egypt. Pollution from the fertilizer industry and sewage

are

problems

in the

north of the country.

239

240

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Saudi Arabia
MAPS

20

The

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

nation

facing the

Red

and e

c, d,

km
Fringing reefs form a near continuous strip along

the largest coral reef

with an extensive coastline

much of

the northern coastline. Further south there

Sea, and an additional significant

complex

series

the region,

in

is

9b,

is

of fringing, patch and barrier reefs and

small islands near the Saudi Arabian coastline on the Al

brief description of the distribution and biodiversity of these

Wadj Bank. This area also houses important and extensive

coastline along the western shores of the Arabian

reefs

Gulf

physical and biological features and surrounding waters

provided

in the

northern Gulf of

in the

border with

coastline extends

Yemen

in the

Barrier

of

its

is

arid

relief along

parallel with conditions

much

is

length. Offshore the waters mirror the patterns of the

reef

flats

are narrow,

is little

continental shelf widens, and in the far south

on the coastline of

Eritrea, there

coastline,

while offshore

there

is

important reef

development around the Farasan Islands. Reefs

locations from

and the reef

Yanbu

to

at

Rabigh were observed

some
to

be

heavily bleached in August/September 1998, associated

becomes very

with elevated sea surface temperatures.

Large parts of Saudi Arabia's Red Sea coastline are

wide, with extensive, shallow, and turbid inshore waters.

this coastline incorporates the

undeveloped, particularly away from the central towns of

wealth of Red Sea species, including those endemic to

Jeddah and Yanbu. Sewage pollution and land reclamation

In terms

of biodiversity,

many of the

larger towns, including

northern regions, but also the communities and species

are concerns around

which are more abundant further south. Surveys from 1997

Wadj, Yanbu, Jeddah and Jizan. Close

to

Little

south of the country physical

extensive mangrove and seagrass development along

this

or

profiles are often steep to vertiginous. Further south the

full

far

close to the continental coastline. However, in a direct

and dominated by high

shelf,

the

conditions inhibit the development of extensive reef areas

way

western shores of the Red Sea. In the north there

no continental

In

to the

the

clear climatic and physical gradients described elsewhere.

This region

Reef

Sea, following the

all

Red

this,

running from Al Wadj to Jeddah and termed the

from the border with

Aqaba

southern

South of

discontinuous barrier-type structure has been described

is

other regional sections of this chapter

The Red Sea

Jordan

seagrass and mangrove communities.

provided here, and further information on their

is

1999 revealed some 260 species of hard coral.

Left:

The Al Wadj Bank.

In addition to fringing

communities ISTS038-77-11.
badly disrupted as this

city

19901. Rigl^t:

and barrier

to these there are

estimated 18 desalination plants along the

reefs,

tfiis

Red Sea

Al
an

coast.

area includes important seagrass and mangrove

The Red Sea coastline running north from Jeddah. Although reefs have been

has grown, important fringing and patch reefs remain

to

north and south ISTS062-90-8I,

19941.

Middle Eastern Seas

Protected areas wi th coral reefs

Site

name ^^^^^^^^v.

lUCN

Abbreviation

Designation

cat.

Size IkmM

Year

Saudi Arabia
National Park

NP

A 500.00

1981

Protected Area

PA

Unassigned

2 100.00

na

Farasan Islands

Protected Area

PA

600.00

1989

Umm

Protected Area

PA

1.60

1978

Asir

Dawat Ad-Dafl/Dawat

Al-

Musallamiyah/CoraL Islands

al-Qamari Islands

creating localized problems through the return of

highly

waters

saline

together

with chemicals

warm,

such as

chlorine and anti-scaling compounds. Oil pollution

refinery in Yanbu. Jeddah

is

including

large

than

recent

in

coral species

flats.

Intensive

and urban development now extends over more

100 kilometers of this coastline, and

many of

the

and over 200

Up

to

50

have been recorded,

fish species

with the greatest diversity found in offshore areas. Live

and

coral cover decreased considerably through the 1990s,

extensive coral mortality linked to the 1998 bleaching event

was reported on nearshore

reefs.

Extensive sections of this coastline are developed and

amounts of reclamation and

building work directly on the fringing reef

industrial

Red Sea

the largest of the

undergone massive expansion

ports and has

decades,

is

around some of the major ports and the

threat to reefs

mainland there are smaller patches and pinnacles.

numbers of offshore

oil

platforms. Impacts

on the reefs include those arising from

oil pollution, solid

there are large

waste, and industrial and sewage effluents. There have also

nearshore reefs (together with associated seagrass and

been more direct impacts from land reclamation.

mangrove areas) have been severely degraded or destroyed,

area of reefs have legal protection in one of the only marine

with pollution and sedimentation combining

protected areas in the Arabian Gulf, although

direct impacts of reclamation.

Away from

with the

these urban areas

coastal development remains limited and the reefs are in

relatively

is

not a major industry in the country. There

significant fishing for food

is

of

target species such as large groupers, but there

or

artisanal

fishing.

the Gulf's

this

site

more general

fiilly in

is

actively

Some commercial

is little

it

biological and physical features,

human

impacts, are discussed

is

HH^^B

Saudi Arabia

-^

General Data
22

GDPImiUion US$1

102 677

Land area (km^l

detailed statistics describing the size of this fishery.

unknown, and there

is

Per capita

fish

consumption (kg/year)

Status and Threats

numbers of expatriate workers. Such

Reefs

reefs

number of marine protected

recreational activities

around Jeddah.

large

60

at risk (%l

Recorded coral diseases

areas have been proposed

along this coastline, though few have been declared.

Arabian Gulf coast

Saudi Arabia probably has some of the most extensive and
diverse coral reefs in the

82

no active

dive centers cater for local needs, which include significant

most significant on the

9A8 734

Marine area (thousand km^

promotion of diving or snorkelling, although a number of

are

02/J

trawling for

prawns and some fishing for pelagic species. There are no

largely

more

the final section of this chapter

Population (thousands)
areas to south of the country, where there

is

unclear

fishing activities

operate out of Jeddah and Jizan, mostly in the shallow bank

Tourism

is

managed. Some of

and recreation on the nearshore

reefs close to the towns, threatening local populations

no

what degree

together with major

good condition.

Fishing

to

large

Gulf There

are fringing reefs

around a number of the offshore islands, with coral growth

Biodiversity
6

187/3U
292

Mangrove area [km^l

No. of mangrove species

No. of seagrass species

*The higher figure

underestimate);

extending to depths of about 18 meters. Closer to the

660

Reef area (km^l

Coral diversity*

is

an estimate for the Red Sea Iposs bly an

some 68 species

are estimated for the Arabian Gulf

MAP 9b
36

26

26

\.
Daedalus
el Kizan)

(Abu

EGYPT
24

24

Zabargad (St John's

Rocky

*".

'.

Gebel
Elba

22

I.)

I.

Rawabel

Is.

1.

Halaib

SAUDI ARABIA

'

CA
'I

22

Ras Hadaiba

RED SEA
Makkah (Mecca)

Dungunab a^ r.

Muhammad

Ras Abu Shagaia

Qol ivi'X

I' Mukawwar I.
>

Shaab Salak

SUDAN
20

,
I

^"Srail

Shaab Rumi

20

Sanganeb Atoll

'

Sanganeb Atoll

^t>

MNP

>;

<'
>0

Ada Kebir

Sell

.
Suakin
Archipelago

Suakinci

Al

QunMhah

Umm al-Qamari 'J

ixiands
Islands

tGreen Reef

PA

'^

Talla Talla Kebir

'-y

Talla Talla Saghir

HilletAteib*

Tokar<

>
)

<i

Aqlq*
18
\1

BIrk

18

Qahmah^

V
N

\
Alghena*

ERITREA
4

120
36

160

200'

km
38

40

Middle Eastern Seas

2A3

Central Red Sea: Sudan

MAP 9b

The

central

Red Sea can be defined

coastlines of

Sudan

in the

of the Saudi Arabian Red Sea Coast

in the east.

human

interactions

Details of the latter, particularly the

with reefs, can be found

in the section

Geomorphologically the region

by

politically as the

west and the central areas

is

heading south from about 20''N

sition as the coastlines

change

is

to a

mostly with shallow reef

again characterized

wide

in

the north,

US$1

(million

29 761

Land area (km^l

However,

i90 389

Marine area (thousand km^j

Per capita

broad and more gently

are lined by fringing

flats a

35 080

Population Ithousandsl

GDP

a relatively rapid tran-

inclined continental shelf The shores

reefs,

General Data

on Saudi Arabia.

shelving coastlines to the north.

steeply

Sudan

fish

33

consumption (kg/yearl

Status and Threats

few tens of meters

Reefs

although becoming broader further

32

at risk (%l

Recorded coral diseases

south and stretching out from the coast in areas where

there are

wide

Biodiversity

alluvial fans.

Reef area (km^l

In addition to fringing reefs, discontinuous barrier-

Coral diversity

and Saudi Arabian coastlines. To the south, the Suakin

Mangrove area (km^)

Archipelago consists of
rising

from

relatively

number of offshore

islands

deep water. Most of these have

significant fringing reefs, although

wave action appears

720

106/313

type structures have been described on both Sudanese

937

No. of mangrove species

No. of seagrass species

2
1

to

have restricted reef growth on some. Although a number

of reef structures on both sides of the Red Sea have some
atoll-like features,

Atoll,

which

Sudan has

the only true atoll,

more northerly

reefs,

though

nance and species replacement.

Sea species are

many

similarities with

the area of

is

not affected by

species, Rhizophora mucronata, occurs.

it

such extreme winter cooling and salinities are more stable.

These are among the most biologically diverse reefs

the entire Western Indian

Ocean

region. Coral cover

is

Atoll.

widens, there

is

a relatively rapid transition with the appear-

which appear

to

be mirrored

at least

is

relatively

large

among
domi-

is

clearly

the only other coastal city.

to

Sewage pollution

be a problem close to both

cities.

areas, the population densities are low.

dive

recreational

"live-aboard"

still

Away from
There

is

total

name

Designation

numbers of visitors

these

growing

almost entirely run

industry,

from

and Port

to these reefs

low.

T
Abbreviation

lUCN

cat.

Size

Ikm'l

Year

Sudan
Sanganeb

Marine National Park

Atoll

^^

is

reported

is

boats operating our of Egypt

Sudan: thus far the

are

extensive than in

far less

Protected areas wi th coral reefs

Site

although

port,

Jeddah on the Saudi Arabian coastline, while Suakin

Further south, as the continental shelf

corals and fish, there are considerable changes in

Sudan

and a second

to increase

of

ance of communities distinctive to the southern Red Sea.

In patterns

Port

mangroves also begins

development here

combined) have been recorded on the reef slope of

Sanganeb

of endemic Red

northern regions,

in

course highly varied, but levels of 85 percent (hard and soft

coral

A number

in fact restricted to the

while others rarely migrate to these parts. Moving south,

from a depth of 800 meters.

rises

Biologically, this region has

the

Sanganeb

MNP

II

_^

260.00

1990

244

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Southern Red Sea: Eritrea

and Yemen

The

physical structure of the

nificantly in

shelf broadens

continental

relatively shallow over

become somewhat

common on

Red Sea changes

130 meters deep. Annual precipitation over the entire Red

sig-

Sea

southern sections. Offshore, the

its

Nearshore fringing reefs are

the mainland coasts, although

some

is

about 10 millimeters, while evaporation removes

something of the order of 2 meters of water per

and waters remain

There

wide areas, while the inshore waters

turbid.

MAP9C

is

therefore a net inflow of water through the

Mandeb, although surface currents

less

are found

a reversed flow for part of the

more

are

summer. There

also a deep

is

current of denser

located here: the Farasan Islands off the Saudi Arabian

water entering the Red Sea from the Gulf of

Kamaran

Islands off

and the Dahlak Archipelago off the coast of

Eritrea.

are also several small islands further to the south.

logical origin

of these

is

There

Some of

volcanic origin, and this

probable

total area

from coralline red algae - with a

of several hundred square kilometers.

These have developed on the sandy

sublittoral

zones

is

and plankton, contributing

to the

development

in the

to restrict reef

in the

southern

in

Red Sea

are high, with

surface values of over 32C recorded in

lagoon waters regularly reach 45C.

this region are closer to those

Mangroves

By

Yemen, while

contrast salinities in

of the open ocean.

Biologically, the southern

a tectonically active region.

There are large areas of alga! reefs - calcareous platforms

built almost entirely

which appears

Temperatures

mean

Islands are carbonate plat-

the islands further south are of

is still

turbidity

The

Aden

southern Red Sea.

The geo-

forms which have been uplifted and undergone some further

modifications.

saline water flowing outwards.

relatively rich in nutrients

complex. The Farasan and Dahlak

Kamaran

archipelagos and the

Yemen,

el

more complex with

around offshore islands. Two major archipelagos are

coast which extend into the

year.

Bab

Red Sea

is

very

distinct.

are well developed along significant stretches

of the coastline, as are seagrasses in shallow nearshore

waters. In contrast,

many of

the fringing reefs are poorly

developed, and even around the offshore islands partial

common.

nearshore waters where conditions of temperature, salinity

coral cover or fragmentary reef development

and turbidity appear inimical

There are lower diversities of both fish and corals (and

South of about
together.

to coral growth.

7N the coasts of

the

Red Sea draw

At the mouth of the Red Sea, known as the Bab

Mandeb (Gate of

Lamentations), the water

is

el

only about

The southern Red Sea, including the narrow straits of Bab

el

is

presumably other faunal groups) on almost

although there

is

also

some

all

reefs,

species replacement of those

found further north. The changes and decreases

Mandeb. with the Gulf of Aden ISTS061 -93-12.

1993].

in diversity

MAP9C
43

42

40

39

138

19

:1^

if
If

fl^

18-

SUDAN

^
Q

^^^'i. 0^'

\^^

if

N
;

SAUDI ARABIA

qjAi

'^^^*

BirK

Barzayn
18

ihmatiVAIQahma*

/\

\
If.

Tarqush

-f-AslrNP
-f-AsIr

r\

\
RED SEA

Alghena

17

1^5^ \

ERITREA

^v

*
-f\
SiisoSonil'

Gulbul}'

<*

.>

.H Gabbi Hu

^^.

*.

j'Sahelia

..-.-I.^

...^^f^

Dahlak
-

Archipelago

JabalatTa'ir^

AzZaytJIyah

'"'-^'l

:^>'-Mf'

JazztoAzZiibayr^

Hanuhls.^st_

Mersa Fatma

Adi Ugri

15

^^i-ii.'

Mora
Sii
Hudaydah

*Adi Caleh

Milda**" ,Tio

-->4^-~...
Adigtat

14

\
f-'v-p

Itomil..

Dahlak Archipelago

fi

Gabbi Hu

q
R/) 5^

13

ETHIOPIA

12

^/
0,

39

40

41

DJIBOUTI
30
42

60

vs90

'^^^i^.J
120

150

km

246

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

changes

by

explained

largely

are

in

environmental

Yemen

conditions, including increased turbidity and the loss of

deeper water species. South of Massawa. reefs support sig-

and other macroalgae during

nificant growths of Sargassum

the winter, a pattern similar to the coastal

Some of

southern Arabia.

Red Sea

southern

communities of

smaller islands

the

the

in

are of regional importance for seabird

colonies, and there are important

dugong populations

in the

surrounding waters. Bleaching during the 1998 El Nifio

event was observed in Eritrea, although mortality was res-

some shallow water

tricted to

more widespread

well have been

Yemen many

colonies.

corals had

events during a similar

Such incidents may

in the region,

although in

General Data
17 479

Population Ithousandsl

GDP

15 387

US$1

(million

733 130

Land area (km^l

547

Marine area (thousand km^j

Per capita

consumption (kg/yearl

fish

Status and Threats

73

Reefs at risk (%1

Recorded coral diseases

fact died in localized bleaching

warming event

in

Biodiversity

1995.

700

Reef area (km^j

na

Coral diversity*

Mangrove area (km^j

Eritrea
The

of Eritrea are extensive and suffered

reefs

human impact

before the

been small increases

fisheries.

Commercial

1990s. Since then there have

trawlers, including licensed vessels

operating from Saudi Arabia, fish mostly

away from

some

the

reefs,

in

this

oysters.

molluscs,

finfish,

There

and around 100 000

and 1997.

sea

fish

is

into reef

cucumbers and pearl

aquarium

were exported between 1995

The most important and diverse

reefs,

around the

ofTshore islands including the Dahlak Archipelago, remain

in

relatively

protection.

good condition despite the lack of

By

The higher coral

overestimate as

it

diversity figure

is

is lil<ely

be a cons iderable

to

based on the biogeographic region v^hich

includes the Gulf of Aden and Socotra

'^^s^am^t

contrast

some of

suffered from development and land reclamation, notably

around Massawa.
This was an area of considerable political unrest until

broad range of species,

also a commercial fishery for the

is

No. of seagrass species

deeper water

might indicate they are straying

areas. Artisanal fisheries target a

including

81

No. of mangrove species

although there are thought to be

reef-associated species in their catch, and there

concern that

trade,

little

both the coastal population and

in

344

legal

the coastal reefs have

separation from Ethiopia

was

attained in 1993, and there

has been sporadic unrest in the south of the country since

As

that time.

a result

of these problems there

nificant tourism industry, although

it

seems

is

no

sig-

likely that this

could develop relatively rapidly as and when social and

economic

stability allow.

underway since 1999

Considerable efforts have been

develop a comprehensive manage-

to

for the country's coastal resources, including

ment regime

the designation of protected areas.

Eritrea

Yemeni Red Sea

General Data
A 136

Population (thousands!

GDP

(million

US$1

Land area (km^l

39

Marine area (thousand km^j

Per capita

fish

^31

120 641

consumption (kg/year)

<1

has a long coastline, with a short section facing the

a

much

longer one (described below) facing the

Gulf of Aden.

In the

Red

Red Sea and

Sea. the

populated coastline than

terminals in

many

Yemen

has a more densely

other areas. There are oil

Hudaydah and Mukha, and

oil

pollution to-

gether with sewage and industrial development

Status and Threats

Reefs

Yemen

66

at risk (%l

military

Recorded coral diseases

may be

having localized impacts. As with Eritrea, political and

have prevented the development of

instability

tourism. Fisheries are important, including an offshore trawl

Biodiversity

fishery, but also line

Reef area (km^j

Coral diversity

Mangrove area (km^l

No. of mangrove species
No. of seagrass species

na

3 260

overfishing in

333

been reported

581

with

na

many

some

in the

fishers

and net

areas.

fisheries, with reports

A significant

of

sharkfin fishery has

southern Red Sea and Gulf of Aden,

coming from Yemen, and often operating

illegally in the waters

of neighboring countries. Apart from

driving a rapid decline in shark stocks there

be a considerable by-catch, including

turtles

is

reported to

and dolphins.

Middle Eastern Seas

Southern Arabian Region:

Yemen, Djibouti, northern
Sonnalia and Oman

Red

days have been observed. Such upwellings have a signifi-

Sea, the waters rapidly open out into the Gulf of

cant impact on the ecology, and areas of reef development

Aden, a wide semi-enclosed sea bordered by

are few. In the

South

of the Bab

Djibouti in the west,

the

Yemeni

Semha
the

Mandeb,

el

Yemen

in the

in the south. This area

is

mouth of

the

the

North and Somalia and

Abd

islands of Socotra,

al

Kiri.

Darsa and

of similar tectonic origin to

the center of the

Gulf of Aden and out

into

the Arabian Sea. Onshore, the coastlines are mountainous,

while offshore the bathymetry

part of the gulf

Gulf of Aden
the coast of

is

steep -

is

central

critical

impact on the shallow inshore communities than

in

southern

in the north

and then sweeps northwest

From an

ecological and a biogeographic perspective

this is a particularly interesting region.

oceanographic feature

a sustained strong

drives the surfaces waters

nutrient-

development of

unusual communities dominated by macroalgae. These are

Nizamudinnia

in this

region

is

that

summer

wind blowing from

the

away and,

in the

Arabian Sea,

shallow waters and by Eklonia in deeper

in

Macroalgal communities such as these are more

typically associated with cooler, temperate waters. Small

numbers of corals
algae, while in

sides of
coral
the

are also

more

sometimes found alongside these

sheltered areas, such as the landward

some Omani

islands, very extensive high cover

communities are found. Until the mid

Gulf of Aden was almost

entirely

studies have revealed extensive

16-17C upwelling from the deeper ocean. In the Gulf of

ties

Oman

of the entire Arabian region.

the cool water influence

constant, although

is less

occasional upwellings occur and can replace surface waters

very rapidly such that

falls

A mixed community
in

of up to 10C over one or two

of corals

the Strait

most reef maps as they often

and

l<.elp,

typical of the

1990s

supporting some of the most diverse fish populations

communities appear
dominant

in the

areas of upwelling

in

to

be

By

much

contrast,
less

Gulf of Aden. Another

the Arabian

of Hormuz, Musandam, Oman. Such communities are

lacl<

to late

unknown, but recent

and diverse coral communi-

they are replaced by cooler, nutrient-rich waters of about

community

The cool

rich upwellings in the east have enabled the

areas.

southwest along the coast of southern Arabia. This wind

coral

the case

found over wide areas of hard substrate, where coral reefs

over the entire Northern Indian Ocean. During the

is

is

Oman.

might normally occur and are dominated by Sargassum and

is

of the seasonally reversing monsoon winds which operate

months there

areas

bordered by

which

forming the Gulf of Oman.

One

still

over 2 000 meters deep. To the east the

joins the Arabian Sea,

Oman

much of the

Gulf of Aden, although there are

of upwelling, these are not so widespread and have less

Sea. formed by the spreading of the Sheba Ridge

Red

which runs down

Left:

MAP9d

Sea

feature,

which may

Iphoto: Jerry Kempl. Right:

rich in diversity, but

a highly developed physical structure Iphoto: Jerry Kempl.

macroalgal

widespread or

do not feature on

247

MAP9d

Middle Eastern Seas

be linked to the difficult environmental conditions or to

Some of

unusual processes of coral recruitment or settlement,

specific coral stands, notably of Pocilloponi and Moiuipora.

development of low diversity coral communities.

is

the

In several

countries extensive communities, and sometimes even rudi-

mentary

reefs,

occur which are monospecific or dominated

by only two, three or four coral species.

It

these communities include wide areas of

was assumed,

until the

mid-1990s, that there were few

communities off the coast of Socotra, but

significant coral

recent surveys have

cover.

mono-

shown extensive

areas of high live coral

These are best developed on the northern reaches of

Further interest in this region comes from the bio-

both Socotra and the neighboring islands, where some

geographic affinities of the coral communities themselves.

240 hard coral species have been recorded, making them

The Gulf of Aden and adjacent waters were

among

not subjected

to drying out or hypersalinization during the Pleistocene,

and

it is

hypothesized that this area was a

some Red Sea

At present

species.

this

critical

refuge for

remains an area of

biological transition, or overlap, lying on the biogeographic

boundary between the Red Sea, the Arabian Sea and the
of the Indian Ocean.
as

endemic

Gulf

Many

Red

to the

areas, are also

most diverse

the

showed

locations

rapid growth of

Human

rest

of the species typically regarded

relatively

coastline

in

Aden

considerable ftirther work

in the
is

Gulf of Aden. While

required to understand

its

evolutionary and genetic processes, this remains a region of

is

on

reliant

fishery in the

any other part

is

Gulf of Aden.

Illegal fishing

is

develop a tourist industry on Socotra.

some

localities, others

by Yemeni boats

widespread around Socotra, including an

event appear to have been mi.xed: while widespread morat

quite

from northern Somalia. Reef fishing has

also reported

developed and

is

and has an active offshore pelagic

artisanal

has been recorded

2000.

undeveloped, although

of the Arabian region. The impacts of the 1998 bleaching

tality

in

in

with associated pollution and

port,

fisheries,

some

Yemen are still

from fishing. Much of the
reefs

problems of solid waste disposal. The country

is

in

was reported

the

Yemen

southern

major

region.

at

or no impacts and recovery, with

recruits,

minimal, other than

species diversity, at least of reef-associated fishes, appears

be extremely high, possibly higher than

little

new

impacts on

considerable interest. In a few localities in the Gulf of Aden

to

Ocean

1998 bleaching event, but other

locations following the

Sea, or to the Arabian Sea/ Arabian

found

reefs in the Indian

Widespread mortality of corals was reported

lobster

fishery.

Efforts

are

now underway

to

nearby

appear to have been largely unaffected.

Djibouti
This country has some of the best developed reefs outside

Yemen
The Yemeni coast of

the

the

Gulf of Aden remains poorly

recent studies have

found a number of

described,

but

interesting

and important coral communities and some true

reefs, including

around Al Mukalla, Bir Ali and Shuqra.

Djibouti

HI

General Data

Red

parts

Sea, including fringing reef communities along

of the mainland coast, and fringing and platform

structures around the reefs

the Sept Freres just south of the

Surveys

1998 and 1999 described 167 coral species, while

in

Population (thousands)

GDP

493

GDP

638

Land area (km^l

Land area (km^l

21

(million

US$)

Marine area (thousand km^l

Marine area (thousand km^j

Per capita

Per capita

fish

consumption (kg/year|

Status and Threats

Reefs at risk (%l

Mangrove area (km^)

No. of mangrove species
No. of seagrass species

fish

533

16 298
2 328

539

consumption (kg/yearl

na

Reefs at risk (%|

51

Recorded coral diseases

Biodiversity

Coral diversity

Mandeb.

Status and Threats

100

Recorded coral diseases

Reef area (km^)

el

General Data

i51

US$1

Bab

Oman

^^^^^^^

Population (thousands!
(million

and islands of Maskali and

Musha and

Biodiversity

A50

69/325
10
1

na

Reef area [km^l

Coral diversity

Mangrove area (km^l

No. of mangrove species
No. of seagrass species

530
71

/128
20
1

na

249

2S0

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Protected areas with coral reefs

Site

name

Designation

lUCN

Abbreviation

Size

cat.

ikm'!

Year

Djibouti

Maskali Sud

Integral Reserve

Musha

Territorial

IR

la

na

1980

Park

TP

Unassigned

na

1972

Nature Reserve

NR

IV

200.00

1995

Oman
Daymaniyat Islands (OmanI

coral cover

was highly

were reported

to

20 percent and

varied, typically over

Some of

reaching 90 percent in the Sept Freres.

the offshore islands of

Masirah and Al Halaniyat (Kuria Muria). The best

have been significantly impacted by the

developed coral communities and small reef formations are

1998 bleaching, with an estimated 30 percent mortality.

The main economic

of Djibouti

activity

found
the

is

operation of the main port, and coral reef areas around

are thought to be heavily degraded. Fishing

although there

activity,

Hadd and

notably around Ras Al

the reefs

is

it

was

areas: the

Musandam

Peninsula:

some

Daymaniyat

Islands: the western coast

of Masirah Island

and the adjacent mainland: and the sheltered rocky areas of

an important artisanal fishery,

coast around the Al Halaniyat Islands and mainland of

larger (10-14 meters) vessels in the late 1990s.

the offshore islands

main

not a major

is

with about 90 small fishing boats, together with about 15

amount of tourism with

in four

of the shores and bays of the coast around Muscat and the

a coastal focus and

Dhofar. Coral growth

is

restricted both

by the cool water

limited

upwellings and by the availability of hard substrates. Coral

some diving on

communities with high coral cover but often low diversity

also taking place in the late 1990s.

have been noted

in several areas, including

dominated by Porites

spp.,

communities

Pocillopora damicornis and

Acropora spp. In the Gulf of Masirah near continuous reefs

Northern Somalia
Along

however there

are reefs and coral

locations, including
in a

development

the northern coast, reef

reefs are fringing structures

Some of the

were reported

to

in

various

1999 found

this coast in

scleractinian coral species.

the area around Saad ed

Djibouti.

communities

wide monospecific stands of Acropora

few areas. Rapid surveys of

some 74

dominated by Monlipora foliosa have been estimated

sporadic,

is

The

best developed

and patch or platform reefs

Din and other islands close

in

have suffered very extensively from

bleaching and mortality as a resuh of the 1998 bleaching

event, while there

was

also evidence of crown-of-thoms

starfish impacts during surveys in

1997 and 1999.

The northern coast of Somalia

human

still

has only a sparse

very healthy, although there

is

and an opportunistic sharkfin

fishery. Further utilization

the fish resources,

minor nearshore fishery

which may include benthic species,

the result of illegal fishing

from Yemen.

more

of
is

significant

offshore trawl fishery has also been reported.

Southern Somalia's reefs are described

in

natural

impacts to coral communities

including storm

thoms

Extensive

starfish.

7.

although

little

Human
has a

fairly

Overfishing

or

none was observed

is

Oman
are dominated by sand, although there are rocky outcrops.

is

Oman

widespread.

probably only a localized problem on the

reef communities, but

gear,

in other areas.

developed coastline and fishing

together with

damage from anchors and

fishing-related

litter,

One survey found

that

fishing

presents

much

between 25 and

100 percent of all the coral on Pocillopora damicornis reefs

surveyed
is

in

1996 was damaged by abandoned

nets.

There

also a significant abalone fishery operating from the

southwest of the country. Abalone are only collected for two

months of the

year, with total yields

of around 35-45 tons

per year in the early 1990s. Recreational diving occurs in a

terrestrial sources, or

at

low

levels.

is

Oman

integrated system of coastal zone

to designate a

from

minimal and not thought

countries in the wider region to have

begun

Pollution

indeed from the very high volume of

tanker traffic in the region,

of Oman's southern coastline and sub-tidal waters

associated

impacts, by contrast, are considerable.

be impacting reef communities.

Much

and

bleaching

mortality of shallow corals occurred in Dhofar in 1998,

few places but remains

Chapter

Oman,

in

damage and some predation by crown-of-

greater problems.

population and coastal resources are regarded as

a

some

to

reefs further to the east, near Berbera,

to

cover more than 25 square kilometers. There have been

is

to

one of the few

moved towards an

management and has

system of marine protected areas.

Middle Eastern Seas

Arabian Gulf:
United Arab Emirates, Qatar,
Bahrain, Kuwait, Iran

Arabian Gulf

Thewhich

is

edge of the Arabian tectonic

Sea,

it

plate.

al

Karun Rivers.

number of rivers flowing from

in Iran.

On

average the Gulf

deep, and at

its

deepest point

the

in

this

area

entire

extinguished.

up and

dried

The

In addition there

Zagros Mountains

last glacial

marine

all

large rivers at this time

it

only

maxima
was

life

would have

continued to flow along the eastern edge of the area and

Hormuz. Climatically

out through the Straits of

extremely harsh region. Most of the Gulf

is

this is

an

sub-tropical,

and the surrounding arid land masses drive extremes of

eral

in the

summer, but

falling to

0C

in the winter.

The

pattern of current circulation

clockwise flow. Lighter,

less saline,

is

one of a counter-

waters enter from the

Gulf of Oman and flow north along the coast of Iran, then

down

the eastern shores of the Arabian Peninsula.

As

eva-

poration increases the salinity and density of the water, so

it

sinks,

and there

is

actually an outflow at deeper levels

of more saline water through the Straits of

unlike that occurring in the

Red

Hormuz

Sea. Circulation

embayments of

restricted in the

the

the shallow waters off the United

is

not

greatly

Gulf of Salwah and

Arab Emirates, driving

massive evaporation and even more extreme environmental conditions.

The benthic surfaces of most of

temperatures, with air temperatures frequently reaching

50C

500

reach 70%o or more in enclosed embayments. The gen-

its

formed from

the southeast

reaches about 100 meters. During the

to

northern

is

only around 35 meters

is

of evaporation range from 140

year, but levels

centimeters so that salinities are typically 40%o, but often

Arab waterway which

the Tigris, Euphrates and

the equivalent of 15-50 centimeters of water depth per

Unlike the Red

receives considerable riverine input at

end from the Shatt

are a

marine basin

a vast shallow

has formed on the northeastern and eastern

MAP9e

featureless

the

sediments, dominated by

soft

Gulf are

muds

in

the

to ameliorate these fluctuations

north and east and carbonate sands in the south and

and most nearshore waters range between 10 and 39C

west. There are several areas of rocky shore, both on the

shallow water does

little

through the year. Winds further influence temperatures

mainland and offshore

quite considerably, and can also deliver large quantities

have developed

of sediment. Despite the high riverine input this

division between true reefs and carbonate structures with

is

very saline basin - riverine input plus rainfall contribute

Left:

The Arabian GulflSTS052-153-13l

diversity

is

generally low

in

19921.

the Arabian Gulf

Right:

A school

little

in a

active coral

of yellowspot

islands. Fringing

number of

growth

is

places. In

and patch reefs

many

areas the

blurred and there are quite a

emperor Gnathodentex

aurolineatus. Coral reef

251

MAP 96

Middle Eastern Seas

^^^^^

United Arab Emirates

General Data
2 369

Population (thousandsl

GDP

(million

Land area

US$1

/il

/i98

78 982

Iknn^l

Marine area (thousand km^l

Per capita

52

consumption [kg/yearl

fish

29

Status and Threats

Reefs at risk (%|

65

Recorded coral diseases

Biodiversity

Reef area (km^l

Mangrove area (km^l

30

No. of mangrove species

No. of seagrass species

few shallow structures which may be of

do not appear
time.

the

190

30/68

Coral diversity

One

common

feature

periodic

reefal origin, but

be accreting structures

to

across

the present

at

much of

the region

may

however, and

difficult to ascertain

may be combined

with other environmental stresses.

Fishing

is

decimation of reef communities during

occasional cold water events which

more

is

another important industry in the region,

with a large industrial trawl fishery which targets shrimp

arise through a

during the open season and finfish for the rest of the year.

combination of cold upwelling and wind-driven cooling

For the most part these are targeted away from coral areas.

on already cool winter temperatures. During the 1997-98

The shrimp

El Nifio event, coral bleaching

of

localities,

was recorded

number

at a

with considerable coral mortality in shallow

human terms

the region

is

the

most important natural resource

in

with almost two thirds of the worlds

oil,

reserves located in the Gulf and adjacent land

proven

oil

areas.

This has had an enormous

influence

over the

envirormient of the region, including the construction of

numerous

oil

platforms, but

more importantly

Gulf War

1991 the waters of the Arabian Gulf

in

already had the worlds highest concentrations of hydrocarbons.

Much was

the result of ballast water discharge

from tankers (20 000-35 000 tankers pass through the

of Hormuz annually). Further release comes from

Straits

accidents on the
result

oil

platforms and deliberate releases as a

of war. The Nowruz blow-out, a direct result of the

Iran-Iraq war, released an estimated

Even

so, this

1991,

when

barrels.

Somewhat

this pollution

may

the

Gulf War

were of the order of 6-1

not be as great on coral reefs as might be

is

no

direct physical

limited.

The longer term

region was once famous for

There is now a growing recreational fishery which

may have an impact on reef communities in some areas.

pearls.

Reef-based tourism
region, although there

diving

whom
and

among

is

is

virtually non-existent in the

a small

amount of

recreational

and expatriate residents, some of

local

are actively involved in environmental protection

Although there

rehabilitation.

the environment in a

number of

is

a strong interest in

these countries and a

number of marine protected

significant

areas have been

proposed, only a few have actually been declared, and only

one of these includes coral

reefs.

effects

of

oil

United Arab Emirates

The nearshore waters of
Arab Emirates
circulation,

are

the western parts of the United

shallow,

with relatively low water

and some of the highest

salinities in the

Gulf

on coral

for coral growth. Further offshore there are patch reefs

little

and fringing reefs around many of the islands. Diversity

The island of Bahrain, together with platform reef structures. Active coral growth
19961.

pearl oyster

Although there are seagrasses, these waters are unsuitable

growth and reproduction (see Chapter 2) may be a

platforms l5T5078-7i8-11.

its

fishery this has largely closed with the influx of cultured

was

contact with corals, and hence the smothering of corals

somewhat

from small

and trap fishing methods.

in

million

surprisingly the ecological impacts of

expected. For the most part there

this

line

500 000 barrels of oil.

was greatly surpassed by

total releases

Gulf

percent of

artisanal. typically operating

and dhow and using

Although

the release of

massive quantities of oil into the marine environment. Prior

to the

craft

stocks collapsed to only

pre-war biomass. Other fisheries are small-scale

their

commercial or

waters near several countries.

In

fisheries were heavily affected by the

War and shrimp

is

limited to only small areas of these

is

254

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

low

in all

areas and

many

coral

communities are domi-

undoubtedly had a major impact on offshore ecosystems,

nated by large monospecific stands. Mortality associated

and probably impacted a number of coral

with coral bleaching events has been considerable, with

industry was closed in 1998. Onshore land reclamation has

over 98 percent loss of Acropora in 1996 on reefs near

been considerable

Abu

proposals to reclaim land on Fasht

Dhabi, and loss of most of the remaining colonies

during the 1998 bleaching event.

in the north

reefs, until the

and west, and there are

Adham,

a large offshore

reef area in the east. Industrial effluents are significant,

and nearshore waters are routinely dredged, with a major

impact of increased sediments on the surrounding

reefs.

Qatar
There are fringing reefs along the north and east coasts, with
coral communities growing

on the coastal shelf to the

Kuwait

east,

but no real reef structures. Further offshore there are a

Kuwait's reefs are largely located

number of platform

the country,

Salwah

is

reefs. In the far

southwest the Gulf of

highly saline and unsuitable for coral growlh.

Shallow reefs to the east of Doha were reported

undergone mass mortalities as a

with

bleaching event,

losses

result

to

have

of the 1998 coral

of up to

100 percent of

in the

southern part of

and are dominated by platform and patch

from Kuwait City

reefs along the coast

to the

border with

Saudi Arabia, and with some fringing reefs around

offshore islands.

Most

active reef growth occurs in waters

shallower than 10 meters.

Acropora colonies.

There are considerable impacts on these reefs from

various

human

Perhaps the most direct are

activities.

problems of overfishing, solid waste disposal and wide-

Bahrain
There are no true fringing reefs
the north and east there are a

spread anchor damage. These reefs were also

in this country,

number of

but to

quite extensive

platform reef structures. Diversity and coral cover were

most

directly

although

impacted by the

this did not

oil spills

among

those

from the Gulf War.

cause the mass mortalities which

were expected by many.

generally low, while coral bleaching events in 1996 and

1998 led

to mortalities

on many offshore

main

island,

relatively

of 85-90 percent of the living coral

reefs.

Over 70 kilometers north of

Abul Thama

high

coral

is

cover of about

Iran

the

a small raised platform with

25-30 percent.

Very

little

information

to occur along parts

largely survived these bleaching events.

some of

is

an industrialized nation. Trawl fisheries

Qatar

currently available describing reef

communities off the coast of

Surrounded by deeper water (50 meters), these corals

Bahrain

is

Iran.

Fringing reefs are

known

of the mainland and particularly around

the offshore islands, including

Kharg and Kharko

Islands in the north and several other small islands to the

Bahrain

Kuwait

Iran

General Data
Population (thousands)

GDP

(million

US$1

63^

74/i

8 530

97i

65 620

308

28 111

716 326

U3

612

16 984

Marine area (thousand km^l

31

206

Per capita

10

11

66

82

93

88

Land area (km^)

fish

consumption

11

62/,

774

(kg/yearl

Status and Threats

Reefs at risk (%|

Recorded coral diseases

Biodiversity

Reef area (km^l

Coral diversity

Mangrove area (km'l

No. of mangrove species
No. of seagrass species

700

570

110

700

na/68

na/68

30/68

na/68
207

<5

na

na

na

na

na

Middle Eastern Seas

Protected areas with coral reefs

K

Site

name

Designation

lUCN

Abbreviation

Size

i.

ikm'i

Year

Iran

Ramsar

Sheedvar Island

8.70

1999

2 100.00

na

Site

Saudi Arabia

south.

Some 35

coral species have been recorded

around Hormuz Island. As Iran has the deepest and

saline waters

may

reveal

new

Fishing
there
to

was

of the Gulf,

is

it

seems

PA

Protected Area

Dawat Ad-Dafl/Dawat
Al-Musallamlyah/Coral Islands

Unassigned

from

notably operating from the free trade areas of Kish and

least

Qeshm

likely that further research

Islands.

Other human impacts, considerable

major industrial areas

in the

in

northwest and around Kish

reef areas and considerable biodiversity.

and Qeshm. include sedimentation and pollution, together

an important industry. From 1989 to 1995

with solid waste and anchor damage. Around Kish Island,

a near

doubling of the number of fishing vessels

more than 9 000. although

fish catches did not

show

algal

overgrowth of corals

in

the

late

attributed to increased nutrient levels.

of

Hormuz

1990s has been

The narrow waters

among

similar increases. Efforts to control the effects of trawling

around the

may

lanes in the world, representing an ongoing threat to the

actually have led to an increase in the impacts

coral reef species. There

Left;

Large groupers are

is

also an ornamental fish trade.

still

sold

in

below: The port of

Straits

southernmost

salinities in the Gulf,

Dammam in Saudi Arabia,

are

the busiest tanker

reefs.

(he fish marl<ets of the Arabian Gulf. Right, above:

These waters have some of the highest

19961. Right,

on

Abu

and wide areas are unsuitable

Dhabi, the United

for coral

Arab Emirates.

growth ISTS080-707-77.

showing intensive coastal development lSTS078-7i8-

10.

19961.

25*

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Selected bibliography

REGIONAL SOURCES

case studies from Arabia.

Coles SL 119881. Limitations on reef coral development

the

in

Arabian Gulf; temperature or algal competition, Proc 6th

Coral Reef
Girdler

Sea

RW

in

Symp

(1984).

2:

Int

Information

Done

Lloyd D,

In:

Management and

TJ,

Diop S leds).

Decision Support for Marine

and hluman Welfare: Coral Reefs.

Biodiversity Protection

Australian Institute of Marine Science and United Nations

211-216.

The evolution

of

the Gulf of

Aden and Red

Environment Programme, Townsville, Australia.

DeVantier LM. Turak

space and time. Deep Sea Res Part A 31: 747.

MEPA, lUCN leds) 11987a). MEPA Coastal and Marine

Management Series, 7. Red Sea and Arabian Gulf. Saudi
Arabia: An Assessment of National Coastal Zone
Management Requirements. Meteorology and Environmental
Protection Administration, Riyadh. Saudi Arabia.

MEPA, lUCN ledsl 11987b). MEPA Coastal and Marine

Management Series, h Red Sea. Saudi Arabia: An Analysis
of Coastal and Marine Habitats of the Red Sea. Meteorology

E,

Al-5haikh KA, Death G

(in

press).

Coral communities of the central-northern Saudi Arabian

Red Sea. Fauna of Arabia.

R, Salm RV (1999). Overview of the Biodiversity of
the Somali Coastal and Marine Environment. Report
prepared for lUCN Eastern Africa Programme and Somali
Natural Resources Management Programme.
Kemp J (1998). Marine and Coastal Habitats and Species

van der Elst

and Environmental Protection Administration, Riyadh, Saudi

Bir All area of Shabwa Province, Republic of

Yemen. Recommendations for Protection. Report to the

Arabia.

Environmental

MEPA

and Marine
Management Series, 3: Red Sea. Saudi Arabia: An
Assessment of Coastal Zone Management Requirements for
the Red Sea. Meteorology and Environmental Protection

MEPA, lUCN

11987c).

leds)

Coastal

in

120001. Regional status of coral reefs

the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.

In:

CR

Wilkinson

led).

Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000. Australian Institute

Marine Science, Cape Ferguson, Australia.

of

London, UK.
Large-scale variation
butterflyfishes

in

Ormond RFG

assemblage structure

and angelfishes. J Biogeog

Roberts CM, Polunin NVC 11992). Effects

protection on northern

Coral Reef

Symp

2:

Red Sea

19:

of

of

11992).

Red Sea

marine reserve

fish populations.

Proc 7th

Int

969-977.

UNEP

and lUCN, Nairobi, Kenya, Gland, Switzerland

and Cambridge, UK.
Vine P (1986).

Red Sea

Invertebrates.

Immel

Publishing,

London, UK.

The sources

listed

Kemp JM

of

above also cover the the following sub-

sections of this chapter: Northern Red Sea:

the

Council

of

(1998).

Zoogeography

of the coral reef fishes of the

Socotra Archipelago. J S/ogeog 25: 919-934.

Kemp JM

(2000).

Zoogeography

of the coral reef fishes of the

Kemp

new

Fauna of Arabia

reef fishes from Arabia.

records of coral

18.

JM, Benzoni F (1999). Monospecific coral areas on the

northern shore

of the Gulf of

Aden, Yemen. Coral Reefs

18:

Egypt,

Kemp

JM. Benzoni F (20001. A preliminary study of coral

communities of the northern Gulf of Aden. Fauna of Arabia 18.

Kemp

Israel,

JM, Obura D (2000). Reefs

Socotra Archipelago,

239-250.

Sheppard CRC, Sheppard ALS 11991). Corals and coral

communities of Arabia, Fauna of Saudi Arabia 12: 1-170.
Sheppard C, Price A. Roberts C (1992). Marine Ecology of the
Arabian Region: Patterns and Processes in Extreme
Tropical Environments. Academic Press, London, UK.
UNEP/IUCN (1988). UNEP Regional Seas Directories and
Bibliographies: Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 2: Indian
Ocean.

Council

280.

Randall E (1983). Red Sea Reef Fishes. Immel Publishing,

Roberts CM, Dawson Shepherd AR,

Protection

Ministers, Sana'a.

north-eastern Gulf of Aden, with eight

Administration, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Pilcher N, Alsuhaibany

of the

(edsl.

of

the Gulf of

McClanahan

In:

T,

Aden and

Sheppard

C,

Obura

Coral Reefs of the Western Indian Ocean: Their

Ecology and Conservation. Oxford University Press, Oxford,

UK and New

York, USA. 273-275.

McClanahan T, Obura DO (1997), Preliminary Ecological

Assessment of the Saad ed Dm, Awdal Region. iUCN Eastern
Africa Programme, Nairobi, Kenya.
Salm RV, Jensen RAC, Papastravou VA (1993). A Marine
Conservation and Development Report: Marine Fauna of
Oman: Cetaceans, Turtles, Seabirds, and Shallow Water
Corals. lUCN-The World Conservation Union, Gland,
Switzerland

Schleyer M, Baldwin R (1999). Biodiversity Assessment of the

Northern Somali Coast East of Berbera. Report prepared

Guide for Fishery Purposes: The Living Marine

identification

Jordan; Saudi Arabia; Central Red Sea: Sudan; Southern Red

Resources of Somalia. Food and Agriculture Organization

Sea: Eritrea and Yemen,

the United Nations,

SOUTHERN ARABIAN REGION: YEMEN, DJIBOUTI,

NORTHERN SOMALIA AND OMAN
Al-Jufaili S, Al-Jabri M, Al-Baluchi A,

West
in

F,

Baldwin RM, Wilson SC,

Matthews AD (1999). Human impacts on coral reefs

Oman. Est Coast Shelf Sci A9 (Supplement

the Sultanate of

A|:

65-74.

(private publication),

of

Italy

ARABIAN GULF: UNITED ARAB EMIRATES, QATAR,

BAHRAIN, KUWAIT, IRAN
PL, Hodgson G, Alsaffar AH,
Alhazeem SH 11997a). The Corals and Coral Reef Fishes of

Carpenter
Kuwait.

KE,

Harrison

Kuwait

Institute

for

Scientific

Research

and

E,

Al-Shaikh KA, Cheung CPS, Abdul-Aziz

communities

for

Carpenter KE, Krupp

F,

Jones DA, Zajonz U (1997bl. FAO

Species Identification Guide for Fishery Purposes: Living

UK.

M, Death G, Done TJ (2000). Ecological indicators

of coral

Rome,

Environment Public Authority, Kuwait.

Coles SL 11995). Corals of Oman. Keech, Samdani and Coles

DeVantier LM, Turak

for

IUCN Eastern Africa Programme and Somali Natural

Resources Management Programme.
Sommer C, Schneider W, Poutiers J-M (1996). FAO Species

of

status

marine protected areas planning:

Marine Resources of Kuwait, Eastern Saudi Arabia, Bahrain,

Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates. Food and Agriculture
Organization

of

the United Nations,

Rome,

Italy.

Middle Eastern Seas

Coles SL 119881. Limitations on reef coral development

in

Arabian Gulf: temperature or algal competition. Proc 6th

Cora/ ffee^Symp

the
Int

211-216.

2:

Coles SL.FadlallahYH 119911. Reef coral survival and mortality

at

low temperatures

KW,

Fadlallah YH, Allen

shallow reefs

in

the Gulf

new

Arabian Gulf:

tfie

temperature

specific lower

limits.

Coral Reefs

RA

Estudillo

119941.

species-

Damage

caused by periodic exposure

is

Maps have been prepared for the Saudi Arabian Red Sea from
lUCN/MEPA 11984, 19851. Further data have been taken from
Hydrographic Office 11955, 1984, 19941 and these same
sources, together with Hydrographic Office 11987, 19911 have

been used

231-237.

9:

Map 9b

to

Islands.

to air

Eastern

Saudi

Arabia).

Ginsburg

In:

RN

led).

Reefs: Health, Hazards

and

Admiralty Chart No.

History, 1993. Rosenstiel School

Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, University

Miami,

of

Akhawein

El

63.

Taunton, UK.

11984). Marine

in

and reef

of coral reefs

Fauna

of Saudi Arabia 6: 102-126.

Hydrographic Office 11991). Sawakin

Meteorology and Environmental Protection Administration,

Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Ras Qassar

to

British

inset not utilized.)

Hydrographic Office 11994),

IThe

Brothers)

El

lincluding

Admiralty Chart No.

8.

Suweis ISuezI
the

Gulf

1:750 000 and

to El

Akhawein

Aqabal.

of

British

1:300 000 lAqabal.

December 1994. Taunton, UK.

lUCN/MEPA 11984). Report on the Distribution
Species in the Saudi Arabian Red Sea: Part

MEPA, lUCN leds) 11987b). MEPA Coastal and Marine

Management Series, 7: Red Sea and Arabian Gulf Saudi
Arabia: An Assessment of National Coastal Zone
Management Requirements. Meteorology and Environmental

of Habitats
1.

and

Saudi Arabia

Marine Conservation Programme, Report No. 4. lUCN,

Switzerland/Meteorology
and
Environmental

Gland,

Protection Administration, Jeddah,

Includes

numerous

lUCN/MEPA

Protection Administration, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

1987.

Admiralty Chart No. 81. 1:300 000. June 1991. Taunton, UK.

ISawakm

MEPA, lUCN leds) 11987a). MEPA Coastal and Marine

Management Series, 6: Executive Summary - Arabian Gulf.
Saudi Arabia: An Assessment of Biotopes and Coastal Zone
Management Requirements for the Arabian Gulf.

Sudan.

to Port

December

Taunton, UK.

the Northern Area, Arabian Gulf, Saudi Arabia.

fishes

Rabigh. British

to

British Admiralty Chart No. 82. 1:150 000.

ecology of Saudi Arabia: a survey

1:750 000.

September 1984.

1:750 000.

Hydrographic Office 11987). Outer Approaches

Miami, USA.

McCain JC, Tarr AB, Carpenter KE. Coles SL

Zubair

Islet to

Ul.

No.

1955. Taunton, UK.

Hydrographic Office 11984).

Proceedings of the Colloquium on Global Aspects of Coral

of

Sudan.

in

Admiralty Chart

British

September

during extreme low tides and low water temperatures ITarut

Bay,

provide details of reefs

to

Hydrographic Office 11955). Red Sea: Masamirit

Kingdom

of

Saudi Arabia.

maps.

tables, photos,

and Species along

Red Sea Coast of Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabia
Marine Conservation Programme, Report No. 11. lUCN,

MEPA, lUCN leds) 11987c). MEPA Coastal and Marine

Management Series. 5: Technical Report 5 - Arabian Gulf
Saudi Arabia: An Assessment of Biotopes and Coastal Zone
Management Requirements for the Arabian Gulf.

11985). Distribution of Habitats

the Southern

Switzerland/Meteorology

Gland,

Protection Administration, Jeddah,

Meteorology and Environmental Protection Administration,

Includes

numerous

and

Environmental

Kingdom

tables, photos,

of

Saudi Arabia.

maps, annexes.

Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Pilcher NJ, Wilson S,

region.

In:

MR

Alhazeem SH, Shokri

12000). Status

Arabian/Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea

of coral reefs in the

Wilkinson

CR

led).

Status of Coral Reefs of the

Map

9c

For Eritrea reefs are derived from Hydrographic Office 11955,

1988,

1993).

1991,

For

Djibouti

reefs

are

from

derived

World: 2000. Australian Institute of Marine Science, Cape

Hydrographic Office 11985, 1991, 1992, 1993). Coral reef data

Ferguson, Australia.

for

Price

ARC

11990).

assessment

Rapid

of

coastal

zone

management requirements: a case-study from the Arabian

Gulf. Ocean Shore Man 13: 1-19,
Price ARG, Robinson JH leds) 11993). Marine Pollution
Bulletin, 27: The 1991 Gulf War: Coastal and Marine
Environmental Consequences. Pergamon Press, Oxford, UK.
Sheppard C, Price A, Roberts C 11992). Marine Ecology of the
Arabian Region: Patterns and Processes in Extreme
Tropical Environments. Academic Press, London, UK.

the former

Yemen Arab Republic

INorth Yemeni were

obtained from lUCN 11987). Further data were derived from

Hydrographic Office 11985, 1991, 19931.

Hydrographic Office (1955). Red Sea: Masamirit

Islands

British

September

Admiralty Chart

British

November

Islet to

141.

of

Bab

Mandeb

el

Admiralty Chart No. 3661.

to

1985. Taunton, UK.

Hydrographic Office 11988). North and northeast approaches

Map sources

Hydrographic Office 11991). Jazirat

Reefs are taken from Hydrographic Office 11954, 1984, 1994).

these charts include

some

1954. Taunton, UK.

Admiralty Chart No.

63.

Hydrographic Office (1994).

December

Bab

el

Mandeb.

December

1991.

El

(including
8.

1:750 000.

to

the

Gulf

1:750 000 and

of

Chart No.

Rabigh. British

September 1984.

Suweis ISuez]

1994. Taunton, UK.

British Admiralty Chart No. 253.

to El

:200 000.

September

992.

Taunton, UK.

Hydrographic Office 11993). Gulf

Akhawein

El

Taunton, UK.

Admiralty Chart No.

to

Hydrographic Office (1992), Golfe de Tadjoura and Anchorages.

Hydrographic Office 11984).

Brothers)

Tair

Taunton, UK.

Hydrographic Office 11954). Red Sea: Gezirat el Dibia to

Masamirit Islet. British Admiralty Chart No. 138. 1:750 000.

IThe

al

British Admiralty Chart No. 143. 1:400 000.

very old data, but also

surveys from the 19B0s.

December

to

March

1988. Taunton, UK.

Map 9a
for

Aden

1:200 000.

Mits'iwa. British Admiralty Chart No. 164. 1:300 000.

Sources

Zubair

1:750 000.

1955. Taunton, UK.

Hydrographic Office 11985). Straits

Harbour.

No.

6.

:750 000.

March

of

Aden. British Admiralty

993. Taunton, UK.

lUCN 11987). The Distribution of Habitats and Species along the

YAR Coastline. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland.

Akhawein

Aqabal.

British

1:300 000 lAqaba).

Map9d
1:1 000 000 coastline from lUCN
These maps only cover approximately half of

Coral reefs were added to a

[1

986,

988,

989).

Z5B

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

the coastline between the

Yemen border and the center of

to Sanmah. For the

Sawqirah Bay and from Ras ad Daffah

northern coastline of Somalia, reefs have been tal<en from

Hydrographic Office 11992, 19931.

Hydrographic Office (1992). Golfe de Tadjoura and Anchorages.

1:200 000. British Admiralty Chart No. 253.

September 1992.

Taunton, UK.

Hydrographic Office (19931. Gulf

of

Aden. 1:750 000. British

March 1993. Taunton, UK.

lUCN (19861. Oman Coastal Zone Management Plan: Greater
Capital Area. Prepared for Ministry of Commerce and
Admiralty Chart No.

Industry, Muscat,

lUCN

(1988).

Ras

al

Oman

6.

Oman. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland.

Management Plan: Ouriyat

Coastal Zone

Hadd. Prepared for Ministry

of

to

Commerce and

Industry, Muscat, Oman. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland.

lUCN (19891, Oman Coastal Zone Management Plan: Dhofan
Volume 2: Resource Atlas. Prepared for Ministry of
Commerce and Industry, Muscat, Oman. lUCN, Gland,

Switzerland.

Map9e
Coral reef areas are based on
1991a, 1991b and

199^;!.

Some

Hydrographic Office [1989,

additional reef areas are based

on Abbott (19941.
Abbott F (19941. Coral Reefs
report,

of

Bahrain (Arabian

Gulfl.

draft

prepared for the World Conservation Monitoring

Centre,

Hydrographic Office (19871. Jazireh-ye Lavan

Tannurah.

British

and Ra's

to Kalat

Admiralty Chart No. 2883.

1:350 000,

Taunton, UK.

Hydrographic Office (19891. Musayid

Admiralty Chart No. 3950.

:1

to

Ra's Laffan. British

50 000. Taunton, UK.

Hydrographic Office (1991al, Ra's Tannurah

to Jazirat

Faylaka

and Jazireh-ye Khark. British Admiralty Chart No. 2882.

1:350 000. Taunton, UK.

Hydrographic Office (1991b|. Kalat and Ra's

Abadan.

British

al

Admiralty Chart No. 2884.

Khafji

to

1:350 000.

Taunton, UK.

Hydrographic Office (1994). Jazireh-ye Lavan and Jazirat Das

to

Ras Tannurah.

British

1:350 000. Taunton, UK.

Admiralty Chart No. 2886.

Southeast Asia

Chapter 10
Southeast Asia

Asia,
Southeast
and mass
of

with

its

tightly

complex coastline

interlocking

islands,

straddles the worlds greatest zone

of

coral reef biodiversity. Although reef deve-

lopment

rather restricted

is

in a

few areas,

notably the Gulf of Thailand and the southern coastline

of

mainland China, for the most part coral reefs are

well developed and numerous. Fringing reefs line the

coasts of myriad islands, including

ones, and

parts

of

the

in

of

There

many

the larger

known

of the region

there

is

a considerable

oceanic atolls.
is

great

Palawan as well as the reefs

tvtyanmar and eastern Indonesia have received

remained, or even accumulated,

in

in this

that Pleistocene extinctions

other parts of the world. This

Left:

pockets

of

coral

same
may have

species. At the

in

reef

follow different

to

sea level

allowing

diversity,

paths so that,

when

species reunited, they had diverged, further adding

to

their diversity.

Whatever the causes,

harbors more species

reef

in

difficulties,

its

this

almost every group

organism than any other part

Unfortunately

reefs also

region

of coral

of the world.

face

considerable

some 82 percent estimated to be

human activities in the recent Reefs at

with

threatened by

Burgeoning human populations are overutilizing

off

little

is

the resources

In

many

may have

region at the

areas, while wholesale des-

truction of the forests on land, together with rapid

urbanization.

Is

leading to massive loads of sediments

and pollution on many

has been suggested that biodiversity

same time

isolated

evolution

last glaciation, possibly

numerous

time the massive fluctuations

information about

attention from the scientific community.

It

through the

Risk report.

paucity of

areas. Barrier reefs off the coastline of Sumatra,

Sulawesi and

right

providing a refuge for

barrier reefs,

the deeper waters of the South China Sea and

towards the east

number

of

mainland. There are also

extensive, though often poorly

while

many

maintained a relatively equitable climate for coral reef

development

little

reefs.

While scientists

may have

information about these reefs, most are well

known

to

fishermen, and even the most remote reefs

were occurring

are threatened

an area which

destructive fishing practices.

by overfishing

and,

particularly,

Southeast Asia harbors the highest levels of biodiversity of any coral reef region. Here the l<nobbly branches of

Porites surround a foliose Montlpora coral. Right: Volcanoes such as Ivluria on Java are widespread IST5026-4

-86, 19981.

by

259

MAP 10
100

DEMOCRATIC
PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC

OF KOREA

30VBHUTAN
CHINA
'^/"l

lANGLADESH

Bay of
Bengal

MYANMAR

THAILAND

ffil_.

'

CAMBODIA

-^''Celebes
Basin

r
Basin

West Caro
Basin

-'f

I i

INDONESIAJA VA SEA

Christmas

."STRALIAI
j

Cocot CKKlhs) Is.

(AIISTRiuiAl .

/J
Gulfof
Carpentaria

Basin

Exmouth
Plateau

500

1000

1500 km

Southeast Asia

Myanmar and

Thailand,

Cambodia

ThSllSnd

is

MAP 10a

a large country lying in the center

of mainland Southeast Asia and extending

far south

along the Malay Peninsula towards the Malaysian

border.

The

coastline

is

clearly divided into those sections

which border the Gulf of Thailand and

a shorter coastline

on the Andaman Sea. The Gulf of Thailand

is

semi-enclosed sea, generally less than 60 meters

It is

in

depth.

The

tidal

systems are diurnal, while

monsoonal weather exerts the predominant influence on

reef development. In the northeast
affected by

riverine

the coast

riverine inputs,

is

and coral numbers

far

in the

all

areas the

have restricted reef

relatively harsh physical conditions

diversity,

In all

Gulf of Thailand are

lower than in surrounding regions.

The

coastline facing the

different.

Andaman Sea

The continental shelf

lies

is

somewhat

about 200 kilometers

some 50 kilometers

offshore in the south, although only

offshore around Phuket. This coastline

is

heavily affected

by the contrasting influences of the strong Southwest

Monsoon (May-October)

driving

onshore winds and

large

rough conditions, while during the Northeast Monsoon

reefs have developed

(November-April) conditions are generally very calm.

and there are quite a number

This coastline has the largest areas of mangroves in

runoff and there are some

mangrove communities, but fringing

away from

much of

Chumphon and on

sides of the islands near Sural Thani.

a shallow

heavily sedimented, particularly in the north and west,

but highly productive.

western shores of the islands of

of islands with important fringing reef communities

offshore. In the northwest the coastline

Bight of Bangkok where there

is

is

indented into the

massive riverine input

from four major rivers and large reef structures do not

Thailand,

and there are also extensive coral

particularly along the shores of the

islands.

The degree of reef development appears

related to distance

from shore and

reefs,

numerous offshore

level

to

be

of exposure.

occur, although coral communities are reported in a few

Fringing communities are generally better developed on

More

the eastern coasts of the islands. Extensive reef structures

places,

particularly

reefs occur

around the offshore

islands.

on the eastern shores of Thailand

(the western

shores of the gulf). These are largely around offshore

islands, with limited

developments around the islands of

Prachuab Kirikhan and more extensive ones around the

Two spot-naped

butterflyfish

are reported

from the Adang Rawi group

in the

south and

around the Surin Islands, a southerly extension of the

Mergui Archipelago. The majority of reef research

this

Chaetodon oxycephalus on a shallow

in

country has been focussed around Phuket and the

reef. This

species feeds primarily on coral polyps.

261

MAPloa
99

96

93"

x:^

LAOS

^--'
"}

MYANMAR
'< Wiao lam Pi - Hat

Thai

Muang NP

aSKtwa

\^3
Borong^Is.

THAILAND

PyJnmana

WunbaikRFo .Kyaukpyu
Thayetmyo

^~-

Ramreel.
Toungoo

Taungup

Oieduba

I.

"t
S

Bay of Bengal

Ci

-1

Nantha Kyun

SlrinaOtNP-

,.<

kdYm.

Yai

.[:.;

i^Nopharat rt^KoPhiphiDon
thara - hAuKo
Phi Phi NP

li

Kd Mai thou'

Moulmein

MuKoi'
tai)

le-^-^j^^^'

;*

Thamihia Kyun

GS

(Diamond Island)

*L^ ^

'

-y

Ayeyamady

27

18

Delia

o
Preparis North Channel

Nakhon
Preparis

I.

V4

Ratchasima

THAILAND

Pr^faris Sotith Channel

Moscosls.
Great Coco

yi

Little

ANDAMA A^ SEA

I.

Coco I.

Moscos 1
Island

Andaman Is.
Jjt

(INDIA)

Wandur NP

(I

"

GS'

Narcondam I.

Chon

Bight

Burt

K/iaoL
K/iao
Lasm Via

>

13

Mu Ko Samaf

:-f-;.

Bangkok

Sattahlp*<

Me<gul

Wiao Sant
Roi Yot NP

KoChang^

Prachuab Khlrtkhan
'

Metgui

Hat Vanakom

Chang

NP

^ j^ '..'.'.'.':

^<*>f.v'

'

Lou^boroughC

r'-

^^i-:; .-.y.-:

McQmhyi/Ji': jj: ;
j
StewaitL^'C8vem;t
:

T3|

'

Thong

-.._

^KoPhaogan

-^P..

,^U>en,

*
Ko-*
Mu Ko
SurinNP

'^S
''SonNP
>

m'
''-SuramianI
^'

'

\
SlLuke'sl S

'

KoSamui

.,
,

Nakhon
Si
Thammarat

'

10

jg^*^""^ Mu Ko^^ Ko Tao

J^

't'

" Saddle L

Thailand

vChumphon

MuKo

yiHaslillgsL
i

TP

ThaleSapNHA

t.

,-

Tanjung Dagu

..- Selat

FoR

Panchor FoR

y,^.*^- Pulau Jimun FoB

PaSnl,
KoOiaiigi

Pulau L/mbu

,.

Pulau Singa
10

20

30 km

BnjerL

KoPhayam

FoR

Pulau Tuba

..^-

80

120 160 200

...

Pulau

PayarMp

FoR

Pulau Segantang MP
Pulau Kaca MP

40

of

>>

Simian--'

StAndrort

'

Gulf

'^\'.

'

')

QuanPhu
Quoc

Archipelago
..!.:.I.:.1-.1.-.1.'.-.:^.:.;.:.I..*.?1 '.l.-;''/.!.:

Great ^wintinl^-

NP

MP

:,^,

>

vt-\r
''

km
96

99

102

Southeast Asia

coastline of the

Andaman

coral bleaching

was conducted

Ko

reefs of

loads,

are

Sea. Early reef research into

in these waters,

and the

Phuket, which have adapted to high sediment

of considerable

also

The

interest.

1998

farms

were

underway
success so
rate

Gulf of Thailand where

in the

far.

Mangroves

communities and

have been affected.

use in

much of

considerable. Sedimentation

many

reefs in

Thailand's coastal zone are

is

coasts.

The Gulf of Thailand

fishery.

Although

reefs,

is

it

a significant

likely to

this

problem

for

on the mainland

areas, but particularly

also has

major trawl

does not directly impact any true

have destroyed or degraded small coral

communities which may have existed

in the

open waters

many

and buildings has led

pollution.

and aquarium fish

utilized for fishing as well as for shell

collection.

There have been problems of destructive

some

fishing in
declined.

Some

parts,

although this

is

sea gypsies are responsible for

some

and collection for the aquarium

that over

It

has been

esti-

50 percent of coastal mangrove forests

have been destroyed, largely for conversion to shrimp

ponds and

Left:
31,

for coastal development.

Bangkok

is

Many of

one of many sprawling

1994i Rigfit: Thailand's

this

problems with
direct tourist

collection of corals and shells

impacts.

It

has been

may

siltation

and

damage and even

be having further

has been estimated that over 40 percent of

Thailand's reefs

lie

within marine national parks, and the

Department of Fisheries has been running a coral reef

training

protection

1995

since

focussed towards

and public eduction

to

of reefs outside these areas.

continuing to establish mooring buoys

at

further

the

Efforts

are

all

popular

dive locations.

now becoming
Andaman Sea,

target species fishing

trade.

much of

believed to have

coastal fisherfolk are also

involved in tourism-based activities. In the

mated

reefs are

to

Anchor damage,

management program

many

being cleared, but the

associated with negative impacts. Construction of roads

research,

overfished since the 1970s. In addition,

now
little

probably the most significant reef

is

on offshore stocks, which are believed

have been

still

areas. Unfortunately

of the gulf Most of Thailand's fisheries are concentrated

to

are

these, although with

of loss has now diminished.

recorded, and up to 60 percent of corals were reported to

Pressures on

been

Tourism now exerts a considerable influence on reef

had not previously been

it

some of

to restore

Andaman

was widespread

since

previously highly productive forest areas. Efforts are

bleaching event did not appear to affect reefs in the

Sea, though bleaching

and have

designed

poorly

abandoned, leaving vast areas with neither farms nor the

the shrimp

cities in (he

Myanmar
Extending from a northern border with Bangladesh to
Thailand
line

in the south,

Myanmar

has a considerable coast-

along the Bay of Bengal and the

northern coast

is

bounded by

which extends down

to the

the

Andaman

Sea.

The

Arkan mountain range

Arkan Peninsula and then

region producing vast quantities of sediments and pollution ISTS059-235-

once extensive mangrove forests

liave

been widely replaced by agriculture and prawn farms.

263

264

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

continues below sea level, re-emerging to form a number

Andaman

of small islands north of the

There

is a

wide

of coastal plain

level area

the Tenasserim

in the

large

Archipelago

There

sediment-laden river

is

is

in the south.

remarkably

little

literature describing the reef

associated with relatively rapid coastal progradation. In

the southeast the coastal plain

there are

to the north

and the vast complex of islands forming the Mergui

center

of the country, dominated by the Ayeyarwady (formerly

Irrawaddy) river delta,

Range of mountains. Offshore

two major island groups: the Moscos Islands

Islands (India).

again narrow, backed by

but

it

seems

information

in the scientific

communities of

likely that those

this country,

on the nearshore islands

Thailand

Myanmar

Cambodia
12212

General Data
Population (thousands!

GDP

(million

US$1

Land area (km^l

61 231

41 735

136 773

33 665

515 139

669 813

182 602

252

513

20

33

17

96

77

100

Marine area (thousand km^l

Per capita

fish

consunnption

187

(kg/year)

Status and Threats

Reefs

at risk (%l

Recorded coral diseases

Biodiversity

Reef area

870

<50

428

77/277

na/337

2 130

(knn^l

Coral diversity

238

Mangrove area (km^l

2 641

3 786

851

No. of mangrove species

35

24

No. of seagrass species

15

-WW

Snapper taking shelter among mangroves

relatively undisturbed reef

and mangrove.

at high tides.

Myanmar's Mergui Archipelago includes important areas of

in

Southeast Asia

Protected areas with coral reefs

Site

name

Designation

tUCN

Abbreviation

[km']

Year

890.00

1994

i9.21

1927

Size

cat.

Myanmar
Lampi

Marine National Park

l^oscos Island

Game

MNP

II

GS

Unassigned

Sanctuary

Thailand

Ao Phang Nga

National Park

MP

II

400.00

1981

Hat Chao Mai

National Park

NP

II

230.86

1981

National Park

NP

II

389.96

1983

National Park

NP

131.00

1981

Roi Yot

National Park

NP

II

98.08

1966

Mu Ko Ang Thong

National Park

NP

Unassigned

102.00

1980

Mu Ko Chang

National Park

NP

II

650.00

1982

Mu Ko

National Park

NP

II

134.00

1990

NHA

III

447.49

1979

Hat Noptiarat Thara -

Khao Laem Ya
Khao Sam

Mu Ko

Phi Phi

Ml Ko Samet

Lanta

Mu Ko Libong

Non Hunting Area

Mu Ko

Petra

National Park

NP

II

494.38

1984

Mu Ko

Similan

National Park

NP

II

128.00

1982

Mu Ko

Surin

National Park

NP

II

135.00

1981

Sirinath

National Park

NP

II

90.00

1981

Tarutao

National Park

NP

II

490.00

1972

.^m^
the south of the country and around the islands north

there are concerns that resident populations

of the Andamans are extensive and diverse. The Mergui

been mistreated or displaced for the establishment of these

Archipelago consists of over 800 islands, most of which

are uninhabited,

and many remain forested. Reefs are best

developed on the outermost islands, and are thought

to

be

sites.

Tourism

is

growing

relatively rapidly since arrange-

ments were made for dive vessels

in

Thai border), and there are

Over 100 kilometers offshore from

in the area.

the

Mergui Archipelago

seamounts which

some

lie

the

Burma Banks,

a series of

up from over 300 meters to

rise

flat

country

several vessels operating

the islands themselves has

not yet begun.

tops

5-22 meters below the surface and are reported to

islands

between the Ayeyarwady Delta and the Andaman

Islands

is little

known

but likely to have

some

interesting

and important coral communities. Reefs are also reported

some of the

islands off the

to the border with

Myanmar
a

now

Development of

Cambodia

have significant hard coral cover. The chain of small

at

to enter the

1997 (via the coastal port of Kawthoung, close to the

similar to those around the offshore islands of Thailand.

the southern part of

may have

Bay of Bengal coast and up

Bangladesh.

has been a relatively closed country for

number of years and

slow, particularly

coastal development has been

away from

the capital.

While there

is

Cambodia has only

a relatively short coastline facing the

Gulf of Thailand, though there are several small islands

the adjacent waters. There

is

very

little

in

material available

describing the coral reefs off this coastline, but there are

known to be coral communities on the mainland coast and

some fringing reef structures around the islands. Some 70
hard corals have been recorded

group and

in a

at

the

few places coral cover

On

is

Koh Tang

island

reported to reach

undoubtedly some utilization of reef resources by local

over 50 percent.

people, the pressures are considered to be quite low and

and communities are dominated by massive and en-

the reefs in the south of the country are noted for their

crusting corals. Bleaching

significant
least

numbers of

large fish, including sharks.

At

two marine protected areas have been declared, but

the

mainland diversity

was reported

localities in 1998, but recovery is

fairly

good.

is

at

much
a

lower,

number of

thought to have been

265

266

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Malaysia, Singapore and

Brunei Darussalam

MalaySid
areas:

The
Sabah,

is

a large country split into

two land

Peninsular Malaysia and east Malaysia.

latter,

comprising the states of Sarawak and

located along the northern and western edge of

is

the island of Borneo. All of these areas are located

edge of

Sunda

Shelf, although the

comes

relatively close to the land

this continental shelf

around Sabah.

Although Peninsular Malaysia has a

relief

its

on the

coastline, particularly in the south

and west,

mangrove

areas. Offshore a

number of small

islands are

important for reef development. These include the Pulau

Langkawi group

in the northwest.

west, and the Pulau

Pulau Semblian in the

Tioman and Pulau Redang groups

in

the east. East Malaysia also has a very high relief, although
in the

west there

is

wide coastal

a generally

rainfalls, as well as

and

strip

with

and particularly

in

complex and indented, with

Sabah, the coastline

a generally

is

narrow coastal

During the Southeast Monsoon

(May-September), typically drier

more

variable over

much of

largely following patterns of

There

is

wind

relatively little reef

around

all

the

offshore

is

Monsoon (November-March) winds

feather star on the reef slope

in

the

Conditions

reef

for

of Malacca,

however there are small low diversity reefs on the mainland close to Port Dickson. There are also reported to be

some minor mainland

fringing communities on the east

coast between Kuala Terengganu and Chukai.

Reef development

is

highly restricted off the coast

of Sarawak, although there are some reefs around the

strip.

offshore islands of Pulau Talang and Pulau Satar.

Northeast

are driven

circulation.

more

largely determined by the

During

permanent

development along the

in the Strait

waters around Sabah. which

monsoon systems.

the rest of the region,

islands.

development are generally poor

for reef development, particularly around Sabah.

region's climate

is

mainland coast of Peninsular Malaysia, but reefs occur

most extensive reef development

The

from the

flows

current flowing to the northwest, while surface currents

Again, a number of offshore island groups are important

opposing

air

southwest. In the Strait of Malacca there

extensive wetlands and mangrove development. Further

east,

high seas, particularly on the north

east coasts of Sabah.

is

dominated by low-lying land and mangroves or former

10b and c

northeast bearing moist air and typically driving higher

are

relatively high

MAPS

from the

diversity

This

is

Around

one of east (Malaysia s marine parks.

is

in the

country

is in

The
the

the region with the highest

and optimal conditions for reef development.

close to the global center of coral reef diversity.

the southeast coast there are extensive fringing

MAP

10b

Kepuiauan^
"

Anambas

26
9S

SINGAPORE
46

nc>S

SINGAPORE
,
Singapore Strait

Sumatra

HJnako^

INDONESIA
Piiii

S.J

INDIAN

OCEAN
'

KepuJauan
Batu

Kepulauan
Lingga

Siberut Strait

>..,,

Sibervt Nature Reserve

:

^7^

Padang

fc

.Sibenit

Biosphere Resenre

-^''-

Djambi

Berbak

V^
No. Protected Area

Name

Indonesia
1

BertakNP

2 Bukit Bahsan Selatan

NP

Gunung teuser NP
Karang Gadlng Langkat
Timur Lau GR
Kelompok Hutan Bakau
Pantai Tim NR
6 Kepulauan Banyak RP
7 Pulau Anak Krakatau
8 Pulau Berkeh NR
9 Pulau Dua NR
10 Pulau LautNR
1
Pulau Sangtang NR
12 Pulau WehRP
13 Ujung Kulon NP
14 WayKambasNP

15
16
17
18
19

20
21

NR

Malaysia
Balok Mangrove FoR

FoR
FoR
Bebar Mangrove FoR
Beserah FoR
Cape Rachado FoR
Cherating Mangrove FoR
KamparFoR
KaparFoR
Kemaman FoR
Kuala Bemam FoR
Kuala Sedili FoR
Kuala Selangor NaP

Banjar North
Banjar South

22
23
24
25
26
27
28 Kuala Selangof WR
29 Kuala Sepang For
30 Pangkor (North) VJR
31 Pantai Acheh FoR
32 Pontian Mangrove FoR
33 Pulau Aur MP
34 Pulau Besar MP
35 Pulau Che Mat Zin FoR

Ramsar Siti
/.<

36
37
38
39
40
41

42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51

52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61

62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71

72
73

Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau

%.

3ipora

MP

Chebeh

EKor Tebu MP
Goal MP
Harimau MP
Hujung MP
Jahat MP

Mentawai

"N
\

Pagai Ultra

Keluang a

Is.

Kaca MP
Kapas MP

^agai Selatan

FoR
K^ng FoR
Kukup FoR
Kechil

Labas MP
Lang Tengah

MP

Lembu MP
Lima MP
Lumut FoR
Mensirip MP
Mentinggi MP
Nyireh MP

Payar MP
Pemanggil

MP

Perhentian Besar MP
Perhentian Kecil MP

Pinang

MP

Gedong FoR
Rawa MP
Pintu

Redang

MP
MP

Segantang

Selat Kering

Sembilang
Sepoi MP

FoR

MP

SIbu MP
SIbu Mujung
SInga FoR
Sri Buat MP

MP

Susu Dara MP
Tengah FoR
Tengah MP

Pulau Tenggol MP
Pulau Tiga FoR
Pulau Tlmun FoR
Pulau Tinggi MP
Pulau Tioman MP
Pulau Tloman
Pulau Tokong Bahara MP
81 Pulau Tongkok FoR
82 Pulau Tuba FoR
83 Pulau Tula! MP
84 Rompin Mangrove FoR
85 Segari Melintang VJR

74
75
76
77
78
79
80

^yfy-

WR

86 Selat Panchor FoR

87 Sungal Miang
Mangrove FoR
88 Sungei Buloh FoR
89 Sungei Dusun
90 Tanjung Dagu FoR
91 Tanjung Gelang FoR
92 Tanjung Hantu VJR
93 Tanjung Tuallang FoR
94 Tanjung Tuan VJR
Singapore
95 Labrador P
96 Pasir Ris P
97 Southern Islands MNA
98 Sungei Buloh BS

WR

HmdJ
Park
& Krakatau National Reserve
World Heritage Site
UJurtg Kulon National

SrraiA.

1.3

'A

'

MAP

IOC
109

BRUNEI
1

2
3

4
5

8 BaluranNP
9 Banyuwangi
10 BaweanGR

Labu (Productfve

FoR

Production)

WS

Pelong Rocks
Pulau Berambang NR
Pulau Punyit
Pulau Siarau Nature
Reserve FoR

CibantengNR

11

Gill

FoR

22
23
24
25
26
27
28

Trawangan RP

Kapoposang RP

BallBaratNP

KutaiNP
Lampoko Mample GR
Leuwang Sancang NR
Meru Betiri NP
Muara Angke NR
Nusa Banjng NR
Pananjung Pangandaran
Pleihari Tanah Laut GR

21
Air,

14 Gunung Selok RP
15 Karang Belong NR
16 Kepulauan

Setirong (Productive

INDONESIA
7

18 Kepulauan Karlmun Jawa

19 Kepulauan SeribuNP
20 Komodo NP

GR

12 CikepuhGR
13 GiliMeno, Gill

WS

Production)

113

^Tfr

Name

No. Protected Area

17 Kepulauan Karimata

NR

NP

Louisa Reef

SULV SEA
47

Kota Kinabalu

82

NR

79. .7^ '?' 85

BANDAR SERI

29 Pulau BokorNR

^
105

MALAYSIA

81.
c-

^-6^'

i Natum
f Besar

94

Natuna

..-empom&.'1&*i

BRUNEI
DARUSSALAM:

74

Archipelago

100

65.

106

St

SOUTH CHINA SEA

^^^

93-56 78
59
83

Sabah

?-!'-'^W'<t>

162;
92 84
\

.''96

SULA WESI
^

Anambas

Archipelago

Natuoa Salatan

^^^^^
Panjang'

SEA

SEA

50

j-' Serasan

5'

86 90

MALAYSIA

"Z^
87

48

T- Blimbiug

Sarawak

""

""
fiQ

Pulau Talang
T. Datu

-""',:,; '*9
88
kuching

<''

'''

MangkalihaTVv^
Pemnaila
>^

7f
1

Tambelan

..

Archipelago

->^

Karimata
Strait

Santan

Makassar

Kalimantan

Strait

fMahakam

INDONESIA

Delia

4/

.^Ballkapan

Karimata >iZt
X. Pengujan

M'

Bangka
'

Belitun^

5-

T.

Sunda

^.,
41

Barrier

"

Sambar

*^'

Reef

.'

^42

T.Pudh

3J>
30
31

32
33
34
3b

Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau

NR
Kaget NR
Dua

36
37
3S
39
40

Kembang RP
Moyo HP
Moyo RP
Noko &
41
Nusa

NR

42

Pulau Rambut NR
Pulau Sangalaki RP
Pulau Semama GR
Pulau Sempu NR
Sukawayarig NR
Tanjung Keluang RP
Tanjung Puting NP

43
44

Teluk Baron NR
Teluk Kelumpang/

22

T. Selatan

28

Selat Laut/Selat

NR

Sebuku
4S
46
A7

Sunda

Tujuh Belas Pulau NR

Wijaya Kusuma NR
Abai MFoR

Shelf
'^

76l^j*;
Keramian

.1
9

Karimuniawa
Karimunia

10'

18

Archipelaj
elago

Bawean
35

Greater Sunda

a-

Is.
Kepul
lulauan

Muria (Volcano)

Sabali

Bogor

Kangean
*

KranilauaD

KahiKalukuang

SEA

J A VA

25'^AKART^

o Masalembo

'*

Bandung

.erS"'".

15

23

Java

~ "

Sapudi

INDONESIA

M'-

27

Surabaja *

46

"<

'

Kepulauan

West Nusa
Xenggaia

43
Bandung

90

180

270

360

28

24

Surnbawa^****/^'

Blambangan
Peninsum

450 km

Lombok

^>

Sunda

bU
b1

b2
b3
b4
bb
bB

be
b9

MALAYSIA
Bako CFo
Batang Jemoreng PFo
Batang Lassa PFo

Batumapun Mangrove VJR

Bengkoka PFoR
Benkoka Penninsular MFoR
Bonggaya CFoR
Elopura MFoR
Gum Gum AFoR
Gum Gum MFoR
Kabili Sepilok

VJR

60

Kayangeran FoR

71

61

Klias

PFoR

62
63

Kota Belud BS
Kuala Bonggaya
and Kuala Labuk MFoR
Kuala Segama and Kuala

12
73

64

Mamap MFoR
6b
66
6/
66
69
/U

Kuala Tlngkaya MFoR

Kudat and Manjdu MFoR

Kulamba WR
Lahad Datu MFoR
Loba Pulau PFo
Maludam FoR
109

Matang HR
Mengalong VJR

Pulau Sipadan BS
Pulau Tlga P
Pulau Tukong Ara-Banun
Rajang Mangrove FoR

Menumbok MFoR
Niah FoR
Padas Damit AFoR
76 Paltan CFoR
77 Pulau Batik VJR

84
85
86
87
88
89
90

VJR

91

Selangan Island

MP

92
93
94
95
96

Sempoma MFoR

M
lb

78
/9
80
81

82
83

Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau
Pulau

Bertiala

Kuraman

Penyu (Turtle Islands) P

Rusukan Besar MP
Rusukan Kecil MP
Sakar

VJR
113

97
98

WS

WS

100

Sarawak Mangrove FoR

PFoR

VJR
FoR

Sepilok (Mangrove)

SibuB Mangrove

MFoR
Similajau NP
Sibyte

Smnba

MFoR

Sungai SugutPaJtan,
Pulau Jambongan MFoR

99 Tabawan.Bohayan.

Sampadi FoR

Samunsam

Sulaman Lake

Is
f,

48

20

>

39

101

102
103
104

Maganting.Stlumpat Islands
Tabin
Tanjong Kelepu CFo

WR

Tanjong Nagas

PFoR

in.'i

Tawau MFoR
Tmsan Kinabatangan MFoR
Tunku Abdul Rahman P

106

Umas Umas VJR

117

11

Southeast Asia

reefs

and

a small barrier reef.

Semporna

lie

number of

Offshore from the town of

islands of volcanic origin with

extensive reef developments. Just off the continental shelf

Pulau Sipadan, a small coral cay with a surrounding

lies

reef with high coral cover and diversity. Further north,

onshore reef development

restricted,

is

fringing reefs around the Turtle Islands.

but there

are

Off the north and

west coasts, and particularly around the offshore islands,

there are significant areas of fringmg reefs.

Over 200

kilometers off the west coast of Sabah there

is

atoll,

Layang Layang, with high

coral cover

a coral

biodiversity, although

on the outer slopes was only recorded

percent. Overall. some

have been identified

at

29

346 species of scleractinian coral

Malaysian waters. The impact of

in

the 1998 bleaching appears to have been highly varied,

but no widespread mortalities were recorded. At the same

time, declines in coral cover were noted throughout east-

ern Malaysia in the decade up to 1999, linked to various

anthropogenic impacts.

Marine fisheries are an important economic

for Malaysia, with the majority of

activity

them commercial and

focussed towards non-reef species using trawl and purse

seine. Traditional

methods account

fishing

quarter of the total catch, only

dependent, and overfishing

a

major

threat.

There

is

for about a

some of which

is

reef-

not generally regarded as

is

significant destructive fishing,

notably using explosives, and particularly off the coast of

agriculture and urban development. Tourism development

Sabah where more than four

hour have been

has also had impacts, through the construction of accom-

most significant

modation and associated infrastructure, but also through

recorded

in

blasts per

several areas. Perhaps the

threats to reefs arise

from onshore

activities, notably the

direct

damage caused by anchors and

divers.

Development

high degree of sedimentation from logging activities and

on Layang Layang.

the sedimentation and pollution associated with industry.

subsequently with the construction of a tourist resort, has

initially to establish a

Singapore

Malaysia

presence, but

Brunei

Darussalam
General Data
Population Ithousandsl

21

793

4 152

336

GDP

70 402

60 363

4 034

(million

US$1

330 278

526

Marine area (thousand km^)

351

1.4

consumption

53

na

22

91

100

100

Land area Ikm^l

Per capita

fish

770

(kg/year)

Status and Threats

Reefs at risk 1%)

Recorded coral diseases

Biodiversity

210

3 600

<100

568

176/186

bklk

171

No. of mangrove species

36

31

29

No. of seagrass species

12

11

Reef area (km^j

Coral diversity

Mangrove area Ikm^l

281

Deforestation and forest fires fiave led to large increases

IST5093-708-62. 19991.

in

sedimentation

in

Sarawak and

na

na

otfier parts of f^alaysia

269

270

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

reportedly caused significant

damage

to parts

of the reef

reclamation. Although the remaining reefs

lie

between one

In an effort to further protect coral reefs, marine parks

of the world's busiest ports and one of the world's busiest

have recently been established by the Department of

seaways,

Fisheries in the offshore waters surrounding 38 islands,

industrial

with considerable

including on

restrictions,

fishing,

and disposal of sewage or solid waste.

anchoring of boats,

Although detailed management structures are not yet

place for the majority of these
for tourism

is

sites, their

in

growing value

many

reef communities remain.

waste treatment

relatively

is

Sewage and

good although

increasing sediment loads appear to be taking their

Average

toll.

has apparently diminished from

visibility

12

meters in the 1960s to about 2 meters, and mean coral

cover appears to be decreasing

at

most

localities.

increasing interest in their protection.

Brunei Darussalam

Singapore
Although a
reefs

relatively

Brunei

small country, Singapore's coral

have received considerable scientific attention.

is

another relatively small country located on the

north coast of Borneo between Sarawak and Sabah.

Much

of the country inland remains forested and several rivers

On

Sunda Shelf

Singapore consists of one large and some 50 small islands

flow into the South China Sea.

off the southern coast of the Malay Peninsula, separated

offshore the waters remain relatively shallow. There are

The

no fringing reefs on the mainland, but the development

southern edge of the country faces the Singapore Strait

around Pelong Rocks and Pulau Punyit may be considered

from the mainland by the narrow Johor

which connects the

Strait

Strait.

of Malacca with the Java Sea.

Fringing reef communities are found around

many of

fringing reefs.

The majority of

sub-littoral patch reefs

the

coral growth occurs

on

and coral communities offshore,

the southern islands, despite the typically relatively turbid

and some 185 scleractinian corals from 71 genera have

waters, and 197 species of hard coral have been identified in

been recorded.

the country. Percentage coral cover

as 76 percent

was recorded

variable, but as

is

in the

much

1980s. Unfortunately,

however, there appears to be a steady ongoing decline in

coral cover, and

most reefs

lost

up

to

65 percent between

1986 and 1999. During the 1998 bleaching event around

90 percent of

all

corals bleached and about 25 percent

died, including significant quantities

The main

island

is

of

soft corals.

highly developed, and large areas

of fringing reefs have been directly destroyed by land

Brunei also claims Louisa Reef, an

which
(see

is

atoll

formation

one of the southernmost of the Spratly Islands

page 287) some 200 kilometers

to the north

country. Despite their proximity to onshore

of the

development as

well as offshore oil drilling operations, these reefs are

considered to be
threatened

in

the

in

good condition and among the

region.

There has been very

least
little

commercial exploitation, and land-based sources of

sediment and pollution are relatively low.

T-

Protected areas with coral reefs

f

Site

name

Designation

Mj

Abbreviation

lUCN

cat.

Size

ikm:)

Malaysia

Bako

National Park

NP

Pulau Ayr

Marine Park

MP

Pulau Besar

Marine Park

MP

Pulau Chebeh

Marine Park

MP

Pulau Ekor Tebu

Marine Park

MP

Pulau Goal

Marine Park

MP

Pulau Harimau

Marine Park

MP

Pulau Hujung

Marine Park

MP

Pulau Jahat

Marine Park

MP

Pulau Kaca

Marine Park

MP

Pulau Kapas

Marine Park

MP

mmm^

27.28

1957

97.45

na

84.U

na

U.92

1999

40.06

na

45.70

na

49.00

na

52.36

na

45.20

na

42.50

na

21.33

na

':

^mmd

Southeast Asia

Protected areas with coral reefs

name

Designation

Abbreviation

Pulau Kuraman

Marine Park

MP

Pulau Labas

Marine Park

Pulau Lang Tengah

Marine

Site

lUCN

cat.

Size

Ikm'l

Year

na

II

66.95

II

a.78

na

II

61,50

na

Marine Park

MP
MP
MP

II

46.13

na

Pulau Lima

Marine Park

MP

II

43.90

na

Pulau Mensirip

Marine Park

MP

11

46.60

na

Pulau Mentinggi

Marine Park

43.99

na

Marine Park

MP
MP

II

Pulau Nyireh

II

14.40

na

Pulau Payar

Marine Park

MP

II

54.91

1999

Pulau Pemanggil

Marine Park

MP

II

87.90

na

Pulau Penyu

Park

II

17.40

1977

II

91.21

1999

11

81.70

na

11

48.90

na

II

50.80

na

na

na

Lembu

Pulau

(Turtle Islands)

Parl<

Pulau Perhentian Besar

Marine Park

MP

Pulau Perhentian Kecil

Marine Park

Pulau Pinang

Marine Park

Pulau Rawa

Marine Park

MP
MP
MP

Pulau Redang

Forest Reserve

FoR

Unassigned

Pulau Redang

Marine Park

MP

II

127.50

1999

Pulau Rusukan Besar

Marine Park

MP

II

44.70

na

Pulau Rusukan Kecll

Marine Park

MP

II

48.50

na

Pulau Segantang

Marine Park

MP

11

44.19

na

Pulau Sembilang

Marine Park

II

na

Pulau Sepoi

Marine Park

MP
MP

60.60

II

44.57

na

Pulau Sibu

Marine Park

II

42.60

na

Pulau SIbu Hujung

Marine Park

MP
MP

II

11.83

na

Pulau Sipadan

Bird Sanctuary

BS

Unassigned

0.15

1937

Marine Park

MP

II

77.20

na

Pulau

Sri

Buat

Pulau Susu Dara

Marine Park

MP

II

14.28

na

Pulau Tengah

Marine Park

MP

II

51.49

na

Pulau Tenggol

Marine Park

MP

II

24.00

na

Pulau Tiga

Park

II

158.64

1978

Pulau Tinggi

Marine Park

MP

11

101.8

na

Pulau Tioman

Marine Park

MP

11

251.15

na

Pulau Tioman

Wildlife

11

71.60

1972

Pulau Tokong Bahara

Marine Park

MP

II

45.13

na

Pulau Tulai

Marine Park

MP

11

63.05

na

49.29

1974

368.44

1996

9.80

1996

Tunku Abdul Rahnnan

Park

Turtle Islands Heritage

Protected Area

WR

Reserve

II

PA

Unassigned

MNA

na

Singa pore

Marine Nature Area

South ern Islands

^HB

^^^B

;~S

mamir..-

.-'-^snH

271

272

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Indonesia
MAPS

10b,

c,

d and e

the world's largest coral reef nation, with

southwestern and southern boundaries, there are numerous

over 50 000 square kilometers of reefs (18 percent of

volcanoes. The continental shelf lies relatively close to the

extending nearly 5 000 kilometers

shore on the western side of Sumatra and south of Java.

is

Indonesia

the world

from east

total),

west, and harboring over

to

(including rocks and sandbanks).

It

Indian and Pacific Oceans as well as

the

Andaman,

17

000 islands

while

many

Islands.

seas, including

Java, South China, Sulawesi,

many poorly
It

distance off the west coast of Sumatra and off the

continental shelf, lies the long chain of the

Banda and

Arafura Seas. This same country has a vast array of coral

reefs,

Some

touches on both the

described or completely unknown,

completely straddles the region with the greatest

Off the

east coast of

of smaller islands

Sumatra there

is

Mentawai
a complex

southern end of the Strait of

at the

Malacca, the Riau Archipelago. Further south, towards the

Java Sea, Bangka Island

and Belitung Island

off the Sumatra coastline

lies just

lies

midway between Sumatra and

reef biodiversity in the world. For the purposes of this

Kalimantan. There are a few small islands north of Java,

account the physical and biological descriptions are

while Bali

subdivided into a number of geographic sub-units, while

other islands which continue in a chain to the east,

human and socio-economic

located on the Sunda Shelf

issues are considered together

for the entire country.

is

lies

immediately to the

eastern side

considerable riverine input

The western end of

the

Indonesian

islands

very mountainous
includes

Sumatra and Java which, with Kalimantan, are located on

the

Sunda

Shelf, a vast continental shelf e.xtending across

a considerable part of the

South China Sea. Both are

continental islands, but with the boundary between the

Indian and

Left:

Eurasian tectonic plates

lying

off their

is

The western

side of

is still

Sumatra

heavily mountainous, with only a narrow coastal plain.

In contrast the

Sumatra and Java

east. Bali, unlike the

little

wider

all

in its entirety,

to the north

low-lying and there

is

along this coastline. Java

is
is

although the coastal plain

and

it

is

here that the most

considerable riverine runoff occurs: rates of coastal pro-

gradation

in

the

Solo

Delta have

been measured

at

70 meters per year. The coastal waters of both eastern

Sumatra and northern Java are generally quite turbid.

Weather and water conditions are largely determined

Jakarta produces considerable quantities of sediment and pollution. The impacts of these on coral cover and

diversity decline with distance across the reefs of

and corals

in Bali

Barat National Park.

Kepulauan Seribu ISTS056- 155-242,

19931 Right:

A great

diversity of fish

MAP
124

lOd

127

PHILIPPINES

<^^

MALAYSIA

Kepulaun

Nanusa

Archipelago

V*l/1

ftiiLi

Kepulaun

PHILIPPINES

iTKarali
Karxaralong

7"

''^='8^

Kepulauan
Talaud

I
3uVf.^

Kabuniang

SULA WESI SEA

^'^^

Kepulaun

(CELEBES SEA)

Sangir

INDONESIA

Siau

NR

Pulau Bunaken

Bunaken

i^
Dolangan

GR

^'

Strait

~-*' -~

:,/

..^.....^

Tangkoko
Minahassa

'

TemateL.

Peninsula

"^V

u>;^

A^'tm
Tomini Bay

'

^J^

,^^~^^

'
,

->

;,

"^

r-

->

'^

\-.^.

Pelcng

Kapiua

-^

'^,

r.-'' Kepulauail*>^.

'"-^
i,

'~^-'~

Sula

KepulauanSula

SERAM SEA

',

Sulabi

Lampoko
Mampie GR

Misool Selatan

NR

RP and GR

js^y

J^

^<W

P .K

rc)
1
Bum

it

Tanjung

Peropa

Oo

GR

Pulau

Tanjung

Manusela

NP-

'

Pombo

NRandRP

GR

"Amelango

BANDA SEA

Taman Laut Banda RP

Gunung Api Banda RP

i.J
:

Wangiwangi

^/^l?
Napabalano

NR

pulauan
Sabalana

Kepulauan

WakatoblNP

"v^' Btaogto

Batuata '

'

'

Take Bone

Gunung Api NR

NP

Rate

.-^Sabalana
Tanahjampea

FLORES SEA
-r-^

T7i
Flores

X,'"
.

v.-j'^
-^V^

KepukuanSolar :. p

Maumere RP'

-.-^

-"->

r^

Kepulauan Alor

C/'^',C->-.

SAWU SEA

^
Teluk
,

'
i

Masela^;

^
'

DILI

Maubesi

lulauan
Kepuli

Lei;ti

Luang

Ukenao
j

^'^

Timor

BenaHP

^
>
rrii

O-

INDONfESIA

NR

TIMOR
SEA

-rffy

Kupang RPJ'i
-"

-"JSawu

Lesser

*""

EASTTIMORy -

East Nusa Tenggara

\.J>

-^

Komodo National Park

World Heritage sue &

^n

JV

f^

Btosphere Reserve

Smnba

Layeni

Besar

LembataL

'

'w*'

,.

Nil-

"

Roma

Pulau
Teluk

"

Kepulauan Barat Daya

.f-'-J,.

ic.i
"Sumbawa

^^^ Karompalompo

FLORES SEA
C

Pulau Kasa

INDONESL\

-'

Obi

^5^-

Misooi'^TT

>,S-

Momwali NR

k;^

'

"^
/

Sulawesi

Bacan
'

.w''

5-4

^^
i*

BakiriangGR

"*

^^

Gebe^

l^.Togianls. ^
Patl-PatlGR

.vr

Taniuna

""

ff^

Halmaher&^-v*-, >
"
Motio ,
,

UnaUna

','

TWo^V

^'j^.PanuaNR

//MoTOtai

Oi.

BatuangusNR
-^

'

Popalo

),

n^

-^

Bangka

'

/"
^ ^-'^

NP
.

,*

Makassar

Tahulandang
Biaio

Arakan
Wowontulap

,,

^^'^'

Sunda
121

Is

Olango Island

Wildlife

Tanjung Oisina Mangrove

Sanctuary Ramsar Site

Swamp GR
50

^ir=-- Roti
124

127

100

150

200

250

km

MAP

ioe

^IZy^T

Southeast Asia

660 kilometers, although these have been

mentioned

rarely

in regional reviews.

little

studied and

Reefs are thought to

be poorly developed along the east Sumatra coast where

there

significant riverine

is

input and the coastline

is

dominated by large mangrove communities. Fringing reefs

are widespread in the Riau Archipelago and 95 species

of scleractinian coral have been recorded from Batam

Island.

Water conditions are highly turbid

in this area,

however, and coral co\er quickly diminishes with depth.

Much

further south around Belitung Island, fringing reefs

have significantly higher diversities, presumably asso-

more

ciated with

- 174

suitable conditions for reef development

scleractinian species have

The

been recorded.

fringing reefs around Java have received

despite

attention

much of the

rest

little

high accessibility (compared to

their

of the country). There are well developed

fringing reefs surrounding the volcanic islands in the

Although not marked on most charts,

by the opposing monsoon systems. During the Nonheast

Sunda

Monsoon (December-March) winds over Sumatra

pre-

has been suggested that there

dominate from the northeast, bearing moist

and

development off the south coast of Java, but

driving higher rainfalls. This air

typically
in

air

deflected

is

southern Sumatra and out over the Indian Ocean and

reef

Strait.

flat

to the

may be

it

extensive reef
that classic

and reef crest structures have not developed due

extreme exposure and high energy environment.

dominated by northwesterly

Fringing reefs are well developed around the Blambangan

and westerly winds. During the Southeast Monsoon

Peninsula and off the short east coast of Java, with reef

bears round such that Java

is

(particularly June-July), typically drier air flows

from the

southwest across Sumatra, and from the southeast across

Java. Patterns

of surface water currents are largely driven

flats

reaching 200-400 meters

limited off

much of the

reef comple.xes in the region

by these winds and during the Northeast Monsoon currents

patch reef chain, also

from the northeast flow

This

southeast and eastward

in

and are largely deflected into

flowing currents along eastern

Sumatra and northern Java. These are mirrored by longshore

currents flowing south and east along the Indian

Monsoon

shores of these islands. During the Southeast

some of

Ocean

these patterns are reversed, with strong westward

in

is a

width, but these are again

north coast.

known

is

as the

northwest of Jakarta Bay.

and most have shallow

are quite diverse

at

thoms

of Sumatra, by contrast, maintains a southeasterly flowing

southern islands

all

year round. In the Strait of Malacca there

Surprisingly
reefs

little is

is

the

The reef slopes

be an increase in

reefs,

Outbreaks of crown-of-

may have reduced

diversity in these

further.

Reefs are widely developed around the Karimunjawa

Archipelago north of Java, and there are reported to be

to the northwest.

known about

1995

to

one of the southerly

northwards along the east coast of Sumatra. The west coast

still

Islands.

in a chain just

from Java - 88 scleractinian

species have been recorded

starfish in

known

have associated islands

and there appears

rising to 190 species in the north.

permanent current flowing

Thousand

intertidal reef flats.

with distance

diversity

Many

best

Kepulauan Seribu

group of almost 700 reefs lying

flowing currents along the coasts of Java and deflecting

current

One of the
the

development of

around Sumatra. Fringing reefs are considered well

extensive fringing communities around

its

Bawean

Island on

eastern side. Fringing reefs are also well developed

the islands

along the south coast of Bali and have a deep spur and

immediately north of Sumatra. They are are also likely to

groove formation associated with the high exposure along

developed

in the

north around

Aceh and around

much of

be widespread along

the west coast of Sumatra

Ocean - and have actually been recorded

Mentawai Islands - but there is little published

facing the Indian

at

the

material

describing the remainder of this

Likewise this region

is

believed to support

barrier reef systems: an 85 kilometer section

the north,

coastline.

some
is

is

not clear to what degree

is

4 Batinese

fishing boat.

North of Java

it

in

some

areas.

appeared to be more varied and generally

less significant.

it

Kalimantan

enjoys

active coral growth. Further barrier reefs along the west

coast of Sumatra are recorded with a

affect the reefs

reported in

submerged or drowned system some 13-20 meters below

it

The 1998 bleaching event did

around Bali, with over 75 percent bleaching

extensive

20 kilometers off the coast of Aceh. This

the surface, but

this coast.

combined length of

Much of
Borneo,

the
is

its

of Kalimantan, or Indonesian

low-lying and subjected to

riverine inputs.
for

coastline

The Mahakam

considerable

River, in particular,

is

noted

high volume discharge and has been estimated to

276

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

while there

is

also an extensive fringing reef to the north

of the Berau Delta. Offshore from the east coast

lies

Indonesia's longest continuous barrier reef system, the

Sunda Barrier Reef, some 630 kilometers long, on

edge of the Sunda Shelf Despite

its

economic, social and biological importance,

largely

The

undescribed.

the

and potential

size

this reef is

communities of the

coral

Anambas. Natuna and Tambelan Archipelagos have not

been well studied, although well developed fringing reef

communities have been recorded on charts of the

area.

Sulawesi and the Nusa Tengarra

This region

sometimes referred

is

to

and

as Wallacea.

encompasses the islands of Sulawesi and the Nusa

Tenggara Islands.

It

is

an area of complex oceanography:

of the islands have narrow continental shelves and

all

many

from one another by

are separated

waters.

The geological

relatively

history of this region

complex, and there are active volcanoes

southern

and

islands

in

northeast

the

is

all

deep

extremely
along the

peninsula

of

Sulawesi. All of these islands are mountainous, but their

iB 10km
produce 4-10 million tons of sediment annually, with a

plume which may extend up

of the

Mahakam

Delta.

to

400 kilometers southeast

Even between the

mouths,

river

the shores are largely fringed by mudflats and there are

extensive mangrove communities.

Sunda Shelf and hence

the

shallow, and

is

The main

often relatively turbid, waters.

however, the continental shelf edge

the mainland. There are

some much

island lies on

surrounded by extensive

several

narrow widths mean

that there are

watersheds and riverine input

is

circulation patterns generally follow those of Kalimantan:

during the Northeast

Monsoon

northerly winds reach the

north of Sulawesi, but are rapidly deflected, becoming

westerly along the southern coast of Sulawesi and the

Nusa Tenggara

Islands, while this pattern

flow permanently eastwards along the north coast of

Sulawesi and permanently southwards along the west

Between Sulawesi and the Nusa Tenggara there

coast.

South China Sea and the Natuna Sea. The patterns of

Monsoon, which

monsoon weather

Monsoon. South of Nusa Tenggara

to

described

for

Sumatra and Java, with Northeast Monsoons bnngmg

northeasterly airflow which

is

at

this

westerly flow. Surface water currents

time mirror these winds. During the Southeast

Monsoon

airflows are predominantly from the southwest,

however the surface water currents are a

little

different,

Conditions

stretches
the

running

for

may be

number of

total length

and also off the large

known

is

Blimbing
and

T.

in the west,

and

T.

Sambar,

T. Putih, T.

Pengujan

Selatan in the south. In the east, extensive reefs are

recorded for 140 kilometers between

T.

Setan and

T.

Pamerikan, and again around the Mangkalihat Peninsula,

The

Mahakam

97-65. 19921.

These are particularly well

20 meters wide, resulting

in their

barrier reef systems have been described

with a

T.

some near continuous

omission from many marine charts. Further offshore a

large

headlands such as Tanjung (headland) Datu and

reef dev-

100-200 meters wide. In other areas reef

less than

of riverine input. They are thought to be well developed

islands,

for

hundreds of kilometers along

coastline of Sulawesi.

Kalimantan coastline, but do occur away from major areas

on the offshore continental

Southeast

Timor Sea the

developed along the eastern arm of Sulawesi where reef

flats

main

the

in the

region are ideal

shores of most islands, including

flats are typically

the

this

in

deflecting towards the west as they meet the south coast.

much of

during

elopment and there are extensive fringing reefs along the

flowing from the north along the east coast, then

Fringing reefs are absent from

reversed

is

currents flow permanently westwards.

deflected around the south

of Kalimantan such that the south coast actually receives

a predominantly

strong east

is

flowing current during the Northeast

and Tambelan Archipelagos on the border between the

similar

almost exactly

close to

further offshore, notably the Anambas, Natuna

are

is

reversed during the Southeast Monsoon. Surface currents

nearshore islands and

those

few major

widely dispersed. Air

east,

To the

lies relatively

relatively

the

of 2 084 kilometers.'

Among

Spermonde Barrier Reef, which has

the best
a series

of reefs leading towards the outer edge in a manner similar

to the Great Barrier Reef - some 224 scleractinian corals
have been described

on the Banggai

in this

system. South of Peleng Island

Platform there

is

another shelf-edge

barrier reef system, the Banggai Barrier

Reef This

is

of

River produces vast quantities of sediment which inhibit coral reef development over a wide area ISTS050-

Southeast Asia

particular interest because of the development of faros,

circular atoll-like structures otherwise largely associated

with the Maldives (Chapter

8).

mouth of Tomini Bay

in the

TheTogian

in

Islands, located

northern Sulawesi,

lie in

During the Northeast Monsoon, northwesterly winds

most of the region, while during the Southeast

cut across

Monsoon
Irian

southeasterly winds

come up towards southern

and the southern Moluccas, but these are

Jaya

become westerly

very deep water and boast a number of interesting reef

deflected to

formations including fringing, barrier and atoll reefs. The

Surface currents are somewhat mixed in this region.

Tomini Bay are some of the most biodiverse

reefs of the

in

in the

more northern

However, a northward current flows between

areas.

Irian Jaya

the world, with an estimated 77 species of Acropora alone.

and Halmahera and an eastward current flows along the

The 1998 bleaching event appears

north shore of Irian Jaya during the Northeast Monsoon.

little

much of

impact over

to

have had relatively

and

this region,

or no

little

There

is little

detailed information describing the reef

communities of the Nusa Tenggara Islands, but fringing

reefs are again widespread. Studies of

show

the center of the group

the coastline.

The northwest

Lembata Island

reef

fringing reef

is

well developed

in seagrasses; this

even wider on the west coast. By contrast, the

flat is

south coast has a narrower reef flat, which

Ocean

Indian

to

in

significant variation around

with a 200-400 meter wide reef flat rich

swell and

may

is fully

exposed

be further affected by

cool water upwellings - a pronounced spur and groove

structure

again noted, and a number of deep water

is

may

species are found which

prefer cooler waters. North

of these islands well developed barrier reefs are reported

to

occur northwest of

Sumbawa and

north of Flores. At the

southern end of the Makassar Strait and

number of

there are a

atolls,

in

wide areas are

the southeast coast of Irian Jaya

unsuitable for reef development: this coastline includes

some of the

largest

mangrove

forests in the

off the central coast and in Bintuni

world - those

Bay may

rival the

area

occupied by the Sundarbans forest between India and

Bangladesh. There are reported to be fringing reefs along

much of the

higher coastal areas to the west. There

is little

or no information describing the reef communities around

Bird's

Head

Peninsula.

Along

there are fringing reefs on

all

the rest of the north coast

islands in Cendrawasih Bay,

however the central and eastern coasts of

this

bay are

dominated by mangrove forests and wide mudflats, and

fringing reef systems have not developed. Further east,
fringing reefs are believed to follow a large proportion of the

coastline between Sarmi and the border with Papua

New

Flores Sea

Guinea. For the most part these are poorly described, but

including the largest in the

reef flats are estimated to reach 300-400 meters wide in

in the

Bone

country: Kalukalukuang, Sabalana and Taka

each over 60 kilometers

This pattern reverses during the Southeast Monsoon.

Along

bleaching was recorded north and west of Sulawesi.

Rate,

length with complex atoll rims

places. Further offshore, north

of Irian Jaya, and also east of

Halmahera, there are several small

atolls.

Off the

east coast

formed from individual patch reef structures separated by

of the Aru islands there are vast fringing

narrow and deep channels.

reef flats extending up to 15 kilometers from the coast.

Banda Sea

In

western end of the

the

there are, additionally,

many

The Moluccas and

reefs,

with shallow

smaller atolls.

Irian

Jaya

<s

This final region, dominated by the coastline of Irian Jaya,

also includes the

complex

the west of Irian Jaya

island groups of the

Moluccas

along the south of the Banda Sea, stretching from Timor

the west to the

Overall this
bathymetry.
a

Aru

is

Its

to

and a chain of small archipelagos

in

Islands in the east close to Irian Jaya.

another region of relatively

complex

waters are very deep, and even islands only

few tens of kilometers apart might be separated by depths

of over

000 meters. The only areas of relatively extensive

shallow water and true continental shelf are a platform

'"'

west of the Bird's Head (Doberai) Peninsula and the wide

expanse of the Arafura Sea, south of

the

Aru

Islands.

depth and

is

The

quite turbid, in

oceanic waters of

Irian Jaya

latter largely lies

much of

marked

and east of

above 100 meters

the rest of the region.

The

coastline of Irian Jaya remains very poorly described.

Large areas are low-lying and there

is

considerable riverine

input, particularly along the south coast.

Peninsula

is

in

contrast to the clear

The

Bird's

Head

vl..

more mountainous.

M=i3M 110km

Southern Sulawesi, with a number of reefs clearly

visible IST5069-709-42, 19951.

277

278

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Corals are also widespread

which separate these

in the

narrow winding channels

islands, despite the

areas.

and often turbid

still

in

The

total

probable cost of this fishery to the country,

terms of long-term fishery losses and loss of tourist

waters which are found here. Fringing reefs are also found

income, has been estimated

on the west coast of these

years from 1999. Indonesia

islands, particularly in the northwest.

US$3

at

billion over the

20

the largest supplier of live

is

food fish to the Asian markets with large vessels operating

among

Socio-economic considerations
Despite the vast area of the Indonesian Archipelago and
the lack of detailed information about

the majority of

its

coastal area

its

human

and

country's gross domestic product.

west coast of
reef

coral

Lombok made

value,

percent of the

One

study along the

looking

in the area

was

The estimated value of the

was USS5 800 per

Collection

hectare. This

their fish catch

came from

from

that

About 90 percent of

over

artisanal. with products for local

is

consumption or for

markets. Unfortunately overfishing

is

is

is

in

part

unknown.
in

the

considerable. Indonesia

is

in

Endangered

000 tons of coral per year

in the early

1990s and

now

all

coral exports

worldwide

since 1985. These exports are relatively low on a unit-area

basis because of the very large coral reef area

derived
are

known,

exporting around 500 tons per year. Indonesia has provided

esti-

fisheries

all

with

Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Reaching well

coastline

has been

well

of fish and corals for export

approximately 41 percent of
it

60 percent of protein consumption

fisheries.

in local

and

less

of the Convention on International Trade

reefs

coral reefs.

Fisheries are a major activity,

mated

same

who swim

the world's largest exporter of corals under the regulations

by 7 100 fishermen and over 35 percent of

utilized

has

including

The impacts of trawling on

are

ornamental and aquarium trade

production, but also at tourism, mariculture. ornamental

trade and other resources.

fishing

areas,

because the location and extent of these reefs

fisheries

at

Muro-ami

number of

frighten fish up into the nets.

submerged reef systems

a detailed assessment of

particularly

in

large groups of fishers, often children,

About 6 000 of

25

generate

activities

1995).

poles or rocks on ropes and smash the reef surface to

Indonesia's islands are inhabited, and marine and coastal

resources

impacts

and mostly using cyanide

reefs,

since

Kepulauan Seribu. This involves the use of large nets and

reef communities,

already heavily utilized,

activities.

more remote
illegal

significant

and considerable areas are under

particularly in the west,

increasing stress from

is

the

(although

country, but they

may have

in

the

localized impacts.

sale

Coastal development causes considerable problems,

widespread

particularly in the western half of the country. Extensive

regions from Sulawesi

deforestation has greatly exacerbated the natural influ-

westwards. In addition a number of destructive fishing

ences of freshwater and sediment discharge on reef growth

and cyanide fishing amongst them, are

and condition, and these impacts are continually expanding

and

is

almost continuous in

practices, blast

employed

all

in all areas, including

many remote

atolls. Blast fishing, in particular, is

reefs

and

to

new

areas.

Urban and

industrial pollution is widespread,

entering coastal areas through rivers and discharge pipes.

having an extremely

was reported

was no sewage treatment

detrimental effect across the country. Although illegal

In

since 1985. few places have escaped

plant in any major coastal city. Agricultural development

Left:

A group

and Ukenao

of

it.

even

in

protected

dominos Dascyllus trimaculatus taking

Atolls to

ttie

1998

it

sfielter In a large

east of East Timor ISTS038-75-43.

19901.

that there

anemone under a gorgonian

coral. Rigfit:

Luang

Southeast Asia

is

leading to increased inputs of nutrients and chemicals,

and

their effects are

now widely

Indonesia

apparent. In a gradient

Spermonde Archipelago,

across the

for example, there

is a

General Data

rapid decline in biodiversity and coral cover closely linked

over 65 percent, dropping to 14 percent

town

1.3

kilometers. Mangroves have been widely removed,

oflen
for

is

for

the

Land area Ikm^l

at

Per capita

to

for

also

is

common, with

various purposes

fish

consumption |kg/y earl

including building (houses, road

Biodiversity

Reef area (km^l

for export.

Coral diversity*

now

82

Recorded coral diseases

mortar), and decorative use both within the country and

is

important

in

many

areas,

and

Mangrove area Ikm^l

itself

is

51

42 550

No. of mangrove species

ted with the developments on small coral cays. Impacts

No. of seagrass species

include land reclamation, dredging of lagoons and

large

number of the

The range provided

man-

02D

443/581-602

responsible for a range of problems, particularly associa-

grove clearance.

18

Reefs at risk l%l

corals being used

foundations, sea walls and jetties), to lime production (for

Tourism

62/1

6 121

Status and Threats

general overe.xploitation by growing coastal populations.

Coral mining

909

Marine area Ithousand km-j

development of shrimp ponds, but also

commercial woodchip or pulp production, or due

161 32A

GDP|millionUS$)

ing Makassar. Coral cover at 68 kilometers distance from

the

224 784

Population Ithousandsl

with proximity to the highly polluted coastline approach-

for the

45
13

upper figure

due

15

to

uncertain

biogeographic boundaries

islands in

Kepulauan

Seribu have been modified in this way. At the same time

tourism provides an alternate income source and

to the reduction

Although there are many protected areas

do not provide

may

lead

of fishing pressures in some locations.

good network

in Indonesia,

they

for the vast area of reefs.

nor do they yet reach the 300 000 square kilometer goal
set

by the government for 2000. Most of the existing

lack

comprehensive management and,

conservation value

is

in

sites

many, their

reported to be rapidly deteriorating.

Protected areas with coral reefs

W

Site

name

^^^

Designation

Abbreviation

lUCN

cat.

Size

ikn<>i

Year

Indonesia

Arakan Wowontulap

Nature Reserve

NR

la

138.00

1986

Bali Barat

National Park

NP

II

777.27

1982

Baluran

National Park

NP

II

250.00

1980

Bunaken

National Park

NP

II

890.65

1989

Dolangan

Game

GR

IV

4.63

1981

Recreation Park

RP

29.54

1993

Recreation Park

RP

7.35

1992

Karang Belong

Nature Reserve

NR

la

0.01

1937

Karang Gading Langkat Timur Laut

Game Reserve

GR

IV

157.65

1980

Kepulauan Aru Tenggara

Nature Reserve

NR

la

140.00

1991

Kepulauan Banyak

Recreation Park

RP

2 275.00

na

Kepulauan Kapoposang

Recreation Park

RP

500.00

na

Kepulauan Karimata

Nature Reserve

NR

la

770.00

1985

Kepulauan Karimun Jawa

National Park

NP

II

116.25

1986

Kepulauan Padaido

Recreation Park

RP

830.00

na

Gili

Meno/Gili Air/Gili Trawang an

Gunung

Api

Banda

Reserve

279

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Protected areas wi th coral reefs

Site

name

Indonesia

'

Designation

Abbreviation

lUCN

cat.

Size

lkm:|

Year

cont.

Kepulauan Seribu

National Park

NP

II

Kepulauan Wakatobi

National Park

NP

II

Komodo

National Park

NP

II

Leuwang Sancang

Nature Reserve

NR

la

Morowali

Nature Reserve

NR

Pananjung Pangandaran

Nature Reserve

080,00

1982

13 900.00

na

733.00

1980

33.07

1978

la

2 250.00

1986

NR

la

/i.19

1934

Pati-Pati

Game

Reserve

GR

IV

35.00

1936

Pinjam/Tanjung Mantop

Game Reserve

GR

IV

16.13

1981

Pulau Anak Krakatau

Nature Reserve

NR

la

250.35

1990

PuLau Besar

Recreation Park

RP

30.00

1986

Pulau Bunaken

Nature Reserve

NR

la

752.65

1986

Pulau Dua

Nature Reserve

NR

la

0.60

1984

Putau Kasa

Game Reserve

GR

IV

9.00

1978

Pulau Kasa

Recreation Park

RP

11.00

1978

Pulau Moyo

Hunting Park

HP

VI

222.50

1986

Pulau Moyo

1986

Recreation Park

RP

60.00

Pulau

Pombo

Nature Reserve

NR

la

0.02

na

Pulau

Pombo

Recreation Park

RP

9.98

1973

Pulau Rambut

Nature Reserve

NR

la

0.18

1939

Pulau Sangalaki

Recreation Park

RP

2.80

na

Pulau Sangiang

Nature Reserve

NR

la

7.00

1985

Pulau

Semama

Game Reserve

GR

IV

2.20

1982

Pulau

Weh

Recreation Park

RP

39.00

1982

Sabuda Tataruga

Game

GR

IV

50.00

1993

Take Bone Rate

National Park

NP

II

5 307.65

1992

Taman Laut Banda

Recreation Park

RP

25.00

1977

Tanjung Amelango

Game

GR

IV

8.50

1975

Teluk Kelumpang/
Selat Laut/Selat Sebuku

Nature Reserve

NR

la

666.50

1981

Teluk Kupang

Recreation Park

RP

Teluk Laut Cendrawasih

National Park

NP

II

Recreation Park

RP

Tujuh Betas Pulau

Nature Reserve

NR

la

Ujung Kulon

National Park

NP

II

Komodo National Park

UNESCO

Komodo National Park

World Heritage

Ujung Kulon National Park and

Krakatau National Reserve

World Heritage

Teluk

Maumere

Reserve

Reserve

500.00

1993

U 535.00

1990

594.50

1986

99.00

1987

229.56

1992

735.00

1977

Site

2 193.22

1991

Site

230.51

1991

Biosphere Reserve

Southeast Asia

Philippines
MAPS

10f

and g

k
ik^'

Hi^^E'
C
iHi
"^^

,f

i-

1
m

V^.

Wbr

IR^.

The

Philippines are a large and complex mass of

Sabah
Sea

Southeast Asia. Together with Indonesia to the

south, the Philippines lie in the center of global coral reef
biodiversity

and have a vast area of

reefs.

In the far north the archipelago

Batanes and Babuyan Islands

in the

commences with

Luzon

of Taiwan. The northern third of Luzon

Strait, just

itself is

coming close

as the Sulu Archipelago,

over 7 000 islands making up the north of insular

in the south

of

from the Sulu Sea to the north. There are

several remote islands

and

while

is

its

to the coastline

Malaysia and separating the Sulawesi (Celebes)

in

northern edge

atolls in the central

Sulu Sea,

marked by the long mountainous

island of Palawan as well as various smaller ones.

the

The eastern

south

side of the country borders the Philippine

Sea and the Pacific Ocean and

highly

is

affected by the ocean

The North Equatorial Current

mountainous and parts remain heavily forested, while the

currents of the Pacific.

central parts are predominantly agricultural with large areas

reaches this coastline and divides,

of low-lying land. Relatively close to Luzon are the islands

branch flowing up the coast of the Visayas and Luzon,

of Mindoro and Marinduque. the former mountainous and

becoming the Kuroshio Current

largely under forest. South

still

of Luzon

lies a

as

it

Mindanao

Mindanao Current. The western

coast of

Negros, Cebu, Bohol, Leyte and Samar, centered around

side of the country, facing the South

the Visayan Sea which, despite the tight configuration of

is

islands, reaches a depth

lies

island

is

another mountainous island, with a narrow shelf on

sides.

The

Philippines Trench to the east of

former

all

Luzon

Left:

from Mindanao

Bongo Island

Mindanao

to

is

a chain of islands

lies sufficiently far

is

coral cover

on the

reported as low (less than 25 percent).

Around

itself reefs are

recorded reefs

at a dis-

on

tance of less than 80 kilometers from shore. Stretching to

the southwest

China and Sulu Seas,

by the reversing pattern of the

and Babuyan Islands, although

is

Mindanao and

Samar reaches depths of more than 10 000 meters

directly affected

Fringing reefs are well developed around the Batanes

Mindanao, which

separated from the Visayas by the Bohol Sea. This

more

as the

monsoon winds.

of more than 200 meters in some

The southernmost major

flows towards Taiwan

and Japan. The southward branch flows along the east

complex

mass of islands known as the Visayas, including Panay,

places.

with a northward

known

live

by no means continuous. There are no

in the far

northwest, and the

this coast are fringing structures

Islands, an area in the

first to

Lingayen Gulf. The waters here may

from the major riverine sedimentation associated with the adjacent areas of

allow fringing reefs to develop ISTS61A-40-70,

19851.

Right:

Banks

appear

around the Hundred

of fire coral Millepora platyphyUia.

281

MAPlOf
1^

120

124

40

80

120

160

200

km

Batanes
Islands

Itbayat

Luzon

Batan

PLS

Is.

Sabtang

Strait
20

20

Minasawa

BS

Balintang Channel
Babuyan L

Calayan

Babuyan

Is.

PACIFIC OCEAN

Dalupin

Camiguin

Fugo Island MR/TZ

Mayraira Point

Babuyan Channel

^cape EngaoD

Cape Bojeador
\

* Laoag

W-

18

SOUTH

Northern Sierra

CHINA

J'uguagaraol

Madre NatP

Vigan

SEA

Luzon

DivitacanBay
\'>

Aubarede Point

llagan

Hundred Islands

NP/TZ/MRNP

PmUPPINES

^
Bolinaof^i

16

Point

San Fernando

* Baytxnbang

16

San ndefoDso Peninsula

Dagupan

tingayeiT
-'"^

,_,,
Ungayen

'

GuffNIPA

Baler

Bay

Hennana Mayor ^

Masinloc

PHILIPPINE

and Oyor
Oyon

Bay MR

>

,Tar1ac

SEA

Palauig Point

'^Iba
Dingalan Bay

Manila Bay

Beach Reson
'

f
/

Bataan

.,

WS

Bay

>

Fortune

i^

'l^-.^.Nasu^uMS
14

^S^<

<5a'era

P"S^

:.

Island

Is.

'C>Jonialig

rt^,:,,'-

/.Kmc
MS

Island

'-

Polillo

'fX.i

/r

'MANILA

MaMla

^~.

Olango Island

'""^'"^

f"^/,

Minasawa NIPA
'^

v,Pati
.lic'^

-.

Peninsula

Complex

*-^

NP

^longapo

Biosphere

Calaguals.

"esefve^
>'Vr->.

n^f

14*

5^,

Lubangls.-v

;}-_^

Verde IslanS'.i-'"'*

MRnz

O-^-ff

V-

g^

-.___.

TayabasBqy V*^^

Puerto Galera
Marine BioS

,^Vi
:

v.

"

Marinduque

"1^!

'^r >

Naga

Island

'

'

Mindoro

t^Catanduanes

'^^'^^

5^>
Bwias

Santa Cruz

Apo Reef NatP

Apo

^r

,,

^
-

'S^1

""Sibuyan Sea

.'

">

^^^

J-.
Burias\

PLS($f
'

Calauit Island

.^
/
:

'.

120

-^N

Slrail

Mimioro

.^^~

Romblon

Tobias

GR
,

Vy

ir'

nyxablas
\\22.

sibuyan

Masbate

i
" -

124

Southeast Asia

be turbid and

much of the

reef area

reported to have been

is

Philippi nes

destroyed by blast fishing. At the mouth of the Lingayen

Gulf there are wide fringing

reefs around Bolinao and the

General Data

nearby islands, with discontinuous fringing reefs running

south to Manila Bay. The explosion of

with

its

mud

massive ashfall and

Mount

GDP

flows, caused a steep

down

decline in live coral cover from 60-70 percent

20 percent on the nearest fringing

to 10-

is

Park. There

little

is

in the

Per capita

in

in

many

like

is

It

little

Biodiversity

25 060

Reef area (km^j

around Puerto Galera

Mindoro. Over 200 kilometers west of Luzon

97

Recorded coral diseases

there are discontinuous

areas, notably

30

Reefs at risk (%|

published mformation describmg the

Mindoro and Marinduque, but

fringmg reefs

consumption (kg/year)

fish

Status and Threats

Northern Sierra Madre Natural

reefs around the southern coastline of Luzon, and

for

97i

little

coast of Luzon, although fringing reefs are described at the

and

298 120

Land area (km^l

information about the development of reefs along the east

Polillo Islands

52 072

US$1

(million

Marine area (thousand km^l

There

reefs.

81 160

Population Ithousandsl

Pinatubo,

421

Coral diversity

the atoll-

Mangrove area (km^l

formation of Scarborough Reef

much of

Fringing reefs are widespread along

the

up by areas of

coastline of the Visayas, although broken

soft sediments, particularly close to river

577

607

No. of mangrove species

30

No. of seagrass species

19

mouths. Live

cover on some parts of these reefs can exceed 50 percent,

and

fish diversity is also high, particularly

less heavily fished reefs

on protected or

such as Sumilon and

Apo

Islands

Cebu and Negros. Reefs around Mindanao

south of

are

poorly known, although fringing structures are widespread,

and diversity

is

reportedly high on reefs around Arangasa

The Sulu Archipelago has not been described

includes

atoll

systems

Cagayan Islands and Tubbataha,

a structure

in detail,

To

fringing and barrier reef systems.

northwest there are two major

Sea, the

ecological impacts, including changes in

ture

and decreases

composed of two

to allow local recruitment.

atolls.

the

Sulu

in the

is

Further west, Palawan

between 50 and 90 percent

some

in

of banks and shoals off the west coast of

to

be part of a long, sub-surface barrier

reef system. Finally, due west of Palawan

complex of the Spratly

lies the

large

which are disputed between

Islands,

several countries, and so considered in a separate section.

Many of

the

reefs

impacted by human
fish

of

communities

almost

all

Destructive

severely

areas.

The

utilize

vast majority

hour

in a 2-3

it

is

loss in

at a rate

many

of 10 per

kilometer listening radius around Bolinao.

Following the introduction of stringent punishments for

this illegal activity, these rates

now

little

Cyanide fishing
and there
Taiwan,

have dropped, and there

is

or no blast fishing, but only in this one area.

is

is

also

common

for the live fish trade,

a significant illegal fishery

Hong Kong,

by vessels from

Singapore, Korea and Japan. The use

of cyanide by Philippine fishers

is

prohibited, and this

is

monitored for the export fishery, so the majority of legal

live

manner. Live fish are also caught

yield up to 10-15

nearly every part of

1989 blasts were heard

coastal waters up to 15

may

in

and causes significant reef

under local government

has been estimated that reefs

unclear whether this

widespread. Although

also

continues

control and are often closed to larger commercial vessels.

It

fishing

blast fishing is illegal,

fall

this fishing is small-scale

kilometers from the shore

are

Dense populations

activities.

in

country

this

in

It is

forms of environmental degradation.

the latter being

areas. Prior to

Palawan are thought

struc-

has been

solely related to overfishing, or exacerbated by other

fringing and patch reefs along most of the coast and live

A number

it

Catches of demersal fish have

has remained stable or increased.

the Philippines

coral cover reaching

areas

claimed that there are insufficient adult fish populations

has some of the best developed reefs in the country, with

places.

community

many

in diversity. In

been stable or declining since 1976, while fishing effort

Island on the east coast.

but

Such overfishing has significant

the southern Sulu Sea.

fish exports are probably

a fairly large

Muro-ami

no longer caught
in a

few areas

aquarium trade export, largely

fishing

is

in this

to

to the

supply

USA.

another method which has been used

percent of the total annual fisheries production of the

in the Philippines.

Although now

may

continues, while a

new method, known as pooling, utilizes

100 or more at one time) with hoses

country, and studies have

shown

that individual reefs

support yields of between 3 and 36 tons offish per square

kilometer per year. Despite

including reef fish,

as

this,

well

as

demersal fish stocks

small

pelagics,

are

considered to be biologically and economically overfished

in

almost

all

areas other than eastern Luzon, Palawan and

divers (typically

aiming compressed
the nets. This

and

is

illegal

it

almost certainly

air at the reef to force the fish into

may be widespread

off the coast of Palawan,

indiscriminate and destructive to the reef

The

Philippines once featured as a major coral exporter. This

283

28A

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

formerly legitimate trade has been stopped, although

may

gal exports

still

Sedimentation
high

many

in

is

of deforestation and poor

Some 60-75

agricultural practices.

percent of the original

mangrove cover has been removed, reducing the

role these

can play as nursery areas or sediment traps. Urban and

industrial

effluent

locations, such as

is

particular

problem

Manila Bay. At Toledo

in

some

Cebu, an

City,

estimated 100 000 tons of mine tailings are discharged

into the sea daily, with

considerable number of marine protected areas

have been declared

another major threat, and loads are

rivers as a result

ille-

be considerable.

massive losses of fish and coral

in the

Philippines but few have ever

been effectively enforced. Some of the larger

failed to

win the support of

local

others, the local people have

sites

have

communities, while

been unable

in

to control the

impacts of outsiders. There are a few exceptions to this

Apo

however, and the two small reserves of

Island and

Sumilon are globally recognized as examples of good

community-based management.

In

both cases very small

no-take zones have been established and actively enforced

for a

number of

years. This has led to increases in fish

cover along 7 kilometers of coastline. Similar problems of

populations and average sizes, which

discharge combined with poor flushing have

affected

export of fish from these areas to surrounding waters and

growing

an overall increase

Calancan Bay
industry

in

in

Marinduque, Tourism

is

the Philippines, although diving

is

not as

significant as in other parts of the region, possibly in part

related to the degraded nature of so

many

merchandise
fee

reefs.

in fish

of reefs. In addition

in turn

have led

to

yields despite the partial closure

to these benefits, the islands

to tourist divers,

have sold

and from 1999 received a

from visiting dive vessels.

Protected areas with coral reefs

Site

name

Designation

Abbreviation

lUCN

cal.

Size

YeaS

Ikmil

Philippines

Agan-an

Municipal Marine Reserve

Andulay

Municipal Marine Reserve

Apo

Protected Landscape/Seascape

Island

MuMR

IV

0.06

1999

MuMR

IV

0.06

1999

PIS

6.91

1996

NatP

II

116.77

1996

FiS

na

0.01

1988

Apo Reef

Natural Park

Basdiot

Fisfi

Batanes

Protected Landscape/Seascape

PLS

2 135.78

1994

Bien Unido

Fish Reserve

FishR

na

na

1995

Bio-OS

Municipal Marine Reserve

MuMR

IV

0.08

na

Bolisong

Municipal Marine Reserve

MuMR

IV

0.10

1995

Bongalonan

Municipal Marine Reserve

MuMR

IV

0.20

1993

Cabugan

Municipal Marine Reserve

MuMR

IV

0.07

1993

Cabulotan

Municipal Marine Reserve

MuMR

IV

0.06

1993

Cagayan Island

Other Area

ETC

Unassigned

na

1970

Calag-calag

Municipal Marine Reserve

MuMR

IV

0.07

1991

Cangmating

Municipal Marine Reserve

MuMR

IV

0.06

1997

Caohagan

Marine Reserve/Tourist Zone

MR/TZ

na

na

na

Carbin Reef

Municipal Park

MuP

na

2.00

1983

Danjugan Island

Private Reserve

PrivR

Unassigned

0.43

1994

ElNido

Marine Reserve

MR

Unassigned

950.00

1992

Fortune Island

Marine Reserve/Tourist Zone

MR/TZ

Unassigned

na

1978

Fugo Island

Marine Reserve/Tourist Zone

MR/TZ

Unassigned

na

1978

Sanctuary
I

-.

MAP

a:

0=0 o

C 3

CO

Q.

T3

to

w o

ra

,<

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(0

E C o

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i^S

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CQ

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oiS.

|l=
t

I?

O O C C

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s
c

LU
CO

rr in to

C/?

LU

A E

-^

1115:

J
3

a a
CD

ffl

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J
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-i^

,5

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is

_ _ _ _

o
z'
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,^

ill* ss

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cor^cocn

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IT?

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CMc^'^io

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in lA

^1-

log

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Protected areas with coral reefs

Site

name

Abbreviation

Designation

lUCN

Size

cat.

Ikmil

Year

Philippines com.

ETC

Gulndolman

Other Area

Hila-itan

Municipal Marine Reserve

Hulao Hulao Reef

Municipal Marine Reserve

Inban

Municipal Marine Reserve

Initao

National Parl<

Lassuan

Marine Reserve/Tourist Zone

Macahulom

Municipal Park

Malaga

Municipal Marine Reserve

Malusay

Municipal Marine Reserve

MuMR
MuMR

Masaplot

Municipal Marine Reserve

MuMR

Masinloc and Oyon Bay

Marine Reserve

Moalboal/Pescador

Parl<

Northern Sierra Madre

Natural Park

Okiot

Municipal Marine Reserve

Olango Island Connplex

Wildlife Sanctuary

Unasslgned

na

na

IV

0.06

1996

IV

na

1996

IV

0.08

1996

NP

Unassigned

0.57

1963

MR/TZ

na

na

na

MuP

na

10.00

1983

IV

0.08

1996

IV

0.06

1996

IV

0.06

1997

MR

la

75.68

1994

Unassigned

NatP

II

MuMR
MuMR
MuMR

na

na

3 195.13

1997

MuMR

IV

0.01

1994

WS

Unassigned

9.20

na

Marine Reserve/Tourist Zone

MR/TZ

Unassigned

na

1978

Poblacion

Municipal Marine Reserve

MuMR

IV

0.0^

1994

Polo Tayabas

Municipal Marine Reserve

MuMR

IV

0.02

1995

Saavedra

Fish Sanctuary

FiS

na

0.01

1988

San Jose

Municipal Marine Reserve

MuMR

IV

0.10

1996

Marine Reserve/Tourist Zone

na

1977

Panglao Island - Balicasag

Sombrero
St.

Area

Island

Paul Subterranean River

Sumilon Island
Sumllon National

FIsli

MR/TZ

Unassigned

National Park

NP

II

Marine Parl<

MP

Sanctuary

57.53

1971

Unassigned

0.23

1974

na

0.01

1980

Talibon

Fish Reserve

FIshR

na

na

1989

Tambobo

Municipal Marine Reserve

IV

0.06

1995

Tandayag

Municipal Marine Reserve

MuMR
MuMR

IV

0.06

1996

Tinaogan

Municipal Marine Reserve

MuMR

IV

0.25

1996

Tubbataha Reefs

Marine Park

MP

Unassigned

332.00

1988

FiS

na

o.u

1994

WS

VI

2 429.67

1999

58.00

1994

Tulapos

Fish Sanctuary

Turtle Islands

Wildlife

Sanctuary

Olango Island Wildlife Sanctuary

Ramsar

Site

Palawan Biosphere Reserve

UNESCO

Biosphere Reserve

11 508.00

1990

Puerto Galera Biosphere Reserve

UNESCO

Biosphere Reserve

235.45

1977

Puerto Princesa
Subterranean River National Park

World Heritage

Site

202.02

1999

Tubbataha Reef Marine Park

World Heritage

Site

332.00

1993

332.20

1999

Tubbataha Reefs National Marine Park Ramsar Site

Southeast Asia

Spratly Islands, Tung-Sha

(Dongsha Qundao) Reefs and

the Paracel Islands

MAPS

I0g and h

15

The

the area

is

probably

the risks of conflict

ment remain

sand cays and rocks, with associated patch and

reefs

covering

some

150

square

it

was estimated

tinian coral genera

multiple surveys.

may

kilometers.

studies,

it

is

likely

extremely important biodiversity, and

that they harbor

reefs

over 200

Sabah, Malaysia, are a group of perhaps 30 small

Although there have only been limited

1997

lying

kilometers west of the Philippines and northwest of

islands,
atoll

Spratly Islands,

It

that

some 68 hermatypic

had been described by

has

fiirther

km

good condition, although

and potential impacts on the environ-

One

suggestion has been that the area

might be declared an international marine park through the

development of an agreement similar

to the international

Antarctic Treaty (where, again, various countries have mul-

in

tiple

overlapping claims of sovereignty). There has been

sclerac-

little

development of such a proposal, although there have

scientists

been suggested

great.

in relatively

from

that these

been a small number of joint studies of the reefs and islands

between Malaysia, the Philippines and Vietnam.

play a critical role in the maintenance of regional

biodiversity, acting as a source stock

and exporting fish

larvae to the heavily fished reefs of surrounding countries.

The ownership of these

islands

China, Taiwan and Vietnam claim

reefs, the Philippines claims

all

is

hotly disputed.

of the islands and

most of them, while Malaysia

claims a southern group and Brunei Darussalam claims one.

Vigorous efforts are made by

these claims and there are
scattered

among

in active

combat

the reefs.

Tung-Sha (Dongsha Qundao) Reefs

The Tung-Sha

or

Dongsha Qundao

reefs are located in the

northern reaches of the South China Sea, centered around

a large,

not

submerged

high,

atoll

with a single island. Diversity

although over 70 coral

species

have

is

been

countries to strengthen

recorded. These reefs are disputed between China and

numerous military outposts

Taiwan, although Taiwan maintains a lighthouse and

all

Over 70 people have been

killed

meteorological station on the island.

Because of these military

in recent years.

hazards the reefs are not heavily fished, and a significant

number of Chinese and Philippine

for attempting to fish the area.

fishers have

Some

however, and tends to target the largest species, notably

sharks, or use explosives to

the unspecified

make

number of

Paracel Islands

been arrested

fishing does occur,

a rapid catch. Additionally

military personnel

(possibly

The Paracel

Islands are a group of atolls, atoll complexes

and platform
in the

reefs, together

with some 3

small islands

South China Sea. Sovereignty over these islands

disputed with Vietnam.

is

considerable diversity of corals

thousands) undoubtedly have some impact through fishing,

and other groups has been observed, and hermatypic coral

and have caused wide-scale degradation of

cover was reported to be high, particularly on the north-

terrestrial sys-

tems including important seabird nesting colonies. Overall

Left:

A pink anemonefish Amphipnon

eastern reef

flats,

but low on the reef slopes.

perideraion. Right: Tung-Slia Atoll ISTS055-92-3,

19931.

287

MAPlOh
,-'105'^~

110

~^'

,-T15-

Kinmen /VP

Hong Shu

Lin

WR

CHINA
Ting

Kok SSSI

Kin Tsui CoP

Ma On Shan CoP
.--^

^^

DingDaoNR
CoP

Lantau North

VIETNAM

WeiZhQuNR

Mm

Lantau South

Ba
NR.r
Ha Long Bay H/CS
& World Heritage Site
HANOI

Shan Kou

'

Wen Lan

NR

HeNR

CatBaNP

20

Lin

Xuan Thuy

Natural

Qi Lin Cai

Hainan

Gulf of Tonkin

Qi Lin Cai

Ung Qiang
. Xincun
Shi^aohlky^,,gj,^^"f^ v.
'

BaoYuNR

..-

""^

clear Water Bay

SSSI

CoP

20'

NR

NR

San Ya

"e'^R

Dong Dao

NR

NR

Da Zhou Dao NR
Nan Wan

NR

Ya Long Wan
Qing MeiWan NR

NR

Da Don
HaiNU

Amphitrite Group

Lincoln

Crescent Group

DaNang

THAILAND

CoP

Tsui (Cape d'Aguilar)

'

Shan Hu
Jiao

Hok

Tong Gu Ung NR
Qing Lan Gang NR

UnNR

VIEIfnANE

Sai Kung East

Tung-Sha Reefs
(Dongsha Qundao)

Dong Zhai Gang

Hong Shu

Ramsar Site

SeiKung West CoP

"'(CTfiNAj'"

CoP

Ramsar Site

NR

Xin Ying

Wetland Reserve

LAOS

DaVa WanNR

Dongzhaigang

Gao

Jiao

Gang Kou Hai Gui Wan NR

"

Ha Wan SSSI
Shek O CoP

Hoi

Cai
Qiao

Xuan ThuyNR-

NR

Yim Tso Ha Egretry SSSI

KatOChauSpA
Plover Cove CoP

Tsim Bei Tsui SSSt

Fu Van-Nei Ung

Shanku Mangrove
Biosphere Reserve

CoP

Pat Shin Long

.,

Discovery Reef

^3

Co Lao Cham NR

^ Bombay Reef
Macclesfield

Passau Keah
..

Tnton

Bani

Scarborough Reef

1.

Cu L^oRe
15"

I.

VuladOFe Reef

(Huangyan Dao)

Paracells.

15'

QuangNgai

Qui Nhon

SOUTH CHINA SEA

CAMBODIA

NhaTrang
Trident

V
;

LysShoat

fiaam

'

V3/
10

SuUReef *

NP
HoChiMlnh'

^^\

- /

Phi?,'

NR

/"-./T

Great Discovery Reef

Jackson AtoU

^' Sand Cay

Can Gio Mangrove

|-,^-''

Discovery
Small Reef

Fiery Cross Reef

Biosphere Reserve

of

Cuaiteron Reef

j^

London Rcefe

Con Dao

Peareon

Reef

MaraUe Reef

'Wood Bank

Fou/teron Ree( fj

Sabina Shoal

Shoal

Spratly

Is.

J^^wan

'^
Alison Reef

NP

C'LesUeBank

Bombay

Johnson

Reef

VoDoiNRI^

Gulf

Cu Lao Hon:

Chau Phuoc Buu

TemplerBank

C;. f'j

Western Reef

Binh

Quod
NR
KohTang

/f

.Shoal

PHNOMfENH

ComwalUs South Reef

PHILIPPINES

^-.Investigator Shoal

Thailand

4
.^vPENINSLOAR
MALAYSL\

INDONESLL
Kalimantan ^^-

(INDONESIA) ^*i

Sarawak

(MALAYSL\)

Kepulauan

Anambas
105

110

~0-^

100

200

300

400

500

Southeast Asia

Vietnam and China

MAPS

VIGtndm

has an extensive coastline encompas-

sing a great latitudinal range. In the far south this

coastline
the

Mekong

is

very

low-lying and dominated by

short section of coastline faces the

offshore there are a

number of

Peninsula.

Gulf of Thailand, while

islands,

including the

Phu Quoc Island and associated

relatively hilly

to the south, as well as the islands

Chau, the

Mau

River Delta and the Cau

Nam Du

of

islands

and Tho

being located about 150 kilometers west

latter

communities around most of the offshore islands

Delta there are a number of small hilly islands

Con Dao (Con Son)

called the

Mekong
relief,

with

continental

north

Islands.

North of the

Delta Vietnam's coastline becomes one of high

still

or no coastal plain, and the edge of the

little

shelf

coming

the coastline

tinental shelf

quite

sweeps

close

in to the

inshore.

Further

west and the con-

becomes very wide indeed around

the

Gulf

of Tonkin. There are occasional islands along the central

coastline,

and close

to the

islands, including the Cat

Chinese border numerous small

Ba

islands and other dramatic

Con Dao

southwest, and on the

fringing

reefs

Islands.

On

in the

the east coast,

and coral communities have developed

islands around

the

Nha

Trang. The coastline along

Gulf of Tonkin

is

dominated by

soft

much of

sediments and

there are few reports of reef development. However, there

are fringing reef

Bay and

communities further offshore

the Tonkin

Biodiversity

in

Ha Long

Gulf

is

greatest

in

the

south-central

areas

where some 277 coral species have been recorded, while

to the north

only 165 species are recorded. Typhoon Linda

caused some damage

to the corals in

1997. and there was

some

arising
in

Con Dao

Islands in

additional mortality in 1998

from bleaching. Recovery was reported as slow

Con Dao

in

2000, although other affected reefs were

reported to be making a good recovery.

Fishing pressure off the southwest coast

to be very high, with

some

is

thought

000 fishing vessels operating

from nearby and probably as many again coming

in

from

limestone islands which rise up vertically from the waters

other regions. Deforestation has been a major problem

of Ha Long Bay.

Vietnam, largely linked

Coral reefs have not been described

any locations

There are known

to

tionfish Pterois volitans, next to the

in

detail

for

be reefs or coral

arms

of a feather star.

along the mainland, and more particularly the offshore

of the mainland. Some 80 kilometers offshore from the

Mekong

10h and

to the use

in

of defoliants during the

Vietnam war. This has caused massive erosion and heavy

sedimentation offshore and

may be

threatening reefs

289

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

around Cat Ba Island. Tourism

country, and the
visitors a year.

Ha Long Bay

is

rapidly increasing in this

area receives over a million

number of marine protected areas

small

have been established, two of which include coral

Vietnam claims

number of

China Sea, including the Spratly

reefs.

islands in the South

Tongking, was once reported as having substantial fringing

reef communities along parts of

number of
revisited in

1984 and found

and Xincun Bay

1990 and found

to

any of

it.

or no true reef development along

is little

Hainan, a large island

in the

mouth of the Gulf of

Population (thousands)

78

10i87

around Sanya where,

in 1978. coral

cover was reported as

50-90 percent on the East Reefs and 60 percent on the West

Reef These

77/.

figures were reported to have fallen to 40-60

Population (thousands)

GDP

*!

consumption Ikg/yearl

261 832

101 885

US$)

9 291

Per capita

17

fish

000

3i8

Marine area (thousand km^)

396

Marine area (thousand km^l

(million

Land area* Ikm^)

327 100

Land area Ikm^l

consumption (kg/year)

na

Status and Threats

Status and Threats

86

Reefs at risk (%l

Reefs at risk 1%)

91

Recorded coral diseases

Recorded coral diseases

Biodiversity

Biodiversity

Reef area (km^j

270

278 /36i

Coral diversity

(knn^j

No. of mangrove species

525
29

No. of seagrass species

Reef area (km^)

sp. in holding

pens awaiting shipment

510

101/365

Coral diversity

339

Mangrove area* Ikm^)

No. of mangrove species*

23

No. of seagrass species

na

"

Large groupers Epinephelus

in

The most extensive and

General Data

GDPImiUion US$1

Mangrove area

were visited

China

General Data

fish

but disappeared.

in the southeast

live corals.

Vietnam

Per capita

all

diverse fringing reef communities are found in the area

Although China has a substantial coastline facing the South

China Sea there

have

be largely made up of dead coral rubble

with only occasional

China

to

Significant fringing reef structures around Shalao on the

east coast

Islands.

southern coast, but a

its

described in the 1950s were

sites originally

Including Taiwan

to the

restaurants of

Hong Kong.

Southeast Asia

Protected areas with coral reefs

Site

Abbreviation

Designation

name

ms!-:..

lUCN

Size

cat.

Year

ikm'i

j^

Vietnam
Cat Ba

National Parl<

NP

152.00

1986

Con Dao

National Park

NP

150.43

1982

Ha Long Bay

World Heritage

500.00

1994

0.24

1979

85.Q0

1990

Site

China
Kat

Chau

Shan Hu

Jiao

Special Area

SpA

Nature Reserve

NR

percent and 30-40 percent respectively by 1990. while

many

reefs,

and are

likely

IV

to

be mirrored by similar com-

other areas along this coast.

They

are all

species had disappeared. Similarly important and diverse

munities

communities have also been reported off the

undoubtedly threatened by pollution, sedimentation and

islets

in

Yalong Bay just southeast of Sanya. The principal threats

include coral mining for construction, blast fishing and the
collection of corals for handicrafts. There are
to

now

reported

be efforts to protect and manage these reefs.

A number

of coral communities have been described

off the coastline of

Left:

The Moorish

Hong Kong. These do

idol

Zanclus cornutus

sponges. Right: Mangroves

like

is

not form true

in

overfishing on this heavily populated coastline.

China claims a large number of reefs and coral

islands scattered across the South

China Sea, including

all

of the Spratly Islands, the Paracel Islands off Vietnam, and

the

Tung-Sha

these areas

is

reefs towards Taiwan.

As sovereignty over

disputed they are dealt with separately.

widespread on coral reefs across the indo-Pacific and feeds primarily on

now been replanted.

these were decimated during the Vietnam war, but large areas have

291

MAP

lOi

Southeast Asia

Taiwan and Japan

MAP 10i

T3iW3n

(China)

Nonetheless,
coral reef

lies relatively far to the north.

communities

at

around offshore islands. Taiwan

The

the northern edge of the

South China Sea, particularly along

along

fringing reefs around the

number of well developed

has a

it

is

Pen-Hu (Pescadores)

islands off the east coast include

both of which are volcanic. These

lie in

Kuroshio Current and diverse reef communities have

particularly affected

developed. In 1998 there was extensive coral bleaching,

and surveys

Current,

which carries warm water from the south,

20 percent of coral colonies died during

although

its

influence

weakened during

is

the path of the

southern edge, and

its

southern and eastern edges by the Kuroshio

its

Islands.

Lan-Yu and Lu-Tao,

the

in

1999 and 2000 have suggested

that

about

this event.

There are thought to be considerable pressures on

winter

months by the Northeast Monsoon. An estimated 300 hard

the reefs in Taiwan, particularly

coral species have been recorded at the island along with

development and tourism. Dynamite fishing, trawling and

200

fish species.

Some of

from fishing, coastal

sedimentation are reported to have degraded the reefs

the best

known and

the mainland are those of the

best developed reefs of

Hengchun Peninsula and

around the Pen-Hu Islands, while destructive fishing and

tourism are believed to have

the

impacted reefs on the

Kenting National Park. These are fringing communities,

southeast mainland.

although they form a discontinuous structure broken up

fishing are also reported to have affected

by sand channels. These

reefs are further characterized

significant variation in the fauna

certain areas

between

dominated by alcyonarian

scleractinian corals

localities,

coral.

by

fish.

with

waste disposal

site

and spear

fish collecting

numbers of reef

Nuclear power plants were reported

built in the vicinity

Some 250

Aquarium

to

have been

of a number of reefs, while a nuclear

was reportedly established

at

Lan-Yu.

from 58 genera have been recorded,

together with 39 species

( 1 1

genera) of alcyonarian coral.

Japan

Fringing reefs are also well developed around the offshore

islands. In the northern parts

are diverse fringing reefs

of the South China Sea there

The

around Hsiao-Liu-Chiu, while

the mid-temperate regions, and in so doing provide one of

further north there are patchy coral reefs and occasional

Extensive shallow coral gardens of Acropora abrolhosensis

islands of Japan stretch from the edge of the tropics to

the clearest

in

the

examples of the

Ryukyu Islands

Iphoto:

JEN

latitudinal

Veronl.

limits

to

coral

293

294

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

growth and reef development. The southernmost islands

are

subdivides
the

chain,

long

into

Yaeyama

Nansei

the
series

Shoto.

which clearly

of smaller archipelagos, with

Islands, including the important islands of

Iriomote and Ishigaki in the south, followed by the

Islands, including the island of

large island of Kyushu

is

a final

Ryukyu

Okinawa. Closest

group of small

to the

islands, the

some

One of the most

areas.

standards,

is

that

lying halfway between the

atoll

Wake

The presence of

in

Japan
at the

latitudes. In these areas,

continue,

with numerous offshore

development

One

islands.

in these islands is the

waters has enabled

and there are records of around 40 coral genera

larger islands in the north,

south

warm

relatively

hermatypic corals to reach quite high latitudes

of Japan, including Kyushu. Shikoku and Honshu

critical factor for reef

Ogaswara Islands and

Island (USA).

Tokara Islands. Following on from these the main islands

in the

isolated reefs, even by Pacific

of Minami-Torishima (Marcus Island) an

forming

reefs,

and

it

some reaching

into temperate

however, corals are incapable of

is

accepted that the

generally

northern limit for true reef development in the Nansei

the Tokara Islands at

around 30N. The most

Kuroshio Current, which flows northwards along the edge

chain

of the continental shelf of the East China Sea. bringing

extensive fringing reef structures are those around the

relatively

warm

waters across the southern islands before

passing out into the Pacific Ocean just south of Kyushu.

Away from

these islands Japan also has a

number

of more isolated islands in the Pacific Ocean. The Daito

Islands are a small

group of three islands some 300

kilometers east of Okinawa.

a raised platform reef Coral

Two

are raised atolls, the third

growth

is

apparently not well

developed on the steeply shelving sides of these islands.

South of these there

is

also reported to be reef dev-

elopment on the isolated reef of Okino Tori Shima lying

on the Kyushu-Palau Ridge. Leading southwards from

Tokyo there

is

a sequence of small island groups

which

is

Ryukyu

The remote islands to

warmed by the Kuroshio

Islands and further south.

the east of the country are

Current and also show a high diversity of coral species.

Miyake Jima (34N)

was reported

to

in the north

of the Izu Shoto group

have 80 hermatypic corals, while some

156 hermatypic species are recorded from this group as a

whole. As
there

corals

in

other high latitude reefs around the world,

appears to be considerable

interaction

between

and macroalgae, with corals being overgrown

during colder winters.

The Ryukyu and Yaeyama

levels

of

diversity.

Islands have the highest

Altogether approximately 400 coral

follow the volcanic South Honshu Ridge. The Izu Shoto

species have been recorded from Japan, the majority of

are a widely spaced group of high volcanic islands, lying

which are found

relatively far north. Further south again the

Ogasawara

1992

(Bonin) and Kanzan (Volcano) Islands form two groups

1990

along a volcanic arc linking Japan and the Mariana Islands

communities

to

the south. Volcanic activity

and a lack of suitable

substrates precludes the development of reefs on

many of

these islands, although rich fringing communities occur in

Left: Fringing reefs

Right: Taiwan's

to

the

in

Ishigaki. Coral cover

is

waters around Iriomote and

generally very low

a survey

in the

Nansei chain had

less that 5 percent

coral cover while only 8 percent had cover of 50 percent

or more.

It

seems highly

likely that these

relate, at least in part, to the

low figures

heavy environmental deg-

around Okinawa have been severely damaged or destroyed by sedimentation ISTS080-755-79.

Pen-Hu

Islands ISTS068-239-89,

199il.

from

found that over 60 percent of coral

19961.

Southeast Asia

.'ir-^r.-.i

radation that has affected

many

Many

reefs in the country.

were also severely impacted by coral bleaching

and there

popular,

is

some damage caused by

reef

in 1998,

walking. Coastal development, in part fuelled by tourism,

particularly those in the southern areas, with a 62 percent

has led to direct destruction, including land reclamation

of coral cover

loss

in

bleaching was reported

Ishigaki Island.
at

By

no

contrast,

the eastern island chains of Izu

Unfortunately coastal development, forest clearance

and poor agricultural practices have led

the

rapid

demise of many of Japan's most important fringing

reefs,

to

and a large number, particularly around the bigger islands

as

Okinawa, can now be regarded as

proportions in a

starfish,

which have reached plague

number of

areas since 1970. There

is

great deal of tourism in the southern islands of Japan, with

Ryukyu

the

Islands receiving over 4 million tourists per

year in the late 1990s. Diving and snorkelling are very

^^^^^^

Taiwan, China

General Data

-^

Population (thousands!

GDP

4 700

consumption (kg/year)

on coral

limited. In

reefs.

Okinawa prefecture

1993 was over 6 000 tons, but

tons, a decline

in

Commercial

which may

in

total

1998

in part

it

be

further explained by slight

is

While there are many protected

country,

it

Given

come from

that

some of

the greatest threats

external sources a

approach may be required

remaining

estimated

not clear to what degree these areas provide

is

active protection.
to the reefs

areas,

13 percent of the total reef area of the

to

more

holistic

ensure the survival of the

reefs.

Japan

P"
'

General Data
126 550

Population (thousands)

GDP

(million

US$1

3 300 625

Land area [km^l

373 049

Marine area (thousand km^)

Per capita

fish

4 022

consumption (kg/yearl

67

Status and Threats

Reefs at risk (%)

88

0^

Recorded coral diseases

Biodiversity

Reefs

91

at risk (%)

Recorded coral diseases

Biodiversity

Reef area (km^j

Coral diversity

255

Mangrove area* (km^j

No. of mangrove species*

9A0

Reef area (km^l

AU

Coral diversity

339

Mangrove area (km^j

23

No. of seagrass species

*

to

to cover nearly

na

Status and Threats

Okinawa, and a new airport

linked to reef decline, but

285

']

in

decreases in the total numbers of fishers.

36 3i9

Marine area (thousand km^

fish

had dropped

na

Land area Ikm^)

Per capita

22 191

ImiUion US$1

is

reef fish catch

totally

destroyed. Further death of corals has been caused by

crown-of-thorns

major airport

fishing on the reefs

Shoto or Ogasawara.

such

for the

Ishigaki, both built directly

900

420/413
4

No. of mangrove species

11

No. of seagrass species

For the whole of China

Left: Blast fishing tias

reduced vast areas of Souttieast Asia's reefs

part of the range of the white

mouth moray

eel,

to rubble.

Gymnothorax meleagris.

Rig fit: Southern Japan

is

the northernmost

295

296

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Even

more remote

the

islands appear to have been

affected by coastal development. Tourism

in the Izu

the

is

a major activity

Shotu Islands, including dive tourism, and two of

most diverse

sites for corals

on Miyake Jima have been

completely destroyed by port construction. Tourism

is

also

increasing in the Ogasawara Islands, and concerns have

been expressed about the rapid increases

in

development

which may occur following the construction of an

airport.

Protected areas wi th coral reefs

Site

name

Designation

Abbreviation

lUCN

cat.

Size

Ikmil

Yearfl

Taiwan
Bei-Men Coast

Protected Area

PA

na

29.80

1987

Jeou-Perng Coast

Protected Area

PA

na

5.30

1987

Kenting

National Park

NP

II

326.31

1982

Kenting Uplifted Coral Reef

Nature Reserve

NR

la

1.38

1994

North Coast

Protected Area

PA

VI

56.95

1987

Japan
Genkai

Quasi National Park

QNP

Unassigned

101.58

1956

Irlomote

National Park

NP

II

125.06

1972

Marine Park

MP

na

0.34

1974

Kametoku (Kagoshimal

Marine Park

MP

na

0.70

1974

Kasari Hanto Higashi Kaigan

Marine Park

MP

na

0.93

1974

Kirishima - Yaku

National Park

NP

II

548.33

1934

Kiyanguchi

Marine Park

MP

na

0.46

1977

Maibishi

Marine Park

MP

na

0.48

1977

Marine Park

MP

na

0.56

1970
1955

Kamae

(Oital {A

areas)

(Kagoshimal

Nichinan IMiyazakil

16

areas)

Nichinan Kaigan

Quasi National Park

QNP

Unassigned

45.42

Ogasawara

National Park

NP

II

60.99

1972

Okinawa

Marine Park

MP

na

1.40

1972

Okinawa Kaigan

Quasi National Park

QNP

Unassigned

103.20

1972

QNP

Unassigned

31.27

1972

NP

246.36

1955

NCA

la

1.28

1983

Marine Park

MP

na

0.15

1970

Marine Park

MP

na

0.12

1970

Marine Park

MP

na

0.58

1974

Shimobishi

Marine Park

MP

na

0.83

1977

Surikozaki (Kagoshima)

Marine Park

MP

na

0.70

1974

Takidunguchi

Marine Park

MP

na

0.37

1977

Tokashiki (Okinawa)

Marine Park

MP

na

1.20

1978

Marine Park

MP

na

1.55

1974

597.98

1936

2.33

1978

Okinawa Senseki

Quasi National Park

Saikai

National Park

Sakiyama-wan

Nature Conservation Area

Sakurajima IKagoshima)
Sata Misaki (Kagoshimal

Setouchi (Kagoshima)

Yoronto (Kagoshimal

Yoshino -

Zamami

Kumano

(Okinawal

(3

(3

(2 sites)
(2

areas)

areas)

areas)

National Park

NP

Marine Park

MP

na

Southeast Asia

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additional coral

Townsville, Australia.

Hodgson G

Map 10a
For Myanmar, coral reef data for the Mergui Archipelago are

ED, Alirio PM, Licuanan

CR, Sudara

1:

ReefSymp

123-128.

Gomez

Map sources

Resources Management, Manila, Philippines.

Living Aquatic

reefsl.

Chansang

Satapoomin

H,

U,

Poovachiranon S ledsl (1999a),

Maps of Thailand. Volume 1: Gulf of Thailand.

Coral Reef Management Programme. Department of
Coral Reef

Fisheries.

(In

Thai language.!

Southeast Asia

Chansang

H,

Satapoomin

U,

Poovachiranon S (eds) 11999b).

Maps of Ttiailand. Volume 2. Andaman Sea. Coral

Reef Management Programme, Department of Fisheries. Iln
Coral Reef

provided

For China, coral reef data have been taken as arcs from

Hydrographic Office (1975). Mergui Archipelago. British

Admiralty Ctiart No. 216. 1:300 000. September 1975.
Taunton, UK,

data

reef

SA

11990]*. For Vietnam, coral reef data

based

Some

on

arcs

areas were

additional

added by experts during the Regional Reefs

at

from

of

Gaps

in

this

Institute of

map coverage were

Petroconsultants

SA

were generously provided through the Regional Reefs at Risk

project. These are based on Landsat TM at a working scale of

Japan, |29-map series on 26 sheets).

For large parts of Malaysia, coral reef data have been taken as

Petroconsultants

resolution reef polygons

SA

were

For Sabah

11990)*.

kindly

made

higher

available through

the Regional Reefs at Risk Southeast Asia project, which plot

reefs at a scale of 1:200 000. For Brunei coral reef data have

been taken from De

Silva et al 11992).

De Silva MV^/RN, Wright RAD. Matdanan HJH. Sharifuddin PHY,

Agbayani CV 11992). Coastal Environmental Sensitivity
Mapping of Brunei Darussalam. Department of Fisheries.
Ministry of Industry and Primary Resources and Brunei Shell

Petroleum Company, Brunei Darussalam.

0f

and lOg
reef

map

for the Philippines

is

largely based on two

sources: processed satellite imagery kindly provided by the

Mapping and Resource Information Authority

INAMRIAl and further details from Petroconsultants SA
11990)*. The former data were prepared from SPOT images
National

taken

in

1987, at a scale of 1:250 000. Unfortunately expert

showed significant reef areas were missing from this

analysis, so gaps were filled with the lower resolution
Petroconsultants SA data.
analysis

In

the sub-surface barrier reef system on the

addition,

western coast

of

Palawan was mapped based on Hydrographic

is based on Philippine Government

Office 11985). This data

Admiralty surveys of 1850-5/iand

charts

to 1976,

1937.

As these are sub-surface

included

in

reefs,

US surveys

to

they have not been

the reef area calculations.

Hydrographic Office (1985). South China Sea - Palawan. British

Admiralty Chart No.

967.

1:725 000.

November

1985.

Taunton, UK.

NAMRIA

(1988). Land Cover Maps, 1:250 000. National

Mapping and Resources Information Authority, Manila,

Republic of the Philippines.

Map 1 0h
Data showing reef areas

in

the Spratly Islands were prepared

by staff at the University of the Philippines Marine Sciences

Institute,

using source materials at a scale of 1:250 000.

It

is

possible to distinguish between surface and sub-surface reefs

in

this dataset,

and only the former have been used

in

the

calculation of reef areas.

Map

filled

lOi

For Japan, coral reefs and mangrove areas for

with

data

from

11990).

Maps 10b and 10c

Maps

Oceanography, Vietnam).

Environment Agency (1981-1987), Actual Vegetation Map,

Okinawa. 1-29. 1:50 000. The 3rd National Survey on the
Natural Environment (Vegetation). Environment Agency,

1:30 000.

The coral

Risk workshop

Manila, 2000. For the Riau Archipelago high resolution data

arcs from

were

hand annotated base maps (various

scales between approximately 1 00 000 and :750 000), based
on the expert knowledge of Vo Si Tuan (Head, Department of
provided on a series

Marine Living Resources,

largely

are

Petrcconsultants SA (1990)'.

in

Petroconsultants

10b, lOc.lOd.lOe

Coral

by

Oceanography, Taiwan).

Thai language.)

Maps

were added based on simple annotation

Cheng-feng Dai (Professor, Institute of

but further reefs

all

the southern

Agency (1981-1987). For

Taiwan, Petroconsultants SA (19901* was used as a base map.
islands are taken from Environment

See Technical notes, page iOI

300

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Part IV
The Pacific Ocean

is

This

vast

region,

incorporating

the

1 1

034 meters. Away from plate margins, a number

eastern shores of Australia and stretching

island groups have

towards the coastline

movement

of

the

Americas.

There are more coral reefs here than

other part of the world: over

^iO

in

any

percent of

the global total, including the most extensive areas of

barrier reefs and coral atolls.

region that Darwin developed

development

was by looking at this

many of his ideas on the
It

of reefs.

at

such as Hawai'l. with active

one end, and a subsequent

Illustrating atoll

line of Islands

development as the central volcanic

islands subside but the reef structures continue to grow.

Given the size of this ocean,

relatively

Although a contiguous ocean, the underlying plate

ocean crust over these hotspots has

of the

led to classic Island chains

volcanoes

of

formed over mid-plate hotspots. The

simple system

of

it

Is

dominated by

ocean currents which are

broadly consistent throughout the year.

From the

more complex. Much of the region

lies on the main Pacific plate, however the IndoAustrallan plate stretches far Into the southwest. The

ward flowing South Equatorial Current. Immediately

boundary between these two

to the east, typically

tectonics are a

tectonic

number

little

activity,

plates,

and the associated

has driven the development

of the island

of

groups Including Tonga and

Fiji.

southern hemisphere up

north of this

north of

is

this,

to the

equator there

Is

a west-

the Equatorial Counter Current, flowing

between 3-5 and 10N. To the

the North Equatorial Current again flows

westwards. South

of the equator, air

movements

are

Further north a similar boundary occurs between

dominated by the southeast trade winds which flow

the Philippines plate and the Pacific plate. This

from the sub-tropical high pressure areas towards the

is

the

location of the Mariana Islands, but also the deepest

point

In all

the worlds oceans - the Challenger

Deep

at

equator, and

around June

tend
to

to

be particularly strong from

October. The northeast trade winds

The Pacific Ocean

dominate

the

to

north

equator

there

itself

are strongest

the

of

are

and are

equator,

November

particularly strong from

May. Along the

to

easterly

These

winds.

the Eastern Pacific, and tend to be

in

generally light to variable further west.

regular dis-

in areas away from the equator, and become

more numerous in the western parts of the Pacific. The
general westward flow of the surface waters, which are

turbance

number

heated as they flow, sets up a

of gradients,

including an important pressure gradient. Occasionally

system undergoes reversal

this

known as

a process

in

world.

in

typified by

warm

water upwellings

the Eastern Pacific and considerable changes

"normal" patterns

of

in

the

currents and upwellings across

human

many

storms, tvjany areas, and

of reef

though

still

Western-style development

form

of

studied, region.

little

In

coastal

in

controlling

for

complex and
Isee Chapter 21
There

the far west

many

it

as high as

at least

in

evidence

is

to

Papua New Guinea

these countries. I^oving

in

east across the region there

is

clear gradient of

diminishing diversity which appears to be reflected

in

the major groups of coral reef organisms, as well

com-

many

in

under some

customary marine tenure. Artisanal fishing

predominates

very important,

the edges of the Indonesian-Philippine

suggest that biodiversity on reefs

all of

limited

is

still fall

waters,

and traditional

fishing

this

effective

include

often

management regimes

Environmental problems do occur

of biodiversity this is a

center of coral diversity, and there

may be

entire nations, are

countries, and wide areas of reef

2).

encompasses

some

development, and only a few meters above sea

relatively

terms

critical

level at their highest point.

such events on coral reefs can be considerable, as

witnessed by the mass bleaching events of recent years

In

reliance

considerable. For

prised solely of small atoll cays, entirely the product

systems

(see Chapter

the

ir

as well as offering protection from

of food,

the region and even around the globe. The impacts

of

of the region is

small island nations they are a

of the

source

human

populations. Despite this,

on the coral reefs

the El Nifio Southern Oscillation Ian "El Nino event"].

Such processes are

threatened

of the least

Population densities are generally low, and

there are large areas of coral reefs which are far from

any

Tropical storms or cyclones are a

Reefs at Risk analysis this region was

the

In

assessed as being one

some

in

areas.

evidence of target species overfishing

is

in

countries, and populations of clams and trochus

have collapsed

several nations, even before export

in

Modern fishing
methods have allowed access to more remote reefs,
and more thorough harvesting. As traditional systems
fisheries for these species had begun.

some areas have seen considerable

break down,

overexploitation, and also destructive fishing.

problems do not

These

wide areas, but are important,

affect

in mangroves and seagrasses. There are some ^5

mangrove species recorded from Australia and Papua

population densities and are clearly diminishing the

New

potential of the reefs as a renewable source of food.

as

Guinea, but only three from Samoa, with none

occurring east
this region

Samoa. Knowledge

of

Barrier Reef has been extensively studied,

vast size

means

that,

even here,

many

but

relatively well studied territory, but

estimated that only about half

its

reefs are only

occasionally visited by scientists. French Polynesia

another

of the reef

it

is

has been

systems have

even been visited by scientists, and there

is

was one

of the last

is

peoples out

to

some evidence

Papua New Guinea and the nearby

islands up to 30 000 years ago, the

oceanic islands

is

movement

probably began

some

in

3 000-4 000 years ago, and con-

000 years ago. European arrival

the region had considerable impacts on the native

people.

In

many

islands,

"new" diseases decimated

populations, such that, although there are

growth rates, many nations

tions than existed before

still

now

high

have lower popula-

European

zone,

key activities.

with
In

arrival.

to high

of

many

almost entirely focussed on the

diving

and snorkelling being

general, however, tourist

remain low compared

numbers

to other parts of the world,

they are usually restricted to those islands with

and

more

developed infrastructures.
Pollution

and sedimentation are generally not

areas, especially

where there

is

in

On the high islands sediment runoff and

The transition from
presents a

number

traditional to

of

localized

urban development.

from agriculture and mining can be

of

largely the result of

more recent journeys. The great Polynesian voyages

tinued until about

coastal

is

widespread, but are clearly a concern

regions on Earth to have

been settled by humans. While there

of early arrivals in

important for the economy

is

countries, and

published

material on less than a quarter of them.

This

Tourism

of the reefs in

extremely limited. Australia's Great

is still

because they are focussed close

particularly

interesting

pollution

problem.

Western society
difficulties.

The

desire to establish legally designated marine protected

areas has run into conflict with local "owners"

resources.
the

In

many

establishment

countries this has

of

Western-style

of reef

prevented

protected

area

management regimes
unproblematic, but as or when

systems. While traditional

remain effective

this

is

such systems are undermined there

potential for overexploitation and

is

considerable

damage.

301

302

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Chapter

Australia

Australia
extensive

an island continent with an

is

tropical

coastline.

Its

western

shores mark the southeastern margins

of the

Ocean while,

Indian

to the east,

southwestern boundary

provides the

the Pacific Ocean. Between these two

is

it

of

complex,

These include remnants

shelf.

been
a

result

scales.
this

is

rising

of

The northern coastline

an area

of

high

is

less

terrestrial

development. The eastern boundary

is

After
of

coral

Indonesia,
reefs

of

and the

marked by

of the

Arafura Sea

narrow constriction, the Torres

Strait.

East of here, the world's largest coral reef complex

to the east.

Australia

known, however
runoff,

waters are shallow and turbid, greatly restricting reef

southern Indonesia, separated by the Timor Sea

west and the Arafura Sea

drowned as

sea levels over geological time

poorly known, northern coastline which runs close to

to the

what may have

of

a substantial barrier reef structure

has the largest area

any nation, nearly 50 000 square

commences, extending

out to

the

margins

of

the

continental shelf and continuing southwards as the

kilometers, or

some

17 percent of the world's total

Great Barrier Reef. The warm, southward flowing East

area

Conditions for reef development vary

Australia Current also supports the development of

of

reefs.

considerably along the coastline.

climate

is

dry and there

development

is

is little

the far west the

In

terrestrial runoff. Reef

not continuous, though

away from loose

coastal sediments there are important areas, including

Australia's

best

developed fringing reefs. The

southward flowing Leeuwin Current

on this coastline, bringing

is

warm waters

to

relatively

some

unique reef communities. Further north there are

several reefs on the outer edges of the continental

the south of the Great Barrier Reef. Other reefs

are found

in

Australia's offshore waters.

among these
Australia

is

also administers the

Islands and Christmas Island

of

in

which have significant coral

Australia's

reefs.

human

original

Cocos iKeelingI

the Indian Ocean, both

population,

the

Australian Aborigines, are thought to have inhabited

The reefs of the northern Great Barrier Reef where the continental shelf

Right: The blue starfish Linkia laevigata

Most notable

are the extensive reef structures of the

Coral Sea, east of the Great Barrier Reef.

also important

high latitudes and enabling the development of

Left:

high latitude reefs along Australia's eastern shores

to

is

relatively

narrow

widespread on coral reefs across the Indo-Pacific.

ISTS046-77-31, 19921.

MAP

-'

f'^.

<S
Q

OS

i-

.*

11

306

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

more than ^0 000

the country for

and the Torres

years.

These people,

who occupy

Strait Islanders

parts of the

have traditionally

far northeast of the country,

considerable use of reef resources.

It

seems

reefs, but their

to

numbers

made

of the

likely,

can now be related

however, that their overall impacts remained minimal.

are so low that they are unlikely

have any significant impact except, perhaps,

Torres Strait region. The dominant
to fisheries

and

parts

in

human impacts

terrestrial runoff

from deforestation, overgrazing and certain agricultural

Compared with most

however,

Population densities were low, and a large area of

practices.

offshore reef remained inaccessible to them.

these impacts remain few. Population densities are low

The continent was

travelers

in

the

first

northwestern coast

of the

described by European

17th century.

James Cook was

the

in

first to

Dampier

visited

parts

1688 and 1699. Captain

in all

some

coral reef areas, while the location of

Considerable resources have been put

navigate the waters of the

reef research

was established

in

reefs

The

first

in

British settlement

The Aboriginal population has decreased conthose

European occupation, while many

who remain have been dispossessed

tional lands
lifestyles.

and have ceased

A few remaining

of

of their tradi-

to practice their traditional

coastal populations

still

have

considerable rights regarding their traditional use of the

Left:

The North West Cape

above:

A number

is

in

in

into coral

Australia and, despite the vast area of

the country, there

is

a good deal of information

importantly, the great majority of Australia's reefs

within protected areas.

Park

is

well

managed

areas of

19941. Right,

Ashmore

Reef,

lie

right

fall

The Great Barrier Reef Marine

the largest protected reef

in

the world, and

is

with a detailed zoning plan, providing

strict protection

alongside

much

larger areas

of multiple use.

bordered by Australia's longest fringing reef the Ningatoo Reef ISTS035-76-44.

of reefs, including

Australia ISTS060-75-25,

them

describing their distribution and biodiversity. Equally

1788.

siderably since

reefs at

from human impacts.

in

1770.

many

distance from the shore further protects

Great Barrier Reef, and indeed ran aground there

Australia

countries,

19901. Right,

on the edge of the continental shelf in the far northwest of

below: Leopard grouper Plectropomus leopardus amidst branching and soft corals.

Australia

West Australia
MAPua

reefs

The

west of Australia encompass a

the

in

variety of types in a very broad range of oceano-

graphic conditions. For the

dry coasthne with

human

little terrestrial

most part
runofT.

very

this is a

It is

also,

from a

perspective, very sparsely populated and poorly

documented. One

critical

oceanographic feature

the

is

Leeuwin Current which flows south from Indonesia,

carrying

warm

waters to relatively high latitudes, par-

Along

the mainland coast, reefs are discontinuous but

shelf

is

in places. In the

north the continental

very wide and dominated by turbid waters with

strong currents. Reef development

is

little

known

off the

Eighty Mile Beach, though further west there are scattered

among

reefs

the

Dampier Archipelago and

the

Monte Bello

Islands. Here, as the continental shelf narrows, there

is

great range of oceanographic conditions associated with

the gradient

between nearshore turbid waters and clear

offshore waters, mixed by the complex current regime.

is

Reef which follows some 230 kilometers of

coastline running southwards

this,

from North West Cape. The

known forms of

life.

there are no true coral reefs in the Shark

Bay

area, although

some of

coral species have been recorded.

some 80

The southernmost

true reefs in the Indian

29S on the edge of the continental

were named by Frederick Houtman

is

They

and the word

are located

on three carbonate

Lying on the edge of the continental shelf they are directly

affected by the

Leeuwin Current which moderates

winter temperatures, and

larval supply.

may

the

also have a critical role in

Considering their high

latitude, these reefs

have a significant diversity, with over 180 coral species

and over 230

fish.

One of

of benthic

life

the most interesting ecological

around these islands

is

the

occurrence of substantial macroalgae communities dominated by brown algae, including the large kelp Ecklonia
radiata. Corals

dominate the community structure on

on windward slopes and

than anywhere

These islands

shelf.

in 1619,

platforms with channels 40 meters deep between them.

kilometers offshore. The continental shelf

narrower here

are

close to

vossos olhos ("look out" or "take care") as they were such

a navigational hazard.

ward reef slopes while

is

Ocean

lie

derived from the Portuguese expression abri

reef flats are well developed, lying between 0.5 and 7

else in the country, with the

the earliest

around the Houtman Abrolhos Islands which

features

Australia's longest continuous fringing reef system

the Ningaloo

Despite

Abrolhos

ticularly along the continental shelf edge.

very well developed

Similar structures have been recorded in fossils dating back

3.5 billion years,

algal

lee-

assemblages are predominant

flats,

and there

is

considerable

200 meter

contour less than 20 kilometers offshore. These reefs receive

the full impact of oceanic waves, so corals tend to be quite

low and compact. Biodiversity

300 species of

coral, nearly

600 molluscs. The area

is

is

relatively high, with

500 species of

fish

some

and over

also noted for the appearance

of whale sharks. These giant plankton-feeders occur

in

considerable numbers between mid-March and mid-May.

The marine areas of the Shark Bay World Heritage

are of considerable interest, including

some of

Site

most

the

extensive seagrass communities in the world and harboring

what

is

probably the largest dugong population in the world

(over 10 000).

Monkey Mia Bay

has become famous for a

tame group of bottle-nosed dolphins, but the region

is

also

of considerable importance for other cetaceans, including

humpback and southern

the Shark

Bay

area, is

right whales.

Hamelin Pool, within

one of the few places

in the

world

where there are actively growing stromatolites. Hypersaline

conditions prevent the survival of most organisms, but

photosynthetic bacteria and microalgae survive and form

microbial mats as they trap and bind sediments. Over the

last

4 000 years these mats have developed into relatively

- columns or mounds up to 1.5 meters high.

large structures

30

The Houtman Abrolhos have a very high diversity of species considering their southerly
more temperate species and macroalgal communities ISTS093-702-70, 19991.

latitude,

but also incorporate

km

MAP

iia
116

112

:i20

TOS-W

105'3ff

Christmas Island,

Mermaid Reef

Rowley

S""^

Mermaid

"^'^^^

Gierke Reef

Imperiuse Reef
lo-ao*

'

Rowley

Shoals

18
Christmas'
Island

CoNP

\!
\

18

10

MP

Y'

30 km

20

lO'-W
^
1

Eighty Mile Beach

BedoutL

Ramsar Site

Dampier
Turtle

Archipelago
RosemaiyL

Monte Bello
Lowendal

Is.

.Legendic

...

Is.

L,

Barrow I. /

Port Hedland

FoiEstier

Is.

Karratha

Maiy Aime Gni^).

Rosily

Is.

bampler

"Passage

Is.

Angle L

Murionls.

North West Cape

22

22

Ningaloo

Reef

\y

Ningaloo

\
,
^^i

MP

'

Cape
Range NP

Pulu Keelmg

Emden HSPZ

CoNP

and Ramsar

:','

Site

Nonh Keelmg I

[}

INDIAN OCEAN
INDIAN OCEAN

\
BeraierL

DoneL
.

|tt

Shark Bay

1.

MP

Islands

-Shark

^^Monk^ ASa Bay

(
Dirk Haitog

26

Cocos (Keeling)

"

Hoisbtngfa L

1?

'

'

Hamelin
Pool

Shark Bay
Western Australia
World Heritage Site
Zuytdorp

Abrolhos

Easier

DirectionL

26

Soudi
Keeling

Is.'

^^j,,^

HShip\

Wallabi Group

Houtman

Group

Pelsart

'

AUSTRALIA

Geraldton

''^

(Western Australia)

Group
Half Moon Reef

30

30

Kalgooriie

Kellerberrin

Marmion
Rottnest

MP

I.

g', penh
Shoalwater Islands

90

180

270

360

450

km

Yglgomp
112

MP

116

NP
120

Australia

overlap in

some

These islands thus support

places.

a rare

combination of sub-tropical and temperate communities

close proximity.

Further south there

no true reef development, though

is

Rottnest Island off the coast near Perth

fringed by shallow

is

platforms where some 25 species of zooxanthellate corals

have been recorded. The importance of the warming effect

of the Leeuwin Current
corals, about

As

equally strong here.

is

well as

25-30 percent of the fish and echinoderm

populations are generally tropical in their distribution.

Despite studies since the 1950s, the

Acropora on these reefs was not

first

from the Houtman Abrolhos

larval recruitment

Low human

has been

It

may be dependent

suggested that these and other species

on

recording of

until 1988.

reefs.

populations generally restrict impacts on

the reefs off the west coast of Australia, although there

some

fishing in

all

Around

areas.

Bello Islands there

is

Dampier and Monte

the

increasing pearl oyster farming,

is

petroleum exploitation and now some tourism, although

the impacts of these are

still

not high.

The Monte Bello

Islands were used for British nuclear tests in 1952-56.

Ningaloo reefs were heavily fished

these reefs are
areas.

now zoned and

fishing

These reefs were also reported

is

to

and 1990s, but there now

most

areas. Levels

original vegetation, mostly

very important seabird rookery.

snails in the 1970s

be active recovery

of tourism are relatively high around

of Australia

to

be settled by Europeans,

at least

temporarily, following a shipwreck and mutiny in 1629.

islands were heavily

mined

for

guano

until the late

The

1940s

and now support a major, well managed commercial rock

lobster

Two

fishery.

declared which provide

reefs in

protected

large

least

at

some

areas

have been recorded

have been

protection for the

in the

These islands were

in

Shark Bay. The Houtman Abrolhos Islands were among the

first parts

hardwood

restricted to certain

have been damaged

by outbreaks of the coral eating Driipella

appears to

The

however

until recently,

tall

forest.

Some 525

It

waters around the two

atolls.

only atolls where

the

fact

in

also a

is

species of fish

Charles Darwin ever landed during his voyage on the

Beagk'

1836) and thus have a significant place in his

(in

development of a theory
There

development (Chapter

for atoll

1 ).

small resident population of predominantly

is

Malaysian origin, living on two of the South Keeling

Islands,

but

minimal.

island,

their

impact on the reefs

considered
the

all

surrounding reefs and waters.

its

Christmas Island

Ningaloo and Shark Bay.

is

national park in North Keeling protects

is

a high, mountainous island

some

kilometers across, reaching a height of 359 meters.

15

lies

It

about 300 kilometers south of Java. Fringing reefs surround

Cocos (Keeling) Islands and

Christmas Island

much of

Far out in the Indian Ocean, Australia administers two other

territories

with important oceanic reef communities. Cocos

(Keeling) consists of two atolls on the Cocos Rise, nearly

mid-way between Australia and

Sri

Lanka. They are

dominated by the southeast trade winds and swept by the

westward flowing equatorial current most of the

are occasionally impacted
atoll

of South Keeling

is

by

tropical cyclones.

rim.

Horsburgh Island

and holds

year,

in the

The main

north

lies apart

much of its

from the others,

a particularly important bird nesting colony.

Keeling (Pulu Keeling)

and

a little over 15 kilometers across,

with a near continuous chain of 27 islands along

is

much

smaller

atoll,

North

about 3

kilometers across with a single island almost completely

encircling a shallow lagoon.
siderable interest,

Well developed

The

island itself

is

of con-

being one of the few in the region with

and

abrotanoides which

distinctive coral reef

is

found

has a disjunct distribution

in

in

It,

wide before

its

communities occur

with narrow reef

flats typically

a steep reef slope

down

While the reef faunas

to

20-200 meters

deep oceanic waters.

clearly contain Indian

Ocean elements

they show a close affinity to Southeast Asia. Diversity

somewhat

limited by a moderate range of reef habitats.

is

The

island has important seabird nesting colonies, including

the

endemic Christmas Island

frigatebird.

Large numbers of

crabs are also noted, including 13 land crabs, the best

of which are the red crabs Gecarcoidea

a population of
a

some 120

resident population of some 2

mine

continues, although
hotel

it

to

spawn

000 people

is strictly

regulated.

More

The

came
and

to

this

recently a

and casino complex has been developed, drawing

tourists

from Southeast Asia. Over 60 percent of the island

and much of the fringing reef is protected

in tlie

in the sea.

originally

large phosphate deposits,

its

known

which have

million individuals and undertake

famous annual mass migration

the island to

natalis.

Houtman Abrolhos.

Tiie

purple coral

in a national park.

is

Acropora

shallow reef areas right across the Indo-Pacific. while the green coral Acropora seriata

southwest Australia, insular Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka only

(photo.

JEN

Veronl.

MAP lib

^J2!^Z

Australia

North Australia
MAP

mcluding Lynher,

Carrier,

on the continental

may

these

shelf,

Hibernia,

lies just

has been suggested that

it

A number

be barrier structures.

fact

in

Ashmore and
and

lib

deeper shoals on the shelf edge indicate that there

have been a more extensive barrier reef along

during recent periods of lower sea

of

may

this shelf

level, but that

only

these structures kept up with rising sea levels. Tidal ranges

around these reefs and there

are very high

wave energy, so

considerable

coral formations have deve-

compact

algae, while only

is

dominated by coralline

the reef crests are

loped on windward shores. This

is

also an area regularly

affected by cyclones.

Coral cover

is

typically high. In early 1995 hard coral

cover averaged nearly 50 percent on reef slopes

in Scott

Reef and the Rowley Shoals, but cyclone damage

same year caused

that

Ashmore Reef has

figure.

region:

the

later

a considerable reduction in this

the greatest biodiversity in

some 255 species of hermatypic

have been recorded, 747

corals

433 molluscs and 192

fish.

echinoderms. These compare with 213 hermatypic corals

and Seringapatam Reefs and 184

at Scott

Shoals.

The region

of sea snakes than anywhere else

species recorded

Seabird

Rowley

to the

nesting

world, with 12

in the

Reef, three of which are

Ashmore

at

thought to be endemic
Reefs.

at the

also probably has a greater diversity

Ashmore. Carrier and Hibernia

colonies

are

also

extremely

important and 17 species (with an estimated 50 000 pairs)

have been recorded nesting on the islands of Ashmore. This

of Port Headland and Eighty Mile Beach

North continental

shelf of Australia widens con-

the

siderably while the coastline of Indonesia and

Timor forms

East

northern boundary enclosing the

Darwin

east of

widens further

and connects Australia

still

to

New

Guinea

across the Arafura Sea and the Gulf of Carpentaria. This

Australia's

Wide

least

known and

least

is

populated coastline.

areas are dominated by an intricate network of rivers

and channels with extensive mangrove communities. To

the east, in the Arafura Sea. the waters are shallow

turbid and there

is little

and

reef development. Fringing reefs

are reported further west, but are very poorly described.

The only

reefs in this

region which have received attention

are those lying in the northwest

on the continental shelf

The Rowley Shoals, Scott Reef and Sermgapatam

are shelf edge atolls lying

in clear

oceanic waters.

was followed by 80 percent mortality

An

on the continental slope

extensive line of other reefs.

at

some

sites

on

close

to

Scon Reef

The more northerly

reefs

lie

relatively

Indonesia and are regularly fished by Indonesians under

a joint use agreement. Elsewhere, including near Scott

Reef, there

is

some

extraction of natural gas, and further

new oil and

human impacts to these

exploratory drilling and the establishment of

gas platforms could bring further

otherwise remote reefs. There

reefs, including collection
fish,

on

although there

its

ingly

is

popular,

also

some

fishing on

all

of trochus, shark and other reef

is little

detailed information available

Rowley Shoals

impacts. Diving on the

offering

edge or just beyond.

Reef

with the 1998 El Nino event. Widespread coral bleaching

this continental shelf

Timor Sea. To the

was strongly impacted by warm waters associated

area

is

increas-

and the reefs are widely regarded as

some of

the best diving in the region.

Reef and the Rowley Shoals

protection, and there

is

all

ongoing monitoring of Scott Reef

and the Rowley Shoals.

Large colonies of blue coral Heliopora coerulea on Scott Reef, northwest Australia

Ashmore

have some degree of legal

Iphoto:

JEN

Veronl.

310

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Torres Strait and the Great

Barrier Reef
MAPS

The

largest coral reef

system

in the

world runs along

the northeastern coastline of Australia, stretching

from the Warrior Reefs

for well over 2

group of reefs and islands

of the

reefs

in the

000 kilometers

northern Torres Strait

to the

Capricorn-Bunker

in the south.

which make up

this

Although many

system form part

of a true barrier reef following the continental shelf on

its

outermost edge, the Great Barrier Reef

is

actually a

highly complex system including nearly 3 000 separate

reefs

and coral shoals, as well as high islands with fring-

origins of the Great Barrier

traced back

some

2 million years,

Reef can

when

largely be

continental drift

brought the northern coastline of Australia into tropical

latitudes

land,

and were subject

to erosion forces

places reduced their size again. High sea

levels returned

and allowed new reef growth, typically

in

on the remaining structures of the

most

prolific

reefs.

At the present time

in

are particularly high, such that the base of

present reefs

lies in

earlier

geological history, sea levels

many of

the

depths unsuitable for active reef growth.

However, active reef building continues on the ancient

structures and the reef continues to thrive.

period of growth

is

Barrier

The most recent

probably only about 8 000 years.

Reef One of

complex across the Great

the key driving forces

is

the South

Equatorial Current which flows across the Coral Sea from

the east.

Where

this

meets the continental shelf

it

splits,

and some minor reef development began.

forming the weak, northward flowing Hiri Current north

much more

of about 14S and the southward flowing East Australia

and can largely be traced back within

Current further south. These currents induce localized

Widespread development
recent, however,

500 000 years, making

many oceanic

atolls.

it

is

thought to be

much younger

As with

structure than

coral reefs the world over,

periods of reef building were continually interrupted by

changes

became

and e

many

which

Patterns of currents are

ing reef systems.

The

reefs died,

11C, d

in climate

and shifting sea

accretion

was confined

sea level

when

levels. Typically reef

to relatively short periods

of higher

reef structures began to build up on the

margins of the continental shelf As sea levels

fell,

the

upwellings onto the shelf, and further have some influence

on the current patterns across the continental

winds. For

much of

the year the southeast trade winds

predominate, driving northward flowing surface currents

in all areas,

although most strongly north of about 20S.

During the Northwest Monsoon (December-February)

The northern edges of the Great Barrier Reef, showing the ribbon reefs with deltaic channels cutting through them
lSTS049-75-i3. 19921

shelf,

although these are predominantly driven by prevailing

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MAPud

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3 Big Maria Creek EP
4 Bohle River WetR
5 Bowling Green Bay FHR
6 Bowling Green Bay NP
7 Cairns MP
8 Cape Hiilsborougii NP
9 Cape Upstart NP
10 Cattle Creek WetR
1

12
13
14
15
16
17
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Centenary Lakes FisSs

Clump Mountain NP

Conway NP
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FHR

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Bay NP

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Great Barrier Reef CoMP

Green Island NP
20 Grey Peaks NP
21 Half Moon Creek WetR
22 Halifax WetR
23 Hlnchinbrook Island NP

24
25
26
27
28
29
30

Hull River

FHR
NP

Undeman

Islands

Hull River

Magnetic Island
Maria Creek NP

NP
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Meunga Creek FHR

Midge WetR

31 Murray River FHR

32 Nevwy Islands NP

33 Orpheus Island NP
34 Palm Creek WetR
35 Repulse Bay FHR
36 Repulse FHR
37 Sand Bay FHR
38 Townsville / Whitsunday M
39 Townsville Town Common CP
40 Trinity Inlet WetR
41 Tully River

42
43
44
45

FHR

Whitsunday Islands NP
Wreck Creek FHR
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Australia

currents are reversed

with a weak southward flowing

current

but

the

in

latitudes.

north,

stronger in

more southerly

reef development.

more

mid-shelf and inner shelf reefs, while there are also

a predominant

wide areas of submerged //a/imei/a-dominated shoals

pattern of water

movements along

the continental shelf,

continuous reef complex,

it

number of ecological regions

possible to distinguish a

and banks. This

one of the only areas where there are

is

fringing reefs directly adjacent to the mainland coast,

cross-shelf movement.

Although best seen as

is

new

Inshore of the ribbon reefs there are well developed

patterns of tidal flow, particularly in the areas of

little

The banks of sediments have

reefs.

These patterns of current flow are altered by

complex reef networks, but there remains

with

which flow between the

then formed a substrate for

although coral cover and diversity are limited. Raine

Island just off the continental shelf has the largest nesting

populations of green turtles

within the Great Barrier Reef.

in the

world as well as some

of the most important seabird rookeries. There are only

a

Torres Strait
In the far north

of Australia the continental shelf forms a

wide connecting platform across the Torres

New

Guinea.

As most of

few high islands on the continental

Strait to

and extensive fringing

waters of the

Strait.

There

the islands in the Torres Strait

considerable freshwater and

is

New

sediment input from the Papua

Guinea

coastline,

however there are several very extensive platform

reefs

The

across the relatively shallow waters of the Strait.

westernmost areas have the shallowest and most turbid

waters.

large chain of reefs runs between Prince of

Wales Island and

these

show

Moa

Island. Like other reefs in the area,

very clear east-west alignment associated

with the high velocity

tidal currents

The Warrior Reefs

area.

in a chain

running through the

Central section
Mossman

This section extends from

barrier reef offshore from the

Over

Islands.

the north to the

in

Whitsunday and Lindeman

area the continental shelf gradually

this

widens, with reef development largely restricted to

its

outer third. Closer to the mainland the waters are subject

and

to considerable fluctuations in turbidity

to the seasonal flooding

of

rivers.

The

are younger than those to the north.

less extensive reef flats,

salinity

due

reefs in this area

Many

have lower and

and coral cays are largely absent,

further to the north and east run

while their outer reef crests are often only clearly dev-

New

eloped on the windward southeastern margins. Overall the

towards the coastal town of Daru in Papua

Guinea. Sediment loads are high

in this area,

the shallow surface of these reefs

is

is

and much of

dominated by

muds, although they are fringed by coral on

margins. Finally there

reefs.

Papua

under Australian jurisdiction so do the reefs and

fall

shelf, notably the

Flinders group and Lizard Island. These have important

soft

their eastern

wide area of platform reefs

reefs are less tightly

packed and hence do not form such a

continuous barrier The main reefs are also

from the true edge of the continental

shelf,

set

back

a little

although there

are several reefal shoals close to the outer shelf margin

around Darnley Island, stretching out towards the edge of

which

the continental shelf and the near continuous line of reefs

have active coral growth. Over relatively short geological

which mark the northern edge of

timescales these could evolve into ribbon reef systems

the outer barrier reef.

rise to within 10

meters or so of the surface and

similar to those observed to the north. In addition to the

barrier reef structures there are important fringing reef

Northern section
Due
but

east
it

communities associated with a number of high island

of Cape York the continental shelf remains wide,

then narrows rapidly towards Raine Island and con-

groups, notably the Palm Islands and the Whitsunday and

Lindeman Islands

to the south.

tinues as a platform typically less than 50 kilometers wide.

The most

distinctive feature

of

this sector

of the Great

The Swain and Pompey

Barrier Reef is the well developed ribbon-type barrier reefs

on the outer edge: long narrow ribbon

in length

and separated by

relatively

narrow passes. They

are located right on the edge of the continental shelf,

and depths drop rapidly

to over

in the

This

the sector of the Great Barrier

is

continental shelf
furthest

is

at its

Reef where the

widest and the main reefs are

from shore. The Pompey Complex has

number

few

of submerged reefs on the edge of the continental

reefs.

For

However, about 10 kilometers back from

000 meters only

hundred meters from the eastern edges of some

about 80 kilometers,

Connplexes

reefs typically less

than 500 meters wide but extending up to 25 kilometers

northernmost sector of these

vast

and complex array of very

large

this

shelf.

edge

is

reef platforms

in the

separated by countless meandering channels making a

channels between the reefs. Rather like river deltas, these

nearly solid mass of reefs nearly 200 kilometers in length

have been formed

and up

ribbon reefs, there are spectacular deltaic formations

in the

calmer waters behind the reef

by the deposition of sediments from the powerful currents

to

20 kilometers wide. The high

tidal

range in this

area drives strong currents reaching up to 10 knots, which

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Over such

a large area

many of the channels between

the reefs. Within the

conditions.

lagoons of individual reefs there are

complex patterns of

eralize about coral cover.

scour

channels and mid-reef coral ridges. To the south the Swain

Reefs form a second distinctive complex, dominated by

many much

smaller and even

more

closely spaced reefs

where large numbers of small coral cays have developed.

Pompey Complexes reef

however there are some reefs

statistics.

The

impossible to gen-

should be noted that

central areas of the Great Barrier

the most affected by both of these

development

may

when compared

low levels of coral

well be their natural state, which clearly points to the

when

caution which must be exercised

such as the Northumberland Islands and Percy

of coral cover as an expression of reef health.

As might be expected

utilizing

measures

with any reef system traversing

such a wide latitudinal range, there

The Capricorn-Bunker group

are

to reefs elsewhere in the world. This

close to the mainland and associated with island groups

Isles.

Reef

phenomena, and many

reefs in these parts have relatively

cover

limited,

it

cyclones and crown-of-thorns starfish clearly impact such

Inshore of the main Swain and

is

it is

However,

a gradual diminution

is

of species diversity towards higher latitudes. While most of

350 coral species are recorded

in the north,

only about

South of the Swain Reefs Complex the contmental shelf

the

rapidly narrows again and the southernmost reefs of the

244 species are recorded further south. Even more notable

Great Barrier Reef, the Capricorn-Bunker group,

are cross-shelf differences. Close to the mainland there are

a relatively small

high levels of nutrient inputs, sediments and freshwater,

complex, well defined with steeply sloping reef edges and

while offshore such inputs diminish and conditions on

deep inter-reefal waters. There are several well developed

the outer reefs can be considered near oceanic, with

little

over 50 kilometers offshore. This

is

lie

low

of nutrients and clear waters. These differences have

One Tree Island and Heron Island,

best known reefs of the entire Great

levels

reefs acmally traverse the tropic of

depending on their location on the continental shelf Such

Capricorn and cooler waters are largely responsible for the

differences are further maintained by the patterns of water

lower coral diversities found here.

movement

coral cays, including

which are among the

Barrier

Reef These

led to considerable variation in the species assemblages

with

little

in the

Great Barrier Reef generally north-south

cross-shelf transport.

As mentioned

Biodiversity

in a

Levels of diversity are generally very high in the Great

Barrier Reef, with

some 350

coral species,

500-2 000

species of fish, and over 4 000 species of mollusc. While

these large numbers

that this area has

many

years,

it is

may be

partly a function of the fact

been intensively studied by

as well as the great diversity of reef types

Left: To the

scientists for

further related to the vast area of reefs

and physical

While
is

in

Chapter

1.

many

corals reproduce

mass spawning event which takes place once

best

this is globally

widespread,

it

was

first

a year.

observed and

documented on the Great Barrier Reef For a few

nights after a particular full

spring (typically

November)

coral species, together with

moon

in

the late austral

the majority of scleractinian

many

other reef organisms

including sponges, holothurians, polychaetes and giant

clams, undergo a mass spawning event. This

is

highly

south the coastai shelf of the Great Barrier Reef widens considerably around the vast complex of the Swain

and Pompey

Reefs, before narrowing again

butterflyfish

Chelmon

rostratus

is

around the small Capricorn group ISTS043-151-77,

found across Southeast Asia and the Great Barrier Reef

19911.

Right: The

beaked

MAP lie
151

150

Line

'.':

Reef

i:

Manon Reef

Hook i.^
Reef

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Ramsar Site

Moresby Bank

:23'
North KeppelL

Yeppoon;

AUSTRALIA

^^

Habetfield Shoal

~- Douglas

"

(Queensland)

North West
'

f5

RockhamptonS
"^

JSl^*^ Broomfield .
Capncom
Ufl**!* ^ Rfcf
;

rroup
<
:

;....::.... ,:..

jr>';>;::::::::s**^
.

7 CamiillaWetR
8 Colosseum FHR
9
10
1 1

12
13
14
15
16
17
18

Conway NP
CorloBayFHR
Eurimbula RessR
Great Barrier Reef

CoMP

FHR
HervayBayMP
Keppel Sands CP
Kolan River WetR
Hays

LIndeman Islands

26
27
26
29
30

Maokay / Capricorn

MP

HoskynlE.

Channel

Fairfax

U/^

Seventeen Seventy
Turkey WetR

33
34
35
36

Hill
Hill

Bunker
Group

Lady Musgrave L

24

r^^-t-^--::;:

8^^

'.

30

^LidyEDiof L

1lTt13

29

Rodds Hartjour FHR

Round Hill FHR
Sand Bay FHR

West
32 West

NP

Facing L

34

19 MarronWetR
20 Middle Island FisSs
21 Mouth Of Baffle Creek
22 Newport CP
23 Newry Islands NP
24 Repulse FHR
25 Rocky Dam WetR

31

Inlet

UeweUynRf

Curtis

26

Name

CP
2 Broati Sound FHR
3 Boyne Creek WetR
4 Cape Hillsborough NP
6 Cape Palmereton FHR
6 Cape Palmerston NP

FiEroyReef*;;^

u"-'

vfBarubbra Island

. OneTreel
"'

Maslheadl.'
-

Wstari Reef^naMJ' Sjies Reef

Xg7/)e/

>,-.^ ^*rf^-v^...;

No. Protected Area

Shoal

20
Of.J---* SouAKeppelL

WetR

FHR
NP

Whitsunday Islands

NP

Wild Cattle WetR

Wild Duck Island NP

Woongarra

MP

20

60

80

10

km

Bundabergr

.14

\
I

149

150

151

152

25"

153

316

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

loggerhead and flatback turtles

numbers

of the flatback

turtle,

amounts of time

nest in considerable

all

Unfortunately, with the exception

in the region.

most individuals spend substantial

neighboring countries where they are

in

severely threatened by direct hunting and indirect killing,

notably as fisheries by-catch. There are globally important

is

some

of these by Aboriginal and Torres

Strait

Islander communities the northern population of

some

populations of dugongs
traditional hunting

000 individuals

While there

in the region.

considered stable.

is

By

contrast, the

smaller southern population of about 3 500 individuals

is

now

declining, largely as a result of deaths associated

with boat collisions, entanglement in

entanglement

some 26 species of cetacean

In addition

visitors to the

and also

nets,

gill

swimming

shark nets placed near

in

beaches.

are resident or

Great Barrier Reef, including significant

numbers of humpback whales which breed

in the

southern

and central waters.

There are important seabird communities on the

Great Barrier Reef with over 55 major nesting islands and
1.4-1.7 million breeding birds

from some 23 species, with

32 non-breeding species. Most of these islands

a further

are in the north

total seabird

and south, with around 75 percent of the

biomass

in the

Capricorn-Bunker group.

The Great Barrier Reef has been one of

most

same species

of the

synchronized,

with

releasing eggs

and sperm often within minutes of one

individuals

another over wide areas of the reef The phenomenon was

only

first

observed

in

November

1982, and yet

is

one of the

extensively

starfish,

with the

impacted
first

observed on Green

by

the

mass outbreak of

Island,

the regions

crown-of-thorns

off Cairns,

this
in

predator

1962. The

possible causes of these outbreaks have been debated for

some time

(see Chapter 2), with

much of the work having

most spectacular events on any coral reef Vast numbers of

been conducted on the Great Barrier Reef While there

eggs and sperm are released and form massive slicks on the

still

much

to learn

about these outbreaks,

it

is

is

clear that

for cross-fertilization

they have had a significant impact on the ecology of the

between colonies, while the massive scale of such an event

region, causing apparently periodic massive losses of live

ensures that would-be predators are fully satiated, thereby

coral cover.

increasing the chances of survival of individual larvae.

central

sea surface.

The spawning allows

In addition to

its

considerable diversity in terms of

coral reef organisms, the Great Barrier

Reef

is

also an

extremely important region for other marine and coastal

ecosystems,

communities.

most

notably

seagrass

Mangroves generally

lie

and
a

mangrove

considerable

Most outbreaks have been recorded

sections

in the

of the Great Barrier Reef The

1998

bleaching event also impacted a number of reefs, most

notably in the inner shelf areas where
reefs

some 25 percent of

showed bleaching of 60 percent or

bleaching was worst

Barrier

Reef while

greater. Overall,

in the central sections

outer reefs generally

distance from coral reef communities - with the exception

levels of bleaching. Mortality

of a few fringing reef systems. But some 37 mangrove

some inshore

of the Great

showed only low

was generally

low, although

fringing reefs suffered greatly.

species from 19 families have been recorded at the Great

Barrier Reef, with the highest levels of diversity in the "wet

tropics'" north

of Cairns. Seagrass communities are also

widespread, with some 3 000 square kilometers of

mapped

Socio-economic considerations
In general the Great Barrier

Reef

is

not heavily affected

some concerns

shallow seagrasses, and an estimate of at least 2 000 square

by human

kilometers of deep (>15 meters) seagrasses. Both seagrass

deforestation, poor agricultural practices and high con-

beds and mangroves are extensively used as breeding and

centrations

nursery grounds by

many

species, including a

number of

terrestrial

activities,

but there are

that

of agricultural chemicals and nutrients in

runoff

may have some

impacts, particularly on

commercially important species, and some reef species.

those reefs closest to the mainland. The majority of reefs,

Seagrass beds are also important for some turtle species as

however, are far offshore and

well as large populations of dugongs. Green, hawksbill.

prevailing long-shore currents, reduces the effects of land-

Spinner dolphins Stenella longirostris.

this,

combined with

the

Australia

based sediments and pollutants. The distance from the

Capricorn-Bunker group

mainland of most reefs also makes access more

Peninsula.

difficult,

while the coastal population adjacent to the reef

overall

impact on the

The
a

small

is

and does not generally exert a very large

some commercial

reefs, except for

fisheries.

of marine and coastal resources has

utilization

among

long tradition

direct

Aboriginal

the

Further north in

Strait, the

Torres Strait Islanders,

who

of

inhabitants

Cape York and

Australia.

the Torres

are of different

ethnographic origin, have also been great users of reef

numbers

resources. Following European colonization the

of these peoples diminished and many of their traditional

ways of

broke down. There remain some

life

Strait Islander

a slightly larger

engage

of about

probably

number

in

even on such species as dugongs and

turtles,

more

far

is

significant than that by indigenous

extremely popular,

communities. Recreational fishing

is

although

reefs

typically

it

the

targets

not covered by the park

The park
is

closest

itself is

fall

within other protected areas.

zoned. About 80 percent of

trawling (with permits), and a further 16 percent

for general use but with trawling prohibited.

5 percent

is

managed by

some 210

to

the

line

fish exploitation

catch of

some

live fish trade,

is

fishery concentrated on groupers

combined annual

("coral trout") and emperors, with a

000-4 000 tons. Part of

this is for the

Hong Kong. There

is

lobster fishery to the north, collecting

addition

In

there

sea

some

are

fisheries associated with the

staff with

an operating budget of Au$27.2

on

visitors to the park.

all

park

is

For administrative purposes

divided into four broad sectors.

management plans have been developed

some 840

with
(5

500

(1

while an overall 25-year strategic plan has been

localities,

developed

in

collaboration with the major stakeholders.

Active scientific research within the Great Barrier

tons

small-scale

and

fishing

actually trawling,

tons), scallops (200-1

000

some

concerns over the size of the by-catch (typically over 50

much

as 90 percent of hauls),

which includes benthic organisms,

snakes and

turtles,

Trawling
nities

and

trawling

some

is

in areas

not permitted over

in a

still

and even sea

fish,

and over the wider impacts on benthic

communities, particularly

of repetitive trawling.

known

seagrass

commu-

few other protected areas, however

occurs. There

is

illegal

evidence of overfishing of

target reef fish species, although this

is

mostly on

small scale and restricted in spatial extent.

The

vast majority of the Great Barrier

protection as the Great Barrier

Reef receives

Reef Marine Park,

the

world's second largest protected area. This covers most

of the lagoon and

all

of the offshore reefs from the

The fringing reef on Orpheus Island

in

is

carried out by a

number of

however

the

major research

organizations, includ-

management

institution

monitoring and core scientific research

Institute

The

of Marine Science based

reefs

of the Torres

authorities,

which undertakes
is

the Australian

Townsville.

in

Strait lie outside the

under any

Great

ment has been developed with Papua

tons) and other crustaceans (500 tons). There are

percent and sometimes as

Detailed
particular

some 50-200

licensed vessels, typically landing prawns

000-6 500 tons), fish

for

management agree-

trade, trochus

is

is

provided by an environmental management charge levied

legal protection, although a fisheries

cucumber The most important commercial

within the Great Barrier Reef area

in collabor-

also an important

fairly

aquarium

is

fall

annually, and a separate fishery operating in the Torres

Strait.

The park

Barrier Reef Marine Park and do not

with groupers being air-freighted to the

Far East, notably

also

million in 1998-99. About 30 percent of this budget

ing several universities and the

predominantly a

total).

Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority,

Reef

Commercial reef

is

Only about

a specially designated federal agency, the

mainland and near the major population centers. The

year.

area

closed to fishing activities, but this includes

over 120 reefs (about 12 percent of the

recreational fishing catch has been estimated at 3 500-

4 300 tons per

its total

open for general use including commercial fishing and

the

Utilization of marine resources by the wider pop-

ulation

waters and terrestrial areas of offshore islands which are

and Heritage. Between them, these organizations employ

sustainable levels.

still at

of Cape York

tip

in the

A small proportion

urban areas.

northern

ation with the Queensland Department of Environment

000, together with

to the

large proportion of the remaining coastal

Torres

hunting and fishing on the reef, however

in

their impact,
is

and Aborigmal communities, mostly

far north, with a population

still

the

Palm

Islands.

Overfishing

is

while

remains

there

pollution, both

from

oil

certainly

significant

associated
in

the

strait.

New

Guinea.

pressure within the region,

potential

in

Papua

with

the

from the mines

spills

shipping traffic

strict

New

threat

of

Guinea and

relatively

heavy

MAP

11f

H^Cr.^

150

147

PACl FIC OCEAN

/K.Bundab6ffg

^^:;

-'- Lord

lord
MnitfKr^
LoniHowci.

26*

13'

Howe
Ball's

'^J"{,
'^"'^

ii>
10

20

Pyramid

Brisbane

-Osprey Reef

MP

Lord

(Queensland)

'

Howe

Island

13

km

168'48'

159'12'

'
'

Norfolk L

r-''
"il Elizabeth Reef

Shark Reef

Middleton Reef

Solitaiyls.

Philip

BOabelh
end Mi0dleton

y-AK

FeofaNNR

(New South
Wales)
LordH(MrelirV\

10 20 30 ton

T AS MAN SEA

Bougainville Reef

16

IP;'',

Diane Bank

if

^p

Holmes Reef

Willis

CORAL SEA

Group
- HeraldNNR

Coringa
Flora Reef

LihouReefNNR

*;

*-

-Herald Surprise

Dart Reef,

^vn;>M

Tregrosse

1,.

4'.

Diamond
Islets

Islets ,

MellishReef

and Reefs

>

Lihou Reef
and Cays

Flinders Reefs

*
Great Barrier Reef CoMP
& World Heritage Site

-yimill

0'.

-^

19

19"

'J
Wet

Tropics of

Jilt-

Queensland
World Heritage Site
'

Manon Reef

Ayr

Charters Towners

BoweP.

,,

Proserpine

"5*

'^

If

Frederick Reef

Mackay

KemiReef
Porpoise

HMS
HM.

IVrec* HSh/p

22

'

SaumarezReef

^^r.:^.^>...;..

Cay

Wreck Reef

Porpoise

HShip
'

^H
'

Stioalwater

and Corio

Bays Ramsar

Site

Yeppoon

Capricorn

'

Channel

Cato HShip -^

Br.
Rockhampton'SI

BoyneCreek WetR

AUSTRALIA

Blackall

Cato

'^^

erald

Kolan River

n^*^:,
WetR

Woongarra

(Queensland)

MP

Barvbbra island

25

CP -'-'

Sii^-r- Hervay
Bay MP
*

Gregory WetR
Cherwell

..V
"

HSH"
Aartius HShip

'

.;^:.i.;

-.?.'

See/b;

FHR

//.'StrBurwm WetR
^-j' ^ - Burwm - Toogoom WetR
..Bunvm - Iris FHR
Fraser Island WetR
'.^-''IfSusan River FHR'
Maaroom FHR

...

Great Sandy

40

80

120

160

200 km
147

Strait.

Tin

Strait (including

Can Bay
ay and
150'

Tin

Can

Great Sandy

inlet)

Fraser Island
World Heritage Site

Ramsar Site

Ja.

156*

Australia

The Coral Sea

MAPnf

Due

Reef and the Torres

east of the Great Barrier

Strait,

Australia

holds jurisdiction of a

number of reef formations

lying

some

the continental shelf In the far north close to

algae and sponges

New

The majority of the remainder

known

as the Coral Sea Plateau.

stretching from Osprey

Reef

in the south.

Reef

is

Some

Reef

cover.

Cay

are atoll formations,

are substantial in

Wreck and Cato

lie

Left:

The vast

atoll structure of

In

general

Lihou Reef

in

months

old,

is

often greater than coral

very diverse, with over 730

this

same

island

some 356

of reefs

some of the

coral cays, while the beaches are

turtles.

renowned

for the water clarity

Sea

in

the

central

life.

number

Coral Sea area are protected.

Although not under constant surveillance,

they have

the Coral

fish species

small number of dive operators take tourists out to

they,

and many

other reefs in the region, benefit from their remote location.

lSTS0i6-90-9. 19921 Right, above:

minlatus with extensive branching corals. Right, below/: This coral recruit
only a few

is

and wide diversity of near pristine marine

and they have only been visited by a small number

of expeditionary research units.

Around

the reefs of the Coral Sea,

Reefs.

Information about these reefs remains relatively

scant,

alone.

widely utilized by nesting

further south or east, off the Coral Sea Plateau, including

Mellish, Frederick, Kenn,

The molluscan fauna

colonies on

500

square kilometers. In addition, a number of other reefs

a considerable proportion of

have been recorded. There are very important bird nesting

Saumarez
area - Lihou

in the north to

a long oval reef structure totalling nearly 2

estimates of

species listed from the areas around North East Herald

are located in an area

Most

make up

the substrate. Total algal cover

Guinea these include the Portlock Reefs and Eastern

Fields.

maximum

19-26 percent hard coral cover. In contrast, both coralline

distance off

Papua

low coral cover, with

relatively

large

yet over decades or centuries colonies

may reach

is

A trumpet emperor Lethrinus

only 15 millimeters

several meters across.

in

diameter and probably

319

320

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

High latitude reefs

MAPllf

reefs
South of the Great Barrier Reef there are several south

and coral communities

at

high latitudes. The

flowing East Australia Current has an important

role to play in maintaining these

warm

on the

is

tions dependent

new

the

is

some 6 kilometers along

its

of Lord

to the north

Howe

western

mainland coast there are no true coral

east

of Brisbane,

is

On

GDP

(million

Marine area (thousand km^l

the

Per capita

been

fish

Reefs

Recorded coral diseases

nities

smaller benthic

Biodiversity

is

low

New

19

32

at risk I%1

Biodiversity

48 960

Reef area (km^j

South Wales.

in these areas, but they

437

commu-

with coral reef species elsewhere along the coastline

of South Queensland and northern

304

Status and Threats

Further south, the Solitary Islands also have important coral

many

7 706

consumption kg/year]

colonized by a range of tropical corals and other species.

communities. There are also

359 913

US$1

Land area Ikm^l

reefs. Flinders Reef,

a sandstone structure, but has

19 165

Population Ithousandsl

in the world,

Island.

General Data

platform reefs lying on older volcanic seamounts which

form a chain

|H

larval recruits

beyond 31S. Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs are

lying

on recruitment of new individuals from

a high volcanic island with a reef

most southerly coral reef

particularly at

be temporary popula-

Australia

structure extending for

This

Some of these,

Island, are thought to

reefs.

Lord Howe Island

side.

Island has 65 species.

Lord Howe

communities, bringing

waters as well as the potential for

to settle

Howe

428/461

Coral diversity

remain

500

of significance as they represent the ecological limits of

Mangrove area Ikm^l

many

No. of mangrove species

39

No. of seagrass species

21

species.

The offshore

reefs

are also of interest

because of their considerable isolation. Elizabeth and

11

Middleton Reefs have 122 species of reef coral while Lord

Interesting

and important

coral

communities have developed

at high latitudes

including the remote Norfolk Island. This species Porites heronensis

of Japan, although absent

from the reefs of central Southeast Asia

is

around islands

to the

east of Australia,

a high latitude species, also recorded on the reefs

Iphoto:

JEN

Veronl.

Australia

more northerly sources of

fish have

been recorded

most part

Some 477

is

species of

Lord Howe Island -

but also including

tropical

Endemism

species.

larvae.

at

are recorded,

some temperate

large populations of sea

clownfishes.

relatively high, with about 4 percent

making

of the fish unique to Lord Howe, Elizabeth and Middleton

An

Reefs.

where

outbreak of the crown-of-thorns starfish in

the 1980s caused extensive

damage

to

is

mainland coast, biodiversity

thought to

although
are of

it

rival that

this

in the Flinders

Little

of which 80 percent are

anemones with

penguins also nest

their resident

the

in

islands

with the Galapagos, one of the only places

group of predominantly Antarctic species may

Most of these

reefs

and coral communities have some

and Middleton Reefs

legal protection. Elizabeth

are a marine reserve, while their isolation protects

Reef

from large numbers of

of the Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs,

resident population

remains poorly documented. The Solitary Islands

more

this,

form of

on the outer reef slopes.

On the

fish

be found near coral reef species.

both Elizabeth and

Middleton Reefs, considerably reducing coral cover, particularly

and some 280

considered tropical. The islands are also noted for their

for the

visitors.

Howe

Lord

of about 300,

them

Island has a

and while tourism

provides the mainstay of the economy, total numbers are

particular interest as they maintain a balance

limited and any impacts on the reef are small.

of tropical and temperate species. Only 53 reef coral species

Protected areas with coral reefs

Site

^^^^^^^^^^B Designation

name

Abbreviation

lUCN

Size

cat.

ikm:)

Year!

Australia

NNR

583.00

1983

87.00

1990

2 290.00

1983

Ashnnore Reef

National Nature Reserve

Christmas Island

National Park

MP

II

Cobourg

Marine Park

MP

VI

Coringa - Herald

National Nature Reserve

NNR

la

8 856.00

1983

Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs

National Nature Reserve

NNR

la

880.00

1987

Emden

Historic

HSPZ

Unassigined

LOO

1982

CoMP

VI

3M 800.00

1979

NNR

la

8/136.91

1982

MP

VI

^80.00

2000

Shipwreck

la

Protected Zone

Great Barrier Reef

Commonwealth Marine Park

Lihou Reef

National Nature Reserve

Lord

Howe

Island

Marine Park

NNR

la

539.84

1991

MP

VI

2 255.64

1987

26.02

1995

232.50

1990

Mermaid Reef

National Nature Reserve

Ningaloo

Marine Park

Pulu Keeling

Commonwealth

CoNP

II

Rowley Shoals

Marine Park

MP

VI

Shark Bay

Marine Park

MP

VI

7 487.35

1990

Solitary Islands

Marine Reserve

MR

VI

000.00

1991

South West Solitary Island

Nature Reserve

NR

la

0.03

1961

Yongala

Historic

HShip

Unassigined

0.78

1982

2 207.00

1974

National Park

Shipwreck

Cobourg Peninsula

Ramsar Site

Great Barrier Reef

World Heritage

Site

348 700.00

1981

Lord Howe Island Group

World Heritage

Site

11.76

1982

Moreton Bay

Ramsar Site

133.14

1993

1.22

1996

21 973.00

1991

2 391.00

1996

Pulu Keeling National Park

Ramsar Site

Shark Bay Western Australia

World Heritage

Shoalwater and Corio Bays

Ramsar

Site

Site

322

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Selected bibliography

K-H 119971. Geology of the

Vacher HL, Quinn T ledsl.
Developments in Sedimentoiogy, 54: Geology and Hydrology
of Carbonate Islands. Elsevier Science BV, Amsterdam,
LB, Zhu ZR, Wyrwoll

Collins

Houtman Abrolhos.

In:

Woodroffe CD, Falkland AC (1997). Geology and hydrogeology

of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands. In: Vacher HL, Quinn T leds).
Developments in Sedimentology. 54: Geology and Hydrology
of Carbonate

Done TJ

Patterns

(19821.

distribution

the

in

coral

of

communities across the Central Great Barrier Reef. Coral

ffeefe 1:95-107.

Gladstone W, Dight

Mar

(19941. Torres Strait baseline study.

PollBul29: 121-125.
Hatcher BG (19851. Ecological research at the Houtman's
Abrolhos: high latitude reefs of Western Australia. Proc 5(h
Int

Coral Reef

Symp

2:

Symp

Science BV, Amsterdam,

Oxford, UK.
Zell L (1999). Diving

291-297.

6:

Sport and Territories, Canberra, Australia.

Zann LP (2000). North Eastern Australia: the Great Barrier
Reef region. In: Sheppard C [edi. Seas at the Millennium: An
Environmental Evaluation, Vol 2. Elsevier Science Ltd,

and Snorkelling Australia's Great Barrier

Reef. Lonely Planet Publications, Melbourne, Australia,

497-502.

Heyward AJ, Halford

Smith

A,

L,

DMcB

Williams

(1998]. Coral

Map sources

reefs of north west Australia; baseline monitoring of an

oceanic reef ecosystem. Proc

8tti Int

Coral Reef Symp

289-

Map 11a

294.

Geomorpfiologyof the Great Barrier Reef:

Quarternary Development of Coral Reefs. John Wiley and
Sons, New York, USA.
Marsh LM (19921. The occurrence and growth of Acropora in
Hopley D (19821.

Tfie

extra-tropical waters off Perth, Western Australia. Proc

Int

Elsevier

Zann LP (1995). Our Sea, Our Future. State of the Marine

Environment Report, 1995. Department of the Environment,

Hearn CJ, Parker IN (1988). Hydrodynamic processes on the

Nmgaloo coral reef, Western Australia. Proc 8tfi Int Coral
Ree/'

Islands.

Netherlands.

Netherlands.

Coral Reef

Symp

7thi

islands_oceans_poles/Cocos|Keeling]_76.jpg).

The available data

(19971.

of Carbonate

http://www.lib.utexas.edu/Libs/PCL/Map_collection/

1233-1238.

2:

Geology and hydrogeology of Rottnest

Island, Western Australia. In: Vacher HL, Quinn T (edsl.
Developments in Sedimentology, 54: Geology and Hydrology

RE

Playford

For Cocos [Keeling! coral reef areas have been copied

from a 1:100 000 source map (full reference unavailable,
but source was a scanned paper map available on

Elsevier

Islands.

Science BV, Amsterdam,

for

Christmas Island were poor, so reefs

a line running immediately

have simply been plotted as

offshore

from the island.

In

reality

this

represents an

exaggeration of the true reef area. All remaining areas are

taken from Petroconsultants SA (1990)*.

Netherlands.

Randall JE, Allen GR, Steene

RC

Barrier Reef and Coral Sea,

(1997). Fishes of the Great

Map lib

2nd edn. Crawford House

Coral features are taken as arcs from Petroconsultants

Stoddart DR, Yonge

Reef.

Sudara

(eds) (1978). The Northern Great Barrier

Third

Wilkinson CR, Ming CL (eds) (1994). Proceedings,

ASEAN -Australia Symposium

Resources. Volume
of

Maps

The Royal Society, London, UK.

S,

2:

on Living Coastal
Research Papers. Australian Institute

H,

Bass

Cheat

D,

Coleman
Thompson

A,

1c,

supplied Im 19951 by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park

Authority at 1:250 000. For the reefs of the Torres Strait, data

G, Miller

I,

Mapllf

Marine Science, Townsville, Australia.

11990)*.

North Ryde, Australia.

Veron JEN (2000). Corals of the World. 3 vols. Australian
Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Australia.
Wilkinson CR, Cheshire AC (1988). Cross-shelf variations

in

coral reef structure and function - influences of land and

ocean. Proc 6th

Int

Coral Reef
S,

1:

227-233.

Ming CL (eds) (1994). Proceedings,

Third ASEAN-Australia

Resources. Volume

Symp

Symposium on

Living

Coastal

Status Reviews. Australian Institute of

Marine Science, Townsville, Australia.

DMcB, Hatcher Al (1983). Structure of fish

communities on outer slopes of inshore, mid-shelf and outer
shelf reefs of the Great Barrier Reef. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 10:

Williams

239-250.

(1990)*.

Coral features are taken as arcs from Petroconsultants

Veron JEN (1986). Corals of Australia and the Indo-Pacific.

University of Hawaii Press. 1993 edn, Angus and Robertson,

Wilkinson CR, Sudara

SA

Ninio R,

A, Tomkins P (1998).
Osborne K, Oxley W, Ryan D,
Long-Term Monitoring of the Great Barrier Reef. Australian
Institute of

d and e

For the Great Barrier Reef, coral reef areas were generously

are taken from Petroconsultants

Marine Science, Townsville, Australia.

Sweatman

SA

(19901'.

Publishing Pty Ltd, Bathurst, Australia.

See Technical notes, page 401

SA

Melanesia

Chapter 12
Melanesia

occupies
Melanesia
southwestern

wide swathe

of the

Pacific Ocean, stretching

from

New

Guinea

the east. This

Is

In

the west to

a region

Fiji

in

dominated by

high Islands, with considerable ongoing

volcanic activity

In

the west.

A broad range

of reef

types

are found, though atolls are generally not as wide-

and reaching the nearby Bismarck Archipelago some

30 000 years ago.

now

are

Fiji,

The
utilized

dine

east. This trend

is

high right across Melanesia, though

of
is

diminishing diversity towards the

hidden

in

many

national statistics by

an almost reversed trend of l<nowledge. The reefs of

New
of

Caledonia are the best studied, and a

reefs

In

have also received

Fiji

attention. Even

In

some

these countries, however, there are

In

dominate most
of

of the region.

remains

region

this

under

most reefs are widely

stewardship and

by artlsanal fishers.

Traditional

reef

at the level of individual villages,

man-

combined

with relatively low population densities, has helped to

ensure the continued sustainable

utilization of

most

resources, particularly away from towns and centers of

Western development.

number
scientific

to

majority

traditional

agement

is

what

the Philippines and Indonesia. They settled

and came

cent of the global total.

Biodiversity

000

coastal communities from the Bismarck Archipelago to

includes a vast area of reefs, making up about 14 per-

there

recently, about U

arrived by sea from the Southeast Asian areas of

spread as the extensive fringing and barrier systems

associated with the high islands. Overall this region

Much more

years ago, another group, known as Austroneslans.

Attempts
along

to

Western

establish
lines

marine protected areas

have only had very limited

success, but the rights of villages to

manage

their

own

vast areas which remain unvlslted and undescribed by

nearshore resources are now quite widely recognized

The remaining countries are very poorly

known Indeed.
The first peoples to come to this region were

in

legal and constitutional systems. This recognition

is

important

scientists.

Papuans, arriving

Left;

Papua

in

New

New Guinea

Guinea over 40 000 years ago

has a diversity of reef

life

changes

to

in

maintaining traditional systems as

more Western

lifestyles

and governance

take hold.

whicli rivals the Southeast Asian center of diversity. Right: Ouvea,

Caledonia, a spectacular atoll formation which has tilted

and

uplifted along

one edge ISTS038-7i-86,

19901.

New

323

MAP

12

c.

^ *

^^yn

,Y

=r

k:C'

"^-^ST^i^-^
p^"^^

'

r^?,^^--

-?

^*%,>
.>-nV^-.-^=

<
\

rough
A -irough

SJ
v-

'

IslandRi^,

slarfolt

<

s
S

*
>)

>

*%

r
.

'-f

'

13

a:

''^'^:
to

iv

>,

-^
a;

'

tn

^-^

Melanesia

Papua New Guinea

MAP 12a

New Guinea one of the worlds major coral

Papua
reef nations, with a vast area of
The
area
is

reefs.

is

13

total

probably considerably larger than the figure of

840 square kilometers provided here, as many reefs

remain unmapped

in

the present

Lying on the

work.

eastern edge of the great center of coral reef biodiversity

in

Southeast Asia, there

is

every indication that this

country enjoys remarkably high levels of biodiversity.

has suffered very

in

little

It

terms of human impacts and

the Fly River. Further north the mainland

number of places and more than

are further
at the

the island

eastern half of
large

number of

smaller islands. To the west the country shares a land border

with Irian Jaya (West Papua). Indonesia. To the north of the

mainland, the

Pacific

Ocean becomes enclosed

as

Bismarck Sea, bounded by the Bismarck Archipelago

north and

New

Britain to the east. East of

the mainland coast lies the

Solomon

New

the

to the

Britain and

Sea, further

as the Highlands, reaching

(Mount Wilhelm). There

the highest point

at

mountains along much of the north coast, divided

mouth of the Sepik

show considerable

relief

activity

resources.

divided by the

over 3 000 meters in a

4 500 meters

management and conservation of

its

is

known

islands to the north

New Guinea consists of the

of New Guinea together with a

Guinea. In

long range of mountains

there are great opportunities for continued sustainable

Papua

New

kilometers of the southern coast of Papua

the southwest there are extensive coastal lowlands around

where the

tectonic plates

River.

The offshore

The northern

lie in

all

the

a region of important tectonic

large Pacific, Australia

come

islands also

coastline and

together, separated

by

and Caroline
a

complex of

microplates underlying the Bismarck and Solomon Seas.

Papua

New

Guinea has a vast area of coral

reefs,

including fringing, barrier and atoll formations, but there

is little

information for

likely that there

possibly

may

unknown

much of the country and it seems

be large areas of unmapped and

still

reefs.

bounded

by Bougainville Island in the east and the Louisiade

Archipelago

Papua and the Torres

is

Mainland reefs

South of the mainland and the

in the south.

Louisiade Archipelago

the Coral Sea, with the

Strait to the west.

Torres Strait are Australian, but

The Calvados Barrier Reef

Is

come

The

Gulf of

islands of the

to within just a

few

The north

coast, pailicularly in the west,

however there are fringing

reefs in

many

is

little

known,

areas, including

around the nearshore chain of the Schouten Islands. East of

a spectacular structure, here encircling Sudest Island ISTS065-92-50.

199il.

32s

MAP

12a

Melanesia

the Sepik

and

Ramu

river

mouths fringing

reefs continue,

widespread and include fringing systems as well as

often in long unbroken stretches up to the easternmost point

platform and atoll

of East Cape, while in places barrier reefs run further

available about these. Equally

offshore, notably around

Madang where

associated offshore islands.

is

has been estimated

It

over half of this coastline

all.

there are about 50

may have

a major break in the fringing reef around

Gulf, where the

Markham
is

Lae

in the

Huon

River delivers an estimated 10

million tons of sediment per year.

reef development

that, in

fringing reefs. There

somewhat

Along

is

known about

reefs of Bougainville Island; a barrier reef

15 kilometers off the southwest coast

and there are other

number of small associated islets

Around New Britain the shelf is mostly

off the east coast.

very narrow and, although there are fringing reefs, they

of the

and barrier structures, including around Kimbe Bay and

the Gazelle Peninsula in the north.

forests, turbidity is
east, coral reefs are

Southeast

sometimes termed the Papuan Barrier Reef as they run

Perhaps the most extensive reef systems

some distance

are those of

offshore, separated by a lagoon about 5

kilometers wide. The total length of this reef

is

the

located about

barrier structures with a

widespread from Port Moresby eastwards. These are

kilometers, though this

is

are not continuous. There are also various offshore patch

restricted in the area

high and salinities are variable. Further

though few details are

little

the southern coast,

Fly River Delta and the smaller river deltas to the east,

where there are extensive mangrove

structures,

is

some 560

broken by a number of channels.

is

in

the country

Milne Bay Province. The continental shelf

broad and scattered with numerous platform

some with

associated

their

islands

(both

reefs,

volcanic and

calcareous) between the mainland and the Trobriand Islands

to

Northern islands and reefs

the north. These islands are relatively flat limestone

The same shelf continues southwards

structures.

to

the

To

the north of the mainland, the westernmost islands of

volcanic D'Entrecasteaux Islands. East of theTrobriands are

the

Bismarck chain include a number of coralline islands

several islands and reefs, including

surrounded by fringing

reefs,

and also

number of atolls,

including the large Ninigo Atoll, Liot, Heina and Kaniet

(Sae) Islands.

The Hermit group

is

a near-atoll, with two

high basaltic islands in the center of

these

lie

Manus
and

its

lagoon. East of

the Admiralty Islands, dominated by the volcanic

Island, but including a

atoll

formations. The

Lavongai (New Hanover) and

number of smaller

large

New

volcanic
Ireland

lie

Many

of

Papua

New Guinea s

barrier reef systems,

and Budibudi Atoll

in the far east.

long chain of reefs and islands extends southwest from the

tip

of Papua

reefs.

New Guinea and here there is a vast complex of

The most

significant

is

the Calvados Barrier Reef,

of

continental shelf, right around the tip of Sudest Island to

islands

further east,

fringing reefs

Atoll, the large

extending as a long arm along the southern edge of the

Matthias group, Tabar and Lihir Islands. Reefs are

Left:

Egum

Island with associated fringe and near-

islands

with other smaller high ones to the north, including the

St.

Muyua (Woodlark)

follow the northern edge of the shelf, a total distance of

some 640

kilometers. This system encircles

many

other

lagoonal platform reefs and fringing reefs around islands.

remain unexplored. Wfiere the reef flat

feature on any maps. Right: Reef scene dominated by Porites lichen.

is

narrow

tfiey often

do not

327

328

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

percent in

many

areas. Coral bleaching has

on a few occasions, with the

extensive bleaching

location in

at a

been observed

earliest report describing

Kimbe Bay

in 1983.

This led to close to 100 percent mortality, although there

was

a near complete recovery within 10 years. In 1996-97,

bleaching was observed in a number of locations, and was

reported to have led to mortalities approaching 80 percent

around Motopure Island

in

Kimbe

Bay over

Bay. In Milne

50 percent of corals were reported to have bleached

in

one

study in June 1996, however recovery was good. Bleaching

was

also observed at a

number of locations

in

2000.

Socio-economic considerations
The most widespread use of
Guinea

is

New

Papua

coral reefs in

for subsistence fisheries.

However, few

settle-

ments are wholly dependent on fish resources, as fishing

generally second to agriculture for food and income.
also surrounded by a

The nearby high

island of Rossel

large barrier reef

some 200 kilometers

is

in

circumference.

addition to the reefs described above, quite a

In

number of other systems

even more remote from the

lie

high islands. There are several atolls far off the continental
shelf in the Pacific Ocean, including Lyra.

New

Nuguria east from

east

Malum and
Nukumanu

Ireland and Takuu and

from Bougainville. The remote reefs of the northern

Coral Sea
visited

fall

dominant commercial offshore fishery

conducted by foreign vessels under

New

Guinea.

green

snail, pearl shell

of Papua

reefs

explored
the late

New Guinea

only just being

are

1990s revealed extremely diverse communities,

many

including

hitherto undescribed species.

survey of multiple

some 869

sites in the

Milne Bay area revealed

corals.

When combined

with the limited

records from previous surveys these totals

from

with

039 fishes and

this region

alone.

a predicted

420

While there are

become even

Direct pollution from

human

settlements

New

Guinea

may

near future. The major

logging and mining. Logging

of Southeast Asia, and there

is

increased sedimentation will impact nearby nearshore reefs.

Mining, notably for copper, gold and

industry,
still

and

in the late

the reefs to the north are

structures,

weak. Deliberate or accidental discharge of mine

tailings into rivers or directly offshore has

lems

in a

number of

locations, both

while complex

in the

caused prob-

by smothering corals

tailings into the

damage
reefs.

Ok

tailings prior to its

The Ok Tedi mine

Tedi and Fly Rivers, causing massive

to inland forests

and possibly affecting offshore

The Misima gold mine

in

Milne Bay was reported to

have caused extensive destruction on nearshore reefs, and

there are similar mines at

new

mainland and offshore

volcanic slopes where true reef structures have yet to

its

southwest has released tens of millions of tons of

and diverse reef communities have also developed on

many

other localities on the

islands.

Natural factors also affect the status of reefs

form. Similarly coral cover, and the doininant species or

groups, are highly varied, from low diversity, low coral

New

cover locations, notably close to areas of high sediment

considerable implications for the reefs.

loads, to diverse coral slopes with coral cover reaching 100

been severely damaged by volcanic and seismic

Traditional fishing

major

Bougainville was reported to have smothered some 100

community. Reefs include a complete

range of geomorphological

silver, is a

990s environmental controls were

and from toxic impacts. The Panguana copper mine on

of course, not possible to describe anything

like a typical reef

much

a considerable threat that

with

centers of diversity and endemism. With such a variety

is,

commeroccurring

coral species

affinities

closely linked to the Indonesian and Philippine

it

is

over large areas, although not on the same scale as in

closure in 1989 as a result of civil war.

of reefs

limited to

is

significantly impact the reefs of

in the

square kilometers of sea floor with

still

live fish

areas close to major towns. Unfortunately there are various

Milne Bay and by implication

thus

The

are reported to be reduced in the

Great Barrier Reef and Coral Sea faunas, the reefs of

all

fish.

particularly around urban centers.

recent

reef and nearshore fishes, 637 molluscs and

362 scleractinian

larger,

com-

northwest. There have also been reports of blast fishing,

cial industries are

terms of their biodiversity, and studies in

in

and some reef

numbers of large reef fish

Papua

The

largely

trade has been operating in a few areas since 1991, and

other threats which

Biodiversity

tuna,

license. Inshore

mercial fisheries include lobster, sea cucumber, trochus,

under Australian jurisdiction, but a few are

by dive vessels operating from Papua

is

is

The

methods predominate over wide areas

Guinea. The country

of Melanesia.

lies

within the cyclone

in

Papua

belt,

with

few have also

activity. In

Melanesia

Protected areas with coral reefs

^^^^|^^H[)esignation _^^^^^L

name

lUCN

Abbreviation

Size

cat.

Ikm^l

Year

Papua New Guinea

Bagial

Wildlife

Management Area

Baniara Island

Wildlife

Management Area

Wildlife

Management Area

Crown

Island

Horseshoe Reef

Marine Park

Kamiali

Wildlife

Kimbe Bay

Fisheries

Management Area

Long Island

Wildlife

Management Area

Maza

Wildlife

Management Area

Nanuk

Wildlife

Management Area

Pirung

Wildlife

Management Area

Sawataetae

Wildlife

Management Area

Simbine Coast

Wildlife

Management Area

Sinub Island

Wildlife

Management Area

Talele Islands

Provincial Park

(tidal

25 kilometer section of coastline

waves) on record
in the

country, with devastating effects on coastal villages.

impact on fringing reefs

activity, dive

in the area is

whole

as a

tourism

is

The

MP

Unassigned

WMA

VI

FMA

WMA
WMA

a relatively small-scale

is

growing

fairly rapidly

1977

0.15

1975

59.69

1977

3.96

1981

474.13

1996

VI

0.02

1999

VI

419.22

1977

842.30

1978

IV

0.12

1973

VI

58.50

1985

VI

442.40

1989

VI

7.00

1977

VI

0.72

2000

VI

0.12

2000

IV

0,40

1973

VI

WMA
WMA
WMA
WMA
WMA

137.60

Coral reef research has been somewhat limited

in this

country. Conservation International has been undertaking

a

number of research expeditions

Bay

unknown.

VI

PP

hit

north of the

VI

PR

Ndrolowa

While tourism

Unassigned

Provincial Park

Island

1998 one of the largest Isimamis

a

Management Area

WMA
WMA
WMA

to the reefs in the

Milne

region, while there are also research facilities

Motupore Island near Port Moresby and

in

Kimbe

Bay.

because

of the spectacular and unspoiled nature of so many of the

Papua New Guinea

There are now a number of operators, particularly

reefs.

associated with "live-aboard" vessels.

number of protected

areas covering coral reefs

have been declared, but the majority of these are simply

marine extensions of

terrestrial sites,

with

little

or no real

provisions for marine protection. Even where they exist,

there

is

or no local knowledge or application of

little

regulations. In

ownership
style

in

many ways, because of traditional

almost

all

areas, the application

national parks and reserves

may

uses and

of Western-

not be entirely

appropriate in this country. Recognizing this, a

number of

General Data
Population (thousands)

GDP

(million

U5$l

Land area (km^l

Marine area (thousand km^l
Per capita

fish

4 927
4 730

467 498
2

consumption (kg/year)

366
14

Status and Threats

Reefs

46

at risk 1%)

Recorded coral diseases

community-run wildlife management areas have been

developed. In 2000, the most effective of these included
a

number of

sites

which were

establishment, such as Sinub

still

awaiting

Island in

full

legal

Madang Lagoon,

Biodiversity

Reef area (km^l

Coral diversity

Simbine Coast (125 kilometers northwest of Madang)

Mangrove area (km^)

and Kimbe Bay. Elsewhere, traditional fisheries combined

No. of mangrove species

with relatively low coastal populations spare wide areas of

No. of seagrass species

reefs

from immediate

threat.

13 840

378/517
5

399

44
7

on

329

330

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Solomon Islands
MAP 12b

Solomon

The

900 islands

Islands consist of over

widely distributed

Western Pacific. The bulk

in the

of the land area comprises seven large volcanic

islands

which form a double chain running from northwest

to southeast

Cristobal).

and converging on the island of Makira (San

The Santa Cruz Islands

are a second group of

three larger volcanic islands lying to the east;

Ndeno,

Utupua and Vanikolo together with smaller

islands,

including

Reef Islands and

the

addition to these there are several

Ontong Java

reefs.

kilometers

a large atoll of

nearby there

is

atoll (there is a

Roncador

About 200

volcano of Kavachi, south of

New

one of the most active volcanoes

new

created several
recently in

is still

on

locations, notably

May

islands

in

Georgia. The latter

in the

the

last

is

region and has

century,

most

2000.

Coral reefs are widespread throughout the country.

number of

atolls

have already been mentioned, and

numerous around most of

are not

the islands.

marked on maps, such

as

around

Guadalcanal, there are narrow, steeply shelving fringing

structures. Barrier reefs are less developed, although there

are barrier

New

complexes with associated islands around

Sikaiana Atoll (Stewart

Georgia and northeast Choiseul and around Utupua.

number of small

islands around a near-

complex system occurs around the Reef Islands, including

main

island chain are

two raised

atolls,

with no associated islands - the Indispensable Reefs. The

far eastern borders

of this island nation are determined by

the three small islands of Anuta, Fatutaka

The Solomon

Islands

lie

and Tikopia.

on the western margin of the

A sunset wrasse Thalassoma

coral.

number of

is

Bellona and Rennell, with fringing reefs around their

massive

are of volcanic origin. There

Santa Cruz Islands and on the submarine

Even where they

perimeter. South of these are three large atoll structures

Left:

in the

500 square

45 meter high remnant of the volcano). To

the south of the

Tinakula

fringing reefs are

a smaller atoll,

islands.

all

islands and

of Santa

kilometers northeast of Malaita

Islands), with a

some

In

north

which has no associated

Reef,

Islands.

more remote

over 250 kilometers

lying

Isabel, while

is

Duff

the

Pacific plate and

volcanic activity in a

the 25 kilometer Great

main

Reef extending westwards from the

island group. Other shallow platform reefs are found

north of the Reef Islands.

Very

little

is

the reefs of the

currently

known about

Solomon

Islands,

location and the relatively low levels of

many

biodiversity on

however given

their

human impact

areas, they are likely to include highly diverse

important reef communities.

in

and

recent survey of the fish

lutescens takes shelter under a plate Acropora. Right: A feather star with a

MAP 12b

332

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

communities

in

Santa Cruz Islands identified 725

tlie

Some of

species (including non-reef species).

detailed data describing the

most

the

of the region were

reefs

gathered during a 1965 Royal Society expedition which

visited a large

number of the western

islands. Overall this

marine tenure

widely held and

is

traditional

leaders,

kastom men, or even the villagers

usually for a restricted period of time.

some

protection

developed, and listed only 87 species of scleractinian

as around

were

house the

spirits

following

strict protocols.

But

misplaced:

it

would appear

made of scuba

use was

little

that these observations

has been further suggested that the reefs

diving, and

may have been

impacted by some form of mass mortality just prior

the expedition. Coral bleaching

range of localities

2000,

in

was reported from

at the

bleaching event recorded in

it

same time

as the

to

wide

major

These include obser-

Fiji.

vations from the high islands in the west, but also from

Ontong Java

There

Atoll.

is

no information about the

degree of associated mortality.

The

coral

wide areas

still

reefs

of the

largely

Solomon

Islands

include

activities,

although there are also areas where such pressures are

large

and growing. The islands have one of the

population growth rates

the people are rural.

in the world,

Dependence on

and

more populous areas

in certain parts,

Malaita.

many of

this

is

fastest

and 86 percent of

coral reefs for protein

remains high and subsistence fishing

the

is

widespread. In

leading to overfishing

such as the Lau Lagoon off north

provided

in

Onogou (Ramos)

More complete

areas by other beliefs, such

which

Island,

is

believed to

of the dead and can only be visited after

Commercial fishing has probably had more

far-

reaching effects across the islands, notably for selected

target species. In

1999 the export of trochus and related

snails brought in over

US$1

million, with sea cucumbers,

shark fins, live fish and spiny lobster also bringing

are already overfished

peaked

many

areas.

and

their

numbers

are declining

significant giant clam fishery

1983, but overharvesting has depleted these

in

stocks in

in

amounts. Both trochus and sea cucumbers

substantial

all

areas, exacerbated

foreign vessels.

by

illegal

poaching by

(A Taiwanese vessel was captured on

the Indispensable Reefs in

1986 with 10 tons of frozen

adductor muscles on board, representing

many

thousands of individual clams.) There

some concern

is

tens of

that as these different fisheries collapse exploitation

of

other stocks, such as those used in the live fish trade,

will increase.

the preferred edible species have been

Fishing methods can also be destructive, whether

lost.

is

rapidly in

unimpacted by human

"owned"

rights. Christian

themselves regularly place taboos on particular reefs,

expedition concluded that coral reef growth was not well

coral.

reefs are

all

by particular groups who have fishing

Efforts to establish giant

clam mariculture have been

ongoing for about ten years. While

this has

been

inter-

trampling and damaging the reefs with nets, or poison

rupted by violence on Guadalcanal, a smaller operation

fishing including traditional methods that

continues near Ghizo. Pearl exports have traditionally

plant

species

to

use coastal

provide the poison. This poison

unselective, killing a

is

number of non-targeted species and

management systems

erable importance in the

Solomon

East Rennell, a World Heritage

244-94, 1994].

the

export of wild-caught stocks prohibited there are

now ongoing

reportedly damaging corals.

Traditional

been an important industry in the Solomons, and with

efforts to establish a

farm near Ghizo. The

still

of consid-

aquarium trade has been increasing

Islands, as

customary

much of

Site, is

are

an uplifted

atoll,

it

around Nggela

with the brackish Lake Tegano

relatively

rapidly,

in the Florida Islands,

filling

where

the former lagoon ISTS068-

Melanesia

Protected areas wi th coral reefs

I

Site

name

lUCN

Abbreviation

Designation

^^^^

Size

cat.

Year

Ikmil

Solomon Islands
Arnavon

Marine Conservation Area

East Rennell

World Heritage

there have been reports of extensive damage. Coral pieces

damaging methods such

are broken off for collection,

as cyanide are used to capture reef fish,

trampled during capture, resulting

One unusual
Solomon

Islands

in coral

and reefs are

the use of lime in the habit

fruits

The lime

in

an

was revived and

some

was declared

Major users may consume 20

areas, such as the lagoon reefs

One

Malaita, these corals are highly depleted.

of

estimate sug-

is

the

Arnavon

1975 there

First established in

1992

in

community-based management

World Heritage

aries extending

third of Rennell Island

Site in 1998, with

bound-

seawards for 3 nautical miles.

The current

prepared by burning branching

is

kilos of lime per year (derived from over 30 kilos of live

in

marine conservation area.

committee established. The eastern

corals (typically Acropora).

and

The most successful marine protected area

comes from

taken from the

na

1998

confusion to rapidly deplete the surrounding reef resources.

the site

latter are

82.70

370.00

have been a number of disputes and problems, but

breakage.

of a palm and are chewed with a pepper leaf and lime

coral),

VI

but highly significant threat to reefs in the

of chewing betel nuts. The

addictive habit.

MarCA

Site

civil

unrest in the

Solomon

Islands

is

largely confined to the island of Guadalcanal, but general

is

causing considerable disruption, not only

small

tourism industry, but also to development

instability
to

the

activities,

including mariculture. In particular the closure of

gested that about 6 million kilos of lime are used per year,

the Coastal Aquaculture Centre near Honiara in late 1999

derived from 10 million kilos of live coral, making this one

has set back aquaculture research considerably, although

of the largest single threats to reefs

some ongoing

country. There are

in the

efforts to establish coral gardens

which might

some of

its

activities

have been transferred

A new

to a

work has relocated

center near Ghizo. while other

second
to

New

of Marine Resources run by the

be harvested sustainably, and some communities report that

Caledonia.

they utilize coral patches on a rotation system.

University of the South Pacific has also been abandoned.

Institute

Although many of the Solomon Islands remain

forested, logging

few efforts

to

is

ongoing

have been no studies

will be impacted in

seems highly

it

some

areas and there are

likely that coral reefs

areas. Particular

been expressed about logging

Vangunu and

many

in

control sediment runoff Although there

activities

the potential impact

on the Marovo Lagoon.

Previously selectively logged areas

on

this island are

now

being clear-felled and converted to oil-palm plantations,

and there

concern that the conversion process

is

may

produce even higher levels of sedimentation, and that sub-

There

no sewage treatment

is

Solomon

Islands.

in

any of the urban

As populations grow

will increasingly threaten the health of both

reefs.

General Data
Population (thousands)

GDP

(million

this

humans and

/i66

22i

US$1

Land area (km^)

27 740

Marine area (thousand km^l

Per capita

sequent fertilizer use could create ongoing problems.

centers in the

Solomon stands

concern has

on the island of

fish

consumption [kg/yearl

630
33

Status and Threats

46

Reefs at risk (%l

Recorded coral diseases

Tourism has never been a major industry, although

there are various hotels and "live-aboards"

divers.

The establishment of

areas in the

Solomon

tomary tenure of

Islands

all reefs.

which cater for

legally gazetted protected

is

complicated by the cus-

number of

island sanctuaries

Biodiversity

Reef area (km^l

Coral diversity

Mangrove area [km^l

have recently been repealed. As negotiations on the owner-

No. of mangrove species

ship of at least one of these have been ongoing, there

No. of seagrass species

is

evidence that a number of villages have been using the

101

750

/398
642
22
3

334

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

New Caledonia
MAP 12C

The

New

Archipelago of

by the large land

Caledonia

mass of Grande

largest island in the Pacific (after

New

Zealand).

It is

dominated

is

Terre, the third

New

from Australia some 65 million years ago. and has

mountainous

interior rising to

The shallow shelf on which

siderable

distance

to

the

continental lies Belep and a

down

to the lie

which these islands

600 meters.

the island sits extends a con-

largest barrier reef, over

and

rimmed by

the

300 kilometers

worlds second
in length.

There

In a

few locations

to the

Grand Recif de Koumac and the

Recif des Frangais, a deep lagoon has developed within

the single structure of the outer barrier reef
rare double barrier structure.

the mainland there are

fringing reefs are also

to a charmel, the

a group of reefs

flat,

forming a

many platform structures, while

widespread in many areas. To the

Grand Passage. Beyond

known

Mare

is

in the

the low-lying chain of

south has some volcanic

composed primarily of uplifted

rocks, while the others are

limestone. Fringing reefs encircle most of

Ouvea

Mare and
and

to the north is a partially uplifted

northwest

this there is

as the D'Entrecasteaux Reefs,

reef slope showing high coral cover, with a

map

is

its

in considerable

Lying

Lifou.

tilted atoll

eastern (uplifted) coastline,

the small atoll of

then a small group of reefs

Moving

Beautemps-Beaupre and

known

as the Astrolabe Reefs.

isolation to the northwest of the

Loyalty Islands and to the east of the D'Entrecasteaux

Reefs

is

another significant reef structure, the Petrie Reef

Far to the east of the Loyalty Islands are the two small
islands

of Matthew and Hunter. Geographically these

are a part of the Vanuatu chain, but they are claimed by

both countries.

Over 550 kilometers west of Grande Terre are two very

Between the barrier reef and

northwest the barrier reef continues beyond the lies Belep

up

Grande Terre

but with a wide reef-fringed lagoon to the west.

mouths on the mainland.

north, notably along the

east of

with fringing reefs along

islands

are quite regular passes in the reef, largely associated with

river

Due

the Loyalty Islands.

number of smaller

des Pins. The shallow platform on

lie is

and a number of

northwest, and includes the

To the southeast the shelf con-

coral cays further north.

tinues

more than

Atoll, Surprise Atoll

smaller atoll and barrier-like structures.

Guinea and

of continental origin, having diverged

Huon

including

large shallow reef areas.

The Chesterfield

cays along the penmeter of a large

Islands are coral

atoll.

with a very steep outer slope marks

its

shallow reef
northern and

western margins, while to the southeast there

atoll

is

no clear

margin, but a gentle slope to considerable depths. To

puffer Arothron mappa.

MAP12C

336

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

the south, Bellona Atoll again has a

and

few coral

Between
the

number of shallow

islands, notably along

the Chesterfield Plateau

wide Landsdowne Bank, which

70-80 meters
in the north.

To the southeast of

and Grande Terre

is

mostly sandy and

is

Nereus Reef

this area the

to the surface

reefs

western perimeter.

in depth, but includes the small

Reef also comes close

A number

its

and dries

at

exist: lie

tide.

de Sable.

However, there may be shallow banks and submerged reefs

in this region,

undescribed. Thus far about

950

known and

fish species

have been

sponges and 300 corals. Around

5 percent

of species are

thought to be endemic.

Grande Terre contains about 40 percent of the world's

known

nickel deposits. Held in the sub-surface rocks of

the high

mountain areas

it

is

extracted using open-cut

techniques involving the removal of about a 30 meter

depth of surface

dug

which remains poorly charted.

recorded, about 5 500 molluscs, 5 000 crustaceans, 600

Fairway

low

of maps show a large island to the northwest of

Nereus Reef which does not actually

large archipelago nonetheless remain poorly

soil

and rock. Over 300 mines have been

in the past century,

removing 280 million tons of

somewhat seasonal, warm from

surface rock for the extraction of a further 110 million

November to April when it is dominated by frontal systems and when cyclones may occur, followed by a cooler
season from June to September when southeast trade

tons of ore. Sedimentation from these mines has been

winds predominate.

the

The climate

The

is

location of

New

Caledonia relatively close

global center of coral reef diversity,

large area

Unlike

and variety of

many

to the

considerable

in

many streams and estuaries, and has

some nearshore waters. In

greatly increased turbidity in

Ouenghi Basin north of Noumea

extended by 300-400 meters along a

the delta area has

kilometer stretch of

combined with the

coastline as a result of this sedimentation over the last

very high diversity.

30 years.

reefs, ensures

other reefs in the region these have been the

subject of considerable study, although

many

areas in this

Much of

the sediment flows out onto the east

coast in the Thio and Dothio Rivers. Controls reducing

sedimentation from

The world's second largest barrier reef encircles Grande Terre I5TS033-73-61,

19891.

new mines have been

in

place since

Melanesia

Protected areas with coral reefs

Site

^^^

name

New

Designation

_^^^H t

Abbreviation

lUCN

cat

Sjzelkmji

jiM

Caledonia
Special Reserve

SpR

Bale de Bourail

Special Reserve

Aguille de Prony

IV

na

na

SpR

IV

na

na
na

Humboldt

Special Reserve

SpR

IV

na

Les Bancs de Sech e-Croissant

Special Fauna Reserve

SpFR

IV

na

na

TlePam

Special Fauna Reserve

SpFR

IV

4.60

1966

Special Reserve

SpR

IV

na

na
na

Amedee

Tlot

et

Rec

Abore

Special Reserve

SpR

IV

na

llot

Canard

Special Reserve

SpR

IV

na

na

Ilot

Casy

Special Reserve

SpR

IV

na

na

Tlot

Goeland

Special Fauna Reserve

SpFR

VI

na

na

Tlot Bailly

Tlot

Laregnere

Special Reserve

SpR

IV

na

na

Tlot

MaTtre

Special Reserve

SpR

IV

^.5i

1981

Tlot

Signal

Special Reserve

SpR

IV

na

na

Tlot

Tenia

Special Reserve

SpR

IV

na

na

Tlot

Vert

Special Reserve

SpR

IV

na

na

Poe

Special Reserve

SpR

IV

na

na

Pointe Kuendu

Special Reserve

SpR

IV

na

na

Tournante de Marine Faune

Special Marine Reserve

Yves Merlet

Integral Reserve

however the older abandoned mines

the 1970s,

tinue to release sediments for

many

some

to the protective nature

which holds sediments close

Aside

355.70

la

167.00

1970

will con-

New

Caledonia

protection

from such impacts, but nearshore areas may suffer con-

owing

IV

IR

decades. The offshore

location of the majority of reefs provides

siderably

SpMR

1981

of the lagoon

General Data

from sedimentation, most of the human

(million

Land area Ikm^l

Marine area (thousand km^l

town of Noumea where there

Per capita

problems of

2 987

US$1

pressures on the coral reefs are centered around the main

are localized

202

Population Ithcusandsl

GDP

to shore.

fish

19

UO

7^0

consumption (kg/yearl

25

domestic pollution and some overfishing. Here and else-

where around the southeast there have been significant

coastal modifications associated with urbanization

tourism developments. The tourism industry

ularly important to

Noumea and

there are

and

is

partic-

many

hotels,

notably in the southeast but also along the west coast and
in the

Loyalty Islands.

There

is

good network of marine protected areas

around the southeast of the region, and there are plans

to

develop a similar network in the north. In addition

to these,

customary reserves and traditional fishing areas

are recognized.

Status and Threats

Reefs

13

at risk (%l

Recorded coral diseases

Biodiversity
5 980

Reef area (km^)

Coral diversity

Mangrove area (km^j

151

/359
456

No. of mangrove species

16

No. of seagrass species

337

338

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Vanuatu
MAPS

I2d and e

ii^stisiKm

Vanuatu

represents the main bulk of an island chain

which continues

into the

Solomon

the eastern

Santa Cruz Islands of

Lying on the western

Islands.

margins of the Pacific plate, the islands are

canic origin, and there

number of

Ambryn

activity in a

Anatom

the

Gemini Seamounts

and

May

and

eastern seamount in 1996.

Seamount, which
surface,

rises

was reported

to

to

However

Gemini

The Matthew and Hunter

Islands,

in

to

least

at

Uma

in

part of the

1987 was one of

to Efate

Southeast trade winds predominate between

and October

southwards.
generally

the

In

central

islands

fringing

not continuous and reef flats can

reefs

are

be quite

narrow. Typically reefs are best developed on eastern and

northern coasts. The eastern coasts of Santo (Espiritu

Santo) and Malakula both have wide fringing reefs and

about 30 meters below the

have considerable marine

damage

Fringing reefs encircle most of the islands from Efate

are another area

the western

its reefs.

uplift.

an area particularly prone to tropical

in

most devastating, causing considerable harm

the

active,

of volcanic activity - explosions were observed from the

lie

archipelago annually. Cyclone

notably off Epi and Erromango. About 100 kilometers

south of

islands

cyclones, which cause

in the

in the central islands,

Submarine volcanoes are also

in the south.

The

of vol-

Banks Islands

locations, including the

northeast, Lopevi and

Tanna

ongoing volcanic

is

all

carbonate structure which has undergone a slight

number of

life.

the far south of

esting

One

coral islands on their coastlines.

phenomenon

in relatively

inter-

recent times has been

New

the observation of significant tectonic uplifts, particularly

Caledonia. All of the islands are volcanic rock or uplifted

along the western coastlines of Malakula and Santo. Reefs

carbonate structures, or some combination of these. The

on the northwest coasts of both islands were uplifted by

northern islands form a double chain. Current volcanic

up

the island chain, are disputed between Vanuatu

activity

is

generally restricted to the eastern islands and

reef development

is

greatest in the western ones. Fringing

reefs predominate, though

is

Cook

a small atoll-like structure with

is

the

most diverse

to 6

meters in 1965.

Detailed

undertaken

in

surveys of biodiversity have not been

most

areas, although

some 35

Reef, north of Efate,

were visited by divers from the Australian

no associated

Marine Sciences

The Reef Islands north of Vanua Lava

Acropora

and

islands.

are also part of a

coral genus, with

numerous forms

in

locations

Institute

of

1988. Typically the reef crests and

shallow reef areas are dominated by coralline algae and

including branching

and plate

corals.

MAP 12d
16730'

16645'

16815'

,-.,
la-is'
Is.

Tones

13MS

Vot Tandi

I.

\ T

J"
I.

Is.

Is.

Rowa(ReefIs.)/
^3

lTgiia

I 1
I.

Mota Lava

Ol-Mota

\^

1400'

Torres

Ur^arapara ,-

I.

Grande Passe

Vanua Lava

i.

Is.

M'Off

Banks

*
Passe

Lilas

Dumanoir
I.

Santa Maria

Tf-

*t-*

W-^,.

WOT

7^
2

iLTogaJ

L Santa Maria
2

km

LM^g

6 km

MM Lava

CapNaboI

r"

PACIFIC OCEAN

14"45'

14*45'

N
CapQueiltis
\

C^^l
p

'BigBayj

VANUATU
Lathi

V^.

L Thion

^^-.LUtho

LMa6vo

-J_ L Lataro
>p LLataroa

L Espiritu Santo

"^^LNtovia
I i.1,.1
LAcse
iV President Coolidge

IS'Sff

Million Dollar Point

/ '^

,,

r
CapMata'av6e

LAiald
LUrflapa

~^

MR

Bucaro Aom RecR

Aore RecR

^l Malo ^aomebaravu-Malo R
Detroit de Bougainville

and^

no. Tutuba

y^^.Ai^^)'^
A

/
I-

Aoba

.^Z::.::^..:.:^.

Passage Patteson
r~)

j.U

IS'Sff
i

MAP I2e
17000'

16915'

LEpi
,..

I T6&la

'Tk......L Laflta

L Tongoa

'

L Ewos^
.

Falia
-,

I.

LNguna

^.

L Tongariki
L Buninga

^^^vi"^*

Etoai
L Makura (Makir)

O'

L Kakula ...7;i
1715'

1715'
LMalaso-^

LEtarik

_/

Lfeftoka

Efati
(Vat^)

I.

___*_

"

Pt

LEfiti
(Vati)

PangoPt
1800'

C/^'U^^ ,v
12

km

NarpowPt^^-**

-.-^^

WW

PACIFIC OCEAN

VANUATU

1845'

1930'
I.

uroff

i7r2(r

I.

i7i"4ff

Mz-m

;i7r20'

Matthew
I.

22'40'

Futuna

40

20

Hunter

60 km

L Anatom ^y^.^,^/
10

20

30

40

20"15'

50 km
16915'

17000'

Melanesia

Protected areas with coral reefs

name

Site

Designation

lUCN

Abbreviation

Size

cat.

Year

(km^i

Vanuatu
Aore

Recreation Reserve

RecR

Unassigned

0.37

1984

Bucaro Aore

Recreation Reserve

RecR

Unassigned

0.20

1984

Unassigned

0.11

1984

MR

Unassigned

Naomebaravu

Malo

Reserve

President Coolidge
and Million Dollar Point

Marine Reserve

robust plate and branching corals, particularly in exposed

predominance of massive and branching

locations, with a

number of reserves have been

not widespread, though a

established off Santo. For the most part however these

known

corals below a depth of 3-5 meters. Massive coral also

are not respected, or even

becomes predominant

The President Coolidge Reserve

more sheltered

in

embayments, with

some 469

locations. In all

soft corals in

fish species

295 scleractinian corals were observed during

although the complete

list,

and

this survey,

particularly for the fish,

is

be far longer. Periodic crown-of-thorns starfish

likely to

outbreaks have been reported, and these combined with

the impacts of cyclones and tectonic activity
coral

live

mean

that

cover and physical state are quite variable

Vanuatu has a rapidly growing population. While a

live

number

on

of reef resources

tenure

constitution.
ities

US

shipwreck sunk

a popular dive location for visitors.

is

At the

number of more

is

legally

live in the

two main towns, over 70 percent

their traditional lands

and remain heavily

reliant

recognized

the

in

effective

management measures

have been established, including harvesting restrictions

on particular stocks, and sometimes more comprehensive protection of the marine environment.

proposed

Bill currently

under consideration might provide an opportunity

to put

such areas under some form of legal protection as com-

munity conservancy

areas.

on subsistence from the land and ocean. Catch methods

include
in

gill netting,

more remote

bow and
substantial

capture by hand and spear gun and,

areas, traditional techniques including

arrow,

spears,

Subsistence capture

is

amounts of

poisons.

is

also provided at the local

cucumbers, trochus. green

and aquarium

fish.

of Vanuatu

have remained heavily forested. However, there are

increased logging activities in a

number of

General Data
Population (thousands)

GDP

to the present time the larger islands

may be impacting

Vanuatu

shellfish (34 percent) and lobster

level through collection of sea

snails, crustaceans

traditional

largely of fish, but also includes

(20 percent). Cash income

Up

and

traps

now

areas which

coral reefs through sediment runoff

Close to the main urban centers there are considerable

concerns about pollution arising from sewage inputs,

(million

190

US$1

Land area (km^l

191

12 535

Marine area [thousand km^l

Per capita

fish

680

consumption (kg/yearl

26

Status and Threats

Reefs

70

at risk (%|

Recorded coral diseases

sediments and storm-water runoff, notably around Port

Vila and the airport.

Away from

these areas concern has

Biodiversity

been expressed about the overharvesting of some non-

Reef area (km^l

motile reef species.

Coral diversity

Although

relatively restricted in terms

operates, tourism
the

is

economy, and diving

among

visitors.

of where

it

an increasingly important sector of

is

highly popular activity

Formal protection of reef resources

is

in

Customary

of villages and local commun-

level

Environmental and Resource Management

across the country.

large

1942)

about, by local people.

(a

29b

L.

110

219

Mangrove area (km^l

16

No. of mangrove species

15

No. of seagrass species

341

342

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

r~

Fiji
MAP

I2f

40

is

a vast archipelago centered on two relatively

Fiji
shallow
the

geological features, the

Lau Ridge. Geologically,

Indo-Pacific plate close to

plate,

Fiji

the area lies

The two

Levu, together with quite a number

Fiji

This island has fringing reefs along

but

much of its

coastline,

further dominated by a 95 kilometer long barrier

its

southern and eastern coasts and

extending into the Great Astrolabe and North Astrolabe

geology and

of smaller ones,

is

reef rurming along

Reefs.

The

Levu and Vanua

largest islands of Viti

on the relatively shallow

on the

the boundary with the Pacific

an area of relatively complex

in

fracturing.

Platform and

km

lie

Platform. Fringing reefs

of the Yasawa group

line

in the

eastwards towards Vanua Levu by

west

Fiji's

is

continued

longest barrier

reef structure, the Great Sea Reef which runs along

200

surround most of Viti Levu, with the largest continuous

the shelf edge in a near continuous chain for over

fringing reef running for 100 kilometers along the Coral

kilometers, gradually converging towards the coastline of

Coast on

its

southern shore. Offshore from eastern Viti

Levu the Suva Barrier Reef follows

to the island
is

the shelf edge

up

of Ovalau. The northern coast of Viti Levu

dominated by a very complex array of platform reef

structures and intervening channels.

some

distance west of Viti Levu

known

as the

is a

Running northeast

at

string of high islands

Yasawa group, again with an associated

complex of fringing and patch

reefs.

These islands

lie

close to the edge of the Fiji Platform, and part of this

shelf-edge

is

capped by Ethel Reef, a 30 kilometer barrier

reef Immediately south of Viti Levu

Beqa, enclosed
Reef.

to the south

Further south, the

separated from the

This broad view

Fiji

is

the island of

and west by the Beqa Barrier

large

island

of Kadavu

is

Platform by the Kadavu Passage.

shows northern

Viti

Vanua Levu

at its

northeastern

between the two high islands

tip.

The Vatu

Ira

Channel

a tongue of deeper water,

is

by elongated barrier reef structures including

Vanua Levu Barrier Reef along the eastern edge of this
channel and up to the southern shore of Vanua Levu.

also fringed

the

Much of

the southern shores of

Vanua Levu are lined by

fringing reefs, while the northern edge

similar

Out

to

complex of platform
the

collectively

several
atoll,

east

lies

marked by a

complex of islands and

atolls,

and also Budd Reef which

A group of reefs
the

islets

located in

19881.

near-

is

its

lagoon.

on the outer edge of the Ringgold Islands

Nukusemanu and Heemskercq

Reefs, parts

Levu and western Vanua Levu, inctuding the complex platform reef structures

along the northern shores of both islands ISTS027-32-34,

reefs

termed the Ringgold Islands. These include

with a group of high

make up

is

reefs to that along Viti Levu.

MAP 12f

km
Reef

Ra)

un

-f

(Ceva-i

9
6

Conway

344

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

of which are submerged but

may be considered

a near-

The Lau Islands make up the eastern edge of the

group and

lie at

the top of the

southwest

Fiji

Lau Ridge, separated from

the southeast, Fiji claims the

Some of

further south carbonate islands predominate. There are a

but. given the overall extent

near-atolls throughout the chain.

The

Exploring Isles make up one of the largest structures

in

high island of Vanua Balavu, as

in

Minerva Reefs, although

of their ecology and biodiversity,

sively studied in terms

this group, including the

a small coral cay

the reefs of the country have been exten-

northern islands are high and of volcanic origin, but

number of atolls and

is

these are also claimed by Tonga.

by the Nanuku Channel. Most of the

the Fiji Platform

Conway Reef or Ceva-i-Ra

of some 200 by 50 meters on a platform reef Finally,

atoll or barrier-type structure.

of Fijian reefs, a vast pro-

portion remain poorly known. Species numbers are high,

from the location of these

as might be expected

relation to the Indo-Pacific center

reefs in

of diversity as well as

well as a long barrier reef running out to the east and

from the sheer variety of reef types. Most of the studies

Towards the center

have been undertaken close to the University of the South

enclosing a number of smaller islands.

of the group the Bukatatanoa Reefs are another massive

Pacific in

barrier reef complex. Lying considerably to the south of

is

Suva or on the Great Astrolabe Reef where there

an associated field study station.

Some 298

species

Islands are the smaller islands of

of scleractinian coral have been recorded, alongside over

Vatoa (a high limestone island with a barrier reef) and the

475 species of mollusc (including 253 nudibranchs and

the

main group of Lau

of Vuata Vatoa. Further south again

atoll

is a

complex of

four small reef systems including Oni-i-Lau, a small

the

is

Lau Islands and

Levu

is

a relatively enclosed sea

Viti

scattered in this area.

between

Levu. There are a few islands

The Lomaiviti group

east of Viti

mostly volcanic and has well developed fringing

and barrier structures. Further south, the Moala group

made up of

three high volcanic islands with

is

predom-

Far from the main islands of

In

the

far

Fiji are

three other reef

northwest, the island of

volcanic and has wide fringing reefs.

Rotuma

is

A number of smaller

islands nearby also have fringing reef structures. In the far

Left:

the

198 species of fish have been recorded

these reefs

is

in the surface

led to

Reef.

total

of

algal flora of

known, and some 422 species have

been documented. Early

in

waters around

2000, a major warming event

Fiji

and neighboring countries

between 50 and 100 percent of corals becoming

bleached over wide areas, and extending to depths of

30 meters.

Many

corals subsequently died, particularly in

The

rural people

of

Fiji

depend on coral

reefs for the

vast bulk of their protein, and subsistence catches from

reefs are estimated at approximately

Although fishing with hand

Damselfish such as these humbugs Dascyllus aruanus often take shelter

Beqa Barrier

them reef-associated. The

also well

in Fiji's waters,

southern parts of Viti Levu and Vanua Levu.

inantly fringing reefs around them.

areas.

the majority of

group of islands enclosed by a barrier reef

The Koro Sea

102 bivalves) and some 60 species of ascideans.

lines is

among branching

000 tons per

year.

most common, a vast

corals. Right: Part of

Melanesia

range of techniques are used including traps, fences,

spears, gill nets,

hand nets and poisonous plants (notably

derris root).

Some

hookah

Gleaning

gear.

shellfish,

now

fishers

low

at

cucumbers,

sea

Customary marine tenure

tide is also important for

and octopus.

urchins

sea

of individual

level

at the

lages has controlled utilization of reefs in

many

vil-

areas, with

villages having rights of access to fishing areas ox qoliqolis.

Although such systems are

still

in place

on many

islands,

there are increasing problems of overexploitation.

000 tons

many

annual fish catch. In

now

have

target stocks
is

to the

areas

may

urban centers,

Land area Ikm^l

Marine area (thousand km^l
Per capita

fish

217
33

Reefs at risk (%)

68

Recorded coral diseases

play a role. Stocks of

Biodiversity
10 020

Reef area (km^l

177/398

bump-headed parrotfish Bolhomeiopon municciium has

Mangrove area Ikm^j

Kadavu

or

may have been

similar manner,

consumption (kg/year)

Coral diversity

ten years and

602

19 379

emperors, mullets and trevally have declined, while the

not been caught in Lau,

832

Population Ithousandsl

GDPImillion U5$l

declined considerably and this

largely linked to overfishing, although pollution, par-

ticularly near

General Data

Status and Threats

Nearshore commercial fisheries probably contribute a

further 6

Fiji

and

also utilize scuba

Vanua Levu

locally

for at least

extirpated.

In

385

No. of mangrove species

No. of seagrass species

of bivalves has long been

collection

popular as a food source and led to the extermination of

the giant clam Tridaciw gigas. which was last recorded

degree, particularly

over 50 years ago. Other clam species, including the

setting aside (using taboos) of certain areas such as those

in

the outer islands, and includes the

(only

which become overfished. Traditional fishing areas have

are also reported to have

been mapped by the national government. Customary

declined significantly. Black-lip pearl oysters, trochus and

fishing rights have hindered the formal establishment of

relatively

the

main

Fiji

and Tonga)

target species of sea

reduced

greatly

discovered

recently

recorded from

collected. Fiji

in

recent

Tridacna

tevoroa

cucumber have

years,

but

continue

and there

for aquaria in the Pacific,

is

be

underway

addition

to

centers,

in

number of

incorporate sub-littoral elements. Despite

places,

this, a

none

number

of tourist resorts have established small private sanc-

in

tuaries through agreements with

seaweed farming.

to establish

urban

company
Hong Kong.

marine protected areas and, while existing protected areas

extend to the shoreline

also a

exporting live fish for the food trade

In

to

the major exporter of live coral and fish

is

Efforts are also

also been

land-based

other

holders. Similarly,

being established

customary fishing rights

community-based marine reserves are

in a

few areas, with the support of the

reefs in Fiji include

government, non-governmental organizations and local

runoff from

communities. These, together with the wider recognition of

mines, agriculture, sugar and timber mills, poorly planned

customary marine tenure, increasing environmental edu-

activities

which threaten or degrade

mangrove clearance

development and solid waste disposal. Although

tourist

there

for land reclamation,

some sewage treatment

is

this is often inadequate,

visual

urban areas

in the larger

while solid waste

is

not only a

problem but may be a health hazard

humans and

to

cation and the establishment of reef monitoring,

much larger
and medium term.

suffice to protect

the short

areas of

Fiji's

may

both

coastal species. Industrial pollution (mainly

eutrophication, although there have been recent oil spills

in the harbor)

Viti

is

a particular

Levu and Vanua Levu

problem close

intensive

to Suva.

On

commercial farming

on steep slopes has led to considerable

soil

erosion.

Similar problems of sedimentation have been observed in

some of
result

the

more remote and uninhabited

islands as a

of overgrazing by goats.

Traditional

management of

reefs

has led to their

sustamable use throughout the archipelago for thousands

of years. Although the ownership of the seabed now resides

with the

state, the

customary fishing rights of indigenous

Fijians remain, under the Fisheries Act of

management of

942. Traditional

reefs by the villages continues to

Traditional society

some

and customary marine tenure may have an important

role to play in the protection of

well

coral reefs in

Fiji's

reefs.

345

3A6

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Selected bibliography
PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Halstead

Rock T

B,

119991. Diving

VANUATU

and Snorkelling Papua New

Done

Navin KF 119901. Vanuatu Marine Resources: Report

of a Biological Survey Australian Institute of Marine Science,

Guinea. Lonely Planet Publications. Melbourne, Australia.

BW

The position of northern New Guinea in

marine benthic diversity: a reef coral
perspective. Proc 7th Int Coral Reef Symp 2: 710-717.
Huber ME I199iil. An assessment of tfie status of the coral
reefs of Papua New Guinea Mar Poll Bui 29: 69-73.
Maniwave T, Sweatman H. Marsfiall P. Munday P, Rei V 120001.

Hoeksema

119921.

center

the

of

Status of coral reefs of Australia and Papua

Wilkinson

OR

Australian

ledl.

Status of Coral Reefs of

Institute

of

New
tfie

Guinea.

In:

Guinea.

JM

119921.

Guinea and
7tfi

Int

its

South

R,

International

fish

resources

Wilkinson C ledsl.

Reef

Coral

Initiative

Regional Symposium, Noumea, 22-2A May 2000.

South GR, Skelton PA 120001. Status of coral reefs in the

southwest Pacific: Fiji, Nauru, New Caledonia, Samoa,

Solomon

World: 2000.

Islands, Tuvalu

and Vanuatu.

Wilkinson

In:

CR

led).

of Marine Science, Cape Ferguson, Australia.

Zann LP. Vuki V 120001. The south western Pacific Islands
region. In: Sheppard C ledl. Seas at the Millennium:

of

Reefs of Papua

Marine Science,

Cape

An Environmental

A review

Symp

of

the tectonic history of

2:

New

Evaluation. Elsevier Science Ltd, Oxford,

UK.

718-728.

FIJI

marine invertebrates

research and conservation priorities.

to establish

Reaka-Kudla ML,
II: Understanding
and Protecting our Biological Resources. Joseph Henry
Press, Washington DC. USA.
Werner TB, Allen GR ledsl 119981. RAP Working Papers. 11:
A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Coral Reefs of
Wilson DE, Wilson EG

/vlilne

the

of

B,

New

Institute

119971. Using

In:

ledsl. Biodiversity

Bay Province, Papua

International,

Salvat

In:

significance for marine biogeography. Proc

Coral Reef

Thomas JD

and

J 120001. Status of coral reef

Proceedings

Ferguson, Australia.
Pandolfi

W, Aston
Vanuatu.

of

Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000. Australian Institute

ledl 120001. Tfie Status of Coral

Australian

Townsville, Australia
Naviti

Marine Science, Cape Ferguson.

Australia.

Munday PL

TJ,

New

Guinea.

Conservation

The Islands and coral reefs of Fiji, Bull Mus

Camp Zoo( 33 - 67 and 20 plates.
Ferry J. Kumar PB, Bronders J. Lewis J (19971. Hydrogeology
of carbonate islands of Fiji. In: Vacher HL, Quinn T ledsl.
Developments in Sedimentology, 54; Geology and Hydrology

Agassiz

118991.

of Carbonate

Islands.

Elsevier Science

BV,

Amsterdam,

Netherlands.

Jennings

Washington DC, USA.

S,

Polunin

NVC

and

119961. Effects of fishing effort

catch rate upon the structure and biomass of Fijian fish

communities. J App Ecol23: 400-A12.

SOLOMON ISLANDS
Grano S

led] 119931. Solomon Islands: National Environmental

Management Strategy. South Pacific Regional Environmental
Programme. Apia, Western Samoa.
Richards AH, Bell LJ, Bell JD 119941. Inshore fisheries
resources of Solomon Islands Mar Poll Bui 29: 90-98.
South GR, Skelton PA 120001. Status of coral reefs in the
southwest Pacific: Fiji, Nauru, New Caledonia, Samoa,
Solomon Islands, Tuvalu and Vanuatu. In: Wilkinson CR led).

Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000. Australian Institute

of

Marine Science, Cape Ferguson, Australia.

South GR, Skelton PA 120001. Status of coral reefs m the

southwest Pacific: Fiji. Nauru, New Caledonia, Samoa,

Solomon
of

Vuki

119881.

Caledonia.

NEW CALEDONIA
SPOT images for coral
fruitful

approach

reef

tor classic

Coral Reef

An Environmental

CR

ledl.

120001. Status of

GR

ledsl.

Initiative

Fiji's

coral reefs.

Proceedings

of the

Regional Symposium,

Evaluation. Elsevier Science Ltd, Oxford,

mapping in New
and new topics.

Departements and Territories. Ministry of Spatial Planning

and Environment and State Secretariat for Overseas Affairs,
Pans, France.

Map sources

Map 12a
Coral reef data have been taken as arcs from Petroconsultants

South GR. Skelton PA 120001. Status of coral reefs in the

southwest Pacific; Fiji, Nauru, New Caledonia, Samoa,
Islands, Tuvalu

Wilkinson

UK.

Proc 6th Int Coral Reef Symp 2: AA5-ii8.

Gabrie C 120001. State of Coral Reefs in French Overseas

Solomon

In:

Noumea, 22-2A May 2000.

Zann LP, Vuki V 120001. The south western Pacific Islands
region. In: Sheppard C ledl. Seas at the Millennium:

R,

Naqasima M, Vave R

Salvat B, Wilkinson C, South

International

the

Bour

and Vanuatu.

Marine Science, Cape Ferguson, Australia.

V,

In;

Hay C, Ramohia P, Lam M 120021. The Coral Reefs of

Solomon Islands. Australian Institute of Marine Science,
Cape Ferguson, Australia,

Sulu

Islands, Tuvalu

Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000. Australian Institute

and Vanuatu.

In:

Wilkinson

CR

ledl.

Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000. Australian Institute

of Marine Science. Cape Ferguson. Australia.
Zann LP. Vuki V 120001. The south western Pacific Islands
region. In: Sheppard C ledl. Seas at the Millennium: An

Environmental Evaluation. Elsevier Science

Ltd, Oxford,

UK.

SA

119901*.

Some

the island groups

areas
in

of additional reef

have been added

for

the far northwest of the country Iwestern

Bismarck Archipelagol from Department of Defence 119711,

were compiled from higher resolution maps,
uncontrolled air photography and radar imagery.
Department of Defence 119711. PNG5 - Vegetation and Timber
Resources. 1:500,000. 1st edn. Department of Defence,

which

Canberra, Australia.

Melanesia

Map 12b
Coral reef data have been taken as arcs from Petroconsultants

SA

(19901*.

Map 12c
Coral reef data have been taken as arcs from Petroconsultants

SA

119901".

Maps12dand12e
Mangrove and coral reef data were taken from IGN 11967a
b. 1968a, b and c, and 1971a and bl. All these maps are
based on aerial photographs taken between 19'*3 and 1962.
Areas of mangrove cover were prepared as polygons and
and

coral reefs as arcs.

IGN (1967al. Ambrym-Pentecote. 1 ;100 000. Series no.

624. OAl. Institut Geographique National.

IGN I1967bl. Maewo. 1:100 000. Series

Institut Geographique National.

no. 7.

IGN |1968al. Aoba. 1:100 000. Series no.

Institut Geographique National.

6.

IGN Il968bl. Epi Shepherd. 1:100 000. Series

624.041. Institut Geographique National.
IGN I1968c|. Santo Sud. 1:100 000. Series no.
Institut Geographique National.

IGN (1971al. Lamap. 1:100 000. Series

Institut Geographique National.

no. 10.

IGN 11971bl. Matekouta. 1:100 000. Series no.

Institut Geographique National.

Map

5.

9.

8.

Maps

Maps

624.041.

Maps

624.041.

no.

11.

Maps

Maps

624.041.

Maps

624.041.

Maps

624.041.

12f
Coral reef data have been taken as arcs from Petroconsultants

SA[19901'.

See Technical notes, page 401

347

348

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Chapter 13
Micronesia

northern island areas of the Central and

The

Western

consisted of frameworks of sticks, sometimes having

archipelagos of relatively small

other Items such as shells bound to them. These charts

scattered

The western

islands.

limits of this region

lie

along the boundary of the Philippine plate,

and there

considerable volcanic activity

is

While most

of

in

the north.

occurred

in

the distant

geological past. Cores taken through the base of

1.4

marked with considerable accuracy the

the Marshall Islands

show

some

reef deposits up to

kilometers thick, dating back over 50 million years.

Reefs are well developed throughout the region,

and clearly played

a critical role in oceanic navigation.

At the present time there are considerable dif-

ferences both

human

the state of reefs and

in

cultures.

The influence

of the

in

with rapid Western-style development,

in

number

parts of the

of countries, notably

the impacts of

USA, associated
is

traditional

systems and the sustainable

resources,

together with associated

shows very high

Philippines and Indonesia, and

of

the

levels

species diversity. Biodiversity declines to the east.

The peoples
and there
the

is

of

Micronesia have diverse origins,

complex

a broad

Marianas were probably

of cultures.
first

Patau and

populated around

3 500 years ago by peoples from Indonesia and the

Philippines. At the

same time

the western parts of the

region were probably settled from eastern Melanesia.

At least

15 languages with

across the region, giving

pendent cultures that

while

many

little

common

in

some measure

exist there.

of the high island

It

is

occur

of the inde-

believed that,

peoples did not travel

pollution. Military activities

able impact

in

it

utilization of

problems

this region. Intensive nuclear testing

number

of

Marshall Islands, with repercussions

to

the present. There

USA

of

some

practice.

economic

is

also ongoing utilization by the

islands and reefs

and the Marianas

target

for

Tourism

activity

in

Saipan and Chuuk

impact, the region

Atoll.
still

in

military
is

the Marshall Islands

purposes,
critical

including

and growing

few islands, notably Guam,

Away from areas

includes a very large

of human
number of

great distances following their establishment, those of

islands and reefs

the low islands maintained ocean-going canoes and

traditional use of the reefs by local peoples

continued

Left:

to

travel.

Early European travelers to the

in

good

to excellent condition,

sustainable and well managed.

The six banded angelfish Pomacanthus sexstriatus. Right: Coral scene with branching Acropora. Diversity

Micronesia diminishes from west

to east.

of

have also had a consider-

during the 19iOs and 1950s impacted a

atolls in the

in

the breakdown of

few islands has brought with

in

also

Marshall Islands. Urban growth on a

Patau

closest to the center of reef diversity

considerable

Guam, but

except on the coastlines of recently active volcanoes.

lies

locations of

other islands, reefs and even patterns of ocean waves,

the other islands and reefs can be linked

to volcanic activity, this largely

atolls

Marshall Islands were shown "stick charts" which

Pacific are characterized by widely

in

where

remains

^s:^.

MAP

13

^^

-^

^,^.

>
>

\^-

1.^i

vN

>
>V
1

-t

3'

<
Z

^,^-.
^^

1 N,.S
i

>

%>-*

"^

East

Mariana

Hasin

>.S

\-%

''''i/

-S .=

Si

i/idunol

111

^
o
Q

r>
:-^

?.

MAP

13a
M/'OO'

14530'

14830'

21 -OO'

ZIW

Uracas Island Pr
Farallon de Pajaios
(Uracas)

Supply Reef

Maug

Island

Maug Is.

Pr

Asuncion

I.

193(y
1930'

IB'Off

Alamagan

NORTHERN MARIANA
ISLANDS
(USA)

Guguan

Zealandia Banks

Sarigan
I63ff

1630'

Anatahan

Farallon de Medinilla

15

km

Managaha FiPr
;J
IS'OO'

Saipan

15'W

Esmeralda Bank
Tinian

Aguijan

Rota

PACIFIC OCEAN

Sasanh6ya FiPr

1330'

la-Sff

U-\
GUAM'

14530'

uroor

Micronesia

Commonwealth

of the

Northern Mariana Islands

and Guam

The Mariana
islands in

Islands form a long chain of 15 high

the Western Pacific, running approxi-

mately 800 kilometers from Farallon de Pajaros

(Uracas)

in

the

north

Guam
Guam is

to

southernmost island of

the

in

The

south.

an unincorporated

of the USA, while the remaining islands, the

Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI),
are a commonwealth in political union with the USA.

territory

They

are located on the eastern margin of the Philippine

consist of a large uplifted limestone

The northern areas

plateau, while the south of the island

volcanic hills reaching 406 meters.

encircled by fringing reefs.

of the

CNMI

MAP 13a

similarly

The

five

consist

is

The

dominated by

entire island is

southernmost islands

of both volcanic and

uplifted limestone structures. Rota has a volcanic center

with an uplifted limestone terrace

around, and

all

is

mostly surrounded by narrow but well developed fringing

reefs.

Tinian

and the nearby Aguijan

are

uplifted

tectonic plate. To the east, the Mariana Trench has been

limestone - Tinian has a few areas of narrow fringing

formed by the subduction of the Pacific plate and there

reefs,

is

considerable volcanic activity, particularly to the north

of this chain. The Mariana Trench

trench in the world,

Challenger Deep
meters.

is

The climate

from January

to

and

to

the

the deepest
is

is

the deepest ocean

south of

known

fairly stable,

Guam,

point, at

the

034

with a dry season

June when the northeast trade winds

while Aguijan has no clearly developed reef

structures, although there are diverse

reaches nearly 500 meters

the west, and a

has

running off

number of

Rota

in

Guam

and

speeds on

Guam

of 185 kilometers per hour and gusts of

over 270 kilometers per hour.

Guam

Two

is

the southernmost and largest of the islands.

lined rabbitfish Siganus Uneatus.

but has a raised

small

more dramatic one on

the east. Saipan

developed barrier reef and lagoon system

well

The region experiences regular typhoons, most recently

December 1997 with recorded sustained wind-

in elevation,

limestone perimeter with a gently shelving coastline on

predominate, and a wet season from July to November.

Supertyphoon Paka, which passed between

and actively growing

coral communities. Saipan also has a volcanic center and

its

west coast with fringing reefs

localities.

Farallon de Medinilla

is

in

another

limestone island, with coral communities in

its

surrounding waters.

The nine

islands north of Farallon de Medinilla are

entirely volcanic, including

and, for the

most

part,

some which

are

still

active

do not have any reef structures.

352

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Pagan

one of the larger northern islands, with one

is

active volcano, but there are reports of

and reef development along parts of

which

its

limited coral

Maug,

coastline.

complex of three islands encircling

actually a

is

some

submerged volcanic crater, has been dormant for

time and there

is

reported to be

some

Alamagan

Sarigan, Anatahan and

some

active coral growth.

are

volcanic

islands

unrecorded.

submerged

Supply Reef, near Maug,

reported

crater

The Mariana

Islands,

Indonesia, enjoy high diversity.

950 species of reef

algae and

more than

cover in

Guam

the sea

and a

considerable volcanic activity below

volcanically active banks are

Guam, which

is fairly

well

300 recorded species of scleractinian

studied, has about

corals.

is

lying relatively close to the

center of coral reef biodiversity in the Philippines and

only limited coral or reef development. In addition to

number of

an inactive

communities on the crater rim.

which, though inactive for some time, are believed to have

these islands there

is

have some living coral

to

fish,

220 species of benthic

400 species of molluscs. Live coral

some

reaches 50 percent in

the majority of sites

now show

less than

areas, but

25 percent. Both
the geo-

known, including Zealandia Banks (between Guguan and

diversity

and cover decrease considerably

Bank (west of Tinian). Eruptions

and it is likely that many more go

logically

younger northern islands where the volcanic

Sarigan) and Esmeralda

do occur

in these areas,

conditions are unfavorable for

General Data

General Data
72

Population [thousands]
Imillion

Land area

US$1

Iknn^l

Marine area (thousand km^l

Per capita

fish

species, while in

Guam

Northern M ariianas

GDP

many

in

155
3 066

GDP

A59

Land area (km?)

572

823

Marine area (thousand km^)

218

na

consumpti on Ikg/yearl

(million

Per capita

US$1

fish

consumption (kg/year)

na

Status and Threats

Status and Threats

na

Reefs at risk 1%)

Recorded coral diseases

Reefs at risk (%)

100

Recorded coral diseases

Biodiversity

Biodiversity

<50

Reef area Ikm^l

Coral diversity

Population (thousands)

bbU

na

na

Reef area (km?)

Coral diversity

220

UO/220

Mangrove area Ikm'l

Mangrove area (km?)

No. of mangrove species

No. of mangrove species

10

No. of seagrass species

No. of seagrass species

na

Left;

The eastern triangle butterflyfish Chaetodon baronessa feeds exclusively on Acropora polyps^ Right: A group of

batfish Platax orbicularis against a bare volcanic rock.

Micronesia

Protected areas with coral reefs

name

Site

Designation

lUCN

Abbreviation

cat.

Size

Year

Ihm'l

Guam
Anao

Conservation Reserve

Guam

Territorial

Maputo

CRes

IV

2.63

1953

TSea

VI

61.35

1978

Ecological Reserve Area

ERA

IV

1.02

198i

Orote Peninsula

Ecological Reserve Area

ERA

IV

0.66

198/i

Rati Point

Natural Area

NA

IV

1.12

1973

War

National Historic Park

NHP

7.79

1978

Managaha

Fish Preserve

FiPr

IV

na

2000

Sasanhaya

Fish Preserve

FiPr

IV

na

1994

in

the Pacific

Seashore Park

Northern Marianas

the

far

north

certain species.
islands in

cooler conditions

An

1992

listed

161

marine molluscs and 463

had devastating

may

further

restrict

expedition to the uninhabited northern

species of cnidarians. 520

fish.

Crown-of-thorns starfish

Guam

natural areas have led to increased sedimentation in the

surrounding waters, while overfishing

total catch

widespread and

is

per unit of effort reportedly

by 78 percent

fell

between 1985 and 1997. The overall impact on the reefs

from 1968

to

has been considerable. Coral cover

1970, and again in 1979. killing 90 percent of corals

in

dropped significantly since the 1970s, when

some

effects, notably in

50 percent

areas.

Natural pressures on the reefs around

been greatly exacerbated

activities. Agriculture,

in

recent

years

Guam

have

by human

development and the burning of

in

many

to overexploitation

recruitment

is

reported to have
it

was over

areas. Algal cover has increased since

the crown-of-thorns outbreaks

due

is

and remains high, possibly

of herbivorous

Coral and fish

fish.

also reported to have fallen.

Human

pres-

sures are largely focussed around the urban areas of the

barrier reef system in western Saipan, but also at Rota

West Harbor and San Jose Harbor on Tinian where there

are
IS

problems of pollution and sedimentation. Overfishing

believed to be occurring on Saipan and Tinian. where

fisheries

show low average

data

sizes

of

many

reef

species. Finally, the island of Farallon de Medinilla has

been extensively used for target practice by the

military.

US

Local objections have been raised, with cam-

paigns to have this activity restricted or

moved

of the more active volcanoes where the impacts

less detectable.

Thus

far

no serious efforts

to

one

may be

to relocate

have

been made.

The economy of both

Guam

on tourism.

receives

while the

per year,

territories is highly

more than

CNMI

dependent

1.4 million visitors

receives

about

500 000,

primarily limited to the island of Saipan. Diving and

snorkelling are popular tourist activities. Research on the

reefs

is

well advanced, particularly in

Guam where there is

an active marine laboratory associated with the University

of Guam. Several protected areas have been established,

including a

and some

number of

in the

A bandcheck wrasse Ox/cheilinus digrammus sheltering below an Acropora.

CNMI.

coastal and marine sites in

Guam,

353

354

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Palau and the Federated

States of Micronesia
''

/'

MAPS

'

13b and c

{if-'-

0:

:.

V^---W-j

<D>

;j

PSlaU
Islands.

and
north;

makes up

reefs, consisting

the

large

Rock

the center; and the

a large

complex of islands

of the ICayangel Islands

lighter

Of

the

with dramatic

mixed geological origin -

stony corals, together with

Island group, are high and

often undercut

Most of

some 290 kilometers

parts of the lagoon there

species, perhaps the highest

sea level. Coral

at

Coral cover in

the northern islands are

a considerable

is

atolls.

To

many

the estuarine crocodile Crocodylus porosus and

Marine

are found in the lagoon. There are

interesting
is

found

are inland, but

and perhaps unique ecosystem

in its large

many appear

communities which appear

to

to

in

lakes.

this

These

be connected to the ocean

have evolved

distinctive

in situ

species that entered the lakes in larval forms.

generally humid.

from

The most

distinctive of such organisms are the jellyfish, notably

June the northeasterly trade winds

Right: Pohnpei, witli

number of marine

by cave systems and have developed highly

on each. Helen Reef

J996I.

turtles are relatively

important areas of mangrove and seagrass communities.

has a partially submerged rim.

Ngutu AtoU ISTS080-707-26.

areas.

dugong Dugong dugon

the southeast

Sonsorol, Pulo Anna, and Tobi), although Merir and Helen

93-33, 19911.

com-

slopes in

country

Left:

Pacific atoll.

prior to 1998, typically

mon and

One

warm and

number of any

was high

number of

separated ones. These are mostly platform islands (Fana,

in Palau is

areas

over 50 percent and reaching 70-80 percent on outer reef

of this main group of islands there are several quite widely

are atolls with a single island

all

southern

in length. In the

Kayangel and Ngaruangel are both

to

reefs are

Helen Reef was recorded as having 248 stony coral

edged

fringing and platform reefs. North of this large platform,

From November

The southern

Heliopora coerulea, however they are also very diverse.

Rock

cliffs,

The climate

278 species of reef fish and

limestone islands, a large number,

origin,

concentrated on a single shelf fringed by a well developed

Reef

well over 300 species of sponge.

swept by strong currents and dominated by blue coral

reefs are widespread.

barrier reef

species

while the remainder are

Koror are of volcanic

limestone.

Some 425

of coral have been reported, including an estimated 300-350

Babeldaob, Meiuns. Malakal and the western part of

particularly in the

winds are

the rest of the year

Levels of biodiversity are very high.

in

Islands (Chelbacheb Islands) to

the south. These islands are of

much of

and more variable, although occasional typhoons

also occur around this time.

in the

Babeldaob (Babelthuap)

island of

dominate, but for

end of the Caroline

the western

dominated by

It is

its

fringing

and barrier

reefs, witfi adjacent atolls ISTSOii-

MAP

s
CM

I
o

a
z
<
.J

0,

H
H
Z

^
.J

a.

<
r3

13b

MAP13C

T
1

.s
CL.

/'""

j^m~V
1

\
\

'\

I
I

V
'

^
'-

9i

I
to

\
\

f
in:

s
^

I
a

c
J

1^
0.

r.
*w.

ub

3|

^'^

<2

Micronesia

Mastigias spp.

which have formed

communities.

vast

there are also

58, of

which 28 have

The

jellyfish.

were

reefs of Palau

past ten years

1977 and recovery was reported to be poor, even into the

The

reefs

areas.

warm

seem

some of

The crown-of-thorns

may

be

setbacks

exacerbating the

in

is

devolved to the

which there
villages)

is

a giant

on Koror.

some expan-

The individual

all

living

99

still

could take

There

state level,

and respect for

it

has been combined with Western

traditional

systems

is

diminishing.

many
is

highly migratory species. Although traditional law

up-

is

is

in

illegal

solid waste disposal are a

at

the subsistence level

Left: Patau's souttiern

any recovery

now

rare

and

an active interest in conservation

in

the

developed

at

the

and a number of

sites

is

have been established

with regulations ranging from seasonal closures and other

fisheries

restrictions

to

strict

reserves
is

with no entry

strong

community

Ngaremeduu Conservation

Area has also recently been established covering parts of

three states on the west coast of Babeldaob. Legislation

localized problem.

Fishing

is

than 150 individuals.

support for these areas. The

Sewage and

that

years. Crocodiles are also

ways which have interfered with natural water circulation

areas.

many

hunting of these animals,

permitted. For the most part there

some

There has been

existence for

believed to be in decline, with a

Several of the islands are connected by bridges and cause-

in

south-

also under development.

Protected area legislation

country.

statutes,

relatively important.

thought to be some

may number fewer

and non-living

is

abundance
the

estimate of between 50 and 200 individuals. There

resources out to 12 nautical miles, with the exception of

held in the constitution

is

and slow rates of reproduction mean

states (of

are 16. each typically incorporating several

have ownership of

in

In

structure.

clam mariculture project

years and coral mariculture

Management of marine resources

state level.

considerable evidence of

is

demographic

The dugong population

The majority of the Palauan population

sion to the other islands.

in

Mariculture

some

bleaching-associated mortalities.

but numbers are growing rapidly and there

the

800 tons

cyanide fishing.

caused by

live

Over

western islands there have been some reports of blast and

starfish has

had a number of outbreaks, and high densities

areas

be sustainable, there

and changes

now

the marine lakes, although they

to be recovering.

consumption, 360 tons for local

for direct

and a number of these are showing declines

waters

of 1998 also had a dramatic impact on jellyfish populations in

some

has been estimated that

overfishing of certain target species, notably groupers,

but other corals showed slightly higher levels of survival

lagoons and fringing reefs. The

200 tons

may

Acropora was devastated almost everywhere,

in nearshore

it

markets and 250 tons for export. Although such levels

were further impacted by the bleaching

event of 1998. with mortality reaching over 50 percent in

most

fisheries, including a trochus

of fish have been taken from the reefs per year: about

heavily impacted by crown-of-thorns starfish outbreaks in

1990s.

some export

fishery and a large marine ornamental fishery.

Marine lakes are most numerous on Koror where there are

is

very important, but

lagoon ISTSl 06-720-77,

20001. Rigtit:

has had to be passed in each state to protect this

Juvenite giant clams, Tndacna gigas,

in

a clam farm.

site.

358

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Federated States of Micronesia

This country consists of a vast and scattered chain of

Palau also referred to as the Caroline

(with

islands

the south (a

complex of three

Pohnpei

atolls).

is

a large

volcanic island reaching 798 meters above sea level, and

is

surrounded by a well developed barrier reef This

state

also includes eight other atolls, mostly widely spaced

and

west. Politically they are independent, but remain in a

with only a scattering of small cays on their

The

"compact of free association" with the USA. Although the

easternmost state

some

Islands) stretching

land area

total

2 900 kilometers from east to

diverse geological origins.

indeed, over 5

some 600

small, there are

is

The

islands with

total reef area is

very large

000 square kilometers, but remains very

There are four

centered on Yap

tightly

states.
itself,

The

State of Yap, in the west,

a large island group with four

associated islands formed from uplifted crustal

material,

includmg both volcanic and metamorphic rock,

and reaching a height of 174 meters above sea

surrounded by

broad reef which

is

level.

part barrier

It is

some

is

another high

volcanic island, surrounded by fringing reefs. In addition

and islands described there are several areas

to the reefs

areas.

The other

islands and reefs in the State

may

be well developed, notably between Yap and Chuuk. The

climate

is

warm moist

similar to that of Palau, with

conditions and northeasterly trade winds dominating from

November

and more variable conditions the

to June,

rest

of the year.

and part

fringing in structure, with lagoon development on the reef

flat in

the country consists of the single

in

complex of Kosrae. This

of relatively shallow banks where reef communities

poorly known.

is

island and reef

atoll rims.

Biodiversity

is

slightly

lower than in Palau, with

decreasing diversity moving from west to east. There

very

little

information describing the reefs

in

of Yap are predominantly atolls with associated islands.

their biodiversity, but reef status throughout the country

They include

generally thought to be very good.

the

two large

atolls

of Ulithi and Ngulu, and

also the small uplifted atoll of Pais.

(Truk)

The

state

of Chunk

dominated by the near-atoll of Chuuk

is

itself,

ties are particularly well

developed around the coastlines

The

reefs are

of

critical

importance as a source of

encircled by a barrier reef, the whole structure being

food throughout the country. Close to urban areas there

some 85 kilometers

some overfishing and

also incorporates a

Namonuito
the

two

in the

atolls

its

widest axis. This state

number of other

large atolls, notably

northwest, the Hall Islands (comprising

of Murilo and

Nomwin and

the

coral

platform and island of Fayu), and the Mortlock Islands to

Left:

silver gull

Chaetodon

Larus novaehollaniae

flavirostris.

flies

over a wide reef

is

Mangrove communi-

of Pohnpei and Yap.

which includes a scattering of high volcanic islands

across

is

terms of

fishing.

Clams,

in particular giant

clams, are declining

and have been completely eliminated

are

ongoing

efforts to establish giant

in

some

areas.

Right:

There

clam mariculture

a national center in Kosrae. Trochus harvesting

flat.

is

there have been problems with blast

Dense brancfiing corals and a black

is

at

also

butterflyfisti

Micronesia

Federated States

Palau

General Data

General Data
Population Ithousandsl

19

Population (tfiousandsl

133

GDP

92

GDP

223

US$1

(million

Land area Ikm^)

Marine area (thousand
Per capita

fisin

(<nn?)

consumption

(i<g/year|

US$1

(million

483

Land area (km^l

601

Marine area (thousand km^l

108

Per capita

fish

701

980

consumption (kg/year)

Status and Threats

Status and Threats

Reefs at risk (%1

Reefs at risk (%l

Recorded coral diseases

Recorded coral diseases

73

45
1

Biodiversity

Biodiversity

Reef area (km^l

4 340

Reef area (km?)

150

92/391

Coral diversity

15/i/38/i

Coral diversity

86

Mangrove area (km^l

na

Mangrove area (km^l

No. of mangrove species

13

No. of mangrove species

14

No. of seagrass species

na

No. of seagrass species

an

Of Miicronesia

economic

important

activity

in

all

numerous Japanese and American

Coastal

areas.

during a two-day American attack

problems on the largest islands, but for the most part the

Although these wrecks are a primary

good condition.

reefs remain in

and managed
are no

at the level

IVIany reefs are

owned

of the individual villages. There

permanent protected areas other than

few small

is

growing with considerable speed

islands, although the

unvisited.

February

1944.

attraction,

these

in

structures can also be seen as artificial reefs, with

considerable reef and fish communities. There

some diving on

reefs in the lagoon

more remote

Chuuk Lagoon

is

in a

few

islands remain largely

widely regarded as one of

on Yap, Pohnpei and Kosrae. Yap

there

is

also

and Ahnd.

numbers of wrecks which sunk

it

lagoon during the

Second World War. Around 50 Japanese ships plus

also

is

is

also popular

renowned

for

is

some diving on

On

Kosrae diving

the nearby atolls of Pakin

is

a relatively

well planned and there are already

buoyed dive

new

activity;

more than 50

sites.

Protected areas with coral reefs

Site

name

Designation

Abbreviation

lUCN

cat.

Size

ikm^i

Year

Palau
Wildlife Preserve

Ngerukew/id Islands

WPres

III

SpnA

Unassigned

CA

VI

na

na

II

na

1996

12.00

1956

2.59

na

Ngerumekaol Grouper

Spawning Area

Ngaremeduu Bay

Conservation Area

Ngeruangel

Reserve

Ngiwal State

Conservation Area

CA

II

na

1997

Ngemelis Islands

Fishing Reserve

FiR

na

1999

Conservation Area

CA

II

na

2000

Conservation Area

CA

II

na

1998

Ebiil

Channel

Ngermach Channel

- Bkulachelid

its

apparently resident populations of manta rays. In Pohnpei

the world's top dive centers on account of the very large

in the

is

and on the outer slopes

and channels of the barrier reef Diving

trochus sanctuaries.

Tourism

same

went down

aircraft

development and associated pollution are again localized

359

360

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Marshall Islands
MAP

13d

10

Marshall Islands are a complex of 28 coral atolls

The

relatively high

and winds are dominated by

from December

chains, the eastern Ratak (sunrise) chain and the

the southeast trades from

May

5 small (non-atolll islands lying in

Ralik (sunset)

Enewetak and Ujelang

chain.

lie to

Atoll, to the north,

The

tered by the

USA

isolated

the west of these

is

atolls

is

of

group

all

is

hit the islands since

some with severe impacts. There

of 4N, but between these latitudes there

is

westerly

is

the easterly

flowing Equatorial Counter Current.

136 islands dispersed over a vast area of ocean, although

the total land area

and by

flowing Equatorial Current north of about 9N and south

some

there are

to April

November. To the north,

the northeast trade winds dominate all year round, and

1900.

separately adminis-

(see Chapter 14). In

to

typhoons are more common. Six have

main chains.

clearly linked to this

biologically and geologically, but

is

the northeast trade winds

western

Wake

rainfall

two broad

and

km

The location of

very small. The atolls are typically

them

the Marshall Islands places

in

circular to elliptical with shallow lagoons. Kwajalein, at

an area of fairly high diversity, while the relative lack of

some 2 500 square

pressure on

Pacific.

kilometers,

is

the largest atoll in the

The two chains were probably formed by

movement over

a volcanic hotspot, although there

current volcanic activity.

Deep

plate
is

drilling into the reefs

many of

no

recorded

of

are noted.

at Bikini Atoll,

means

the reefs

biodiversity loss. Nearly

little

and over 250 species of reef

also found in the islands, but are not

rock

from the original volcanic

Dating work on the fossils

at the

base of these, together

northern

atolls,

with

at least

Some 27

the 3

volcanic activity occurred 50-59 million years ago. All

and dolphin have also been recorded.

lie

close to sea level with a

mean

state,

varies from north to south. In the south,

Bikini Atolt, with the crater in the reef fiat

northwest IST5055-96-5.

19931.

from a nuclear

recorded

in the islands.

Politically the Marshall Islands

height

of about 2 meters.

The climate

or diverse.

15 breeding species

with the youngest basalt rock below, indicated that this

of the islands

common

There are important seabird populations, particularly

activity.

dearly

visible in the

in the

among

species of whale

form an independent

but exist in a "free association" with the

thirds of the population live

test

fish

1950s revealed some 238 species. Mangroves are

in the

deposits ranging from 1.3 to 1.4 kilometers thick overbasalt

been

detailed study of marine algae undertaken

Bikini and Enewetak atolls revealed a sequence of reef

lying

that there has

250 coral species have been

USA. Two

on Majuro and Ebeye where

lagoon edge of the reef

flat to

the

MAP

t:

0^

P
op

sis'

^
.^/^

J^

o
o

0,

13d

362

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

were performed on Bikini and Enewetak

were carried out on

over the water. The largest

at Bikini,

measured

atolls.

land, in the air near

test,

(1

tests

level or

the Bravo hydrogen

megatons

These

ground

bomb

000 times the strength

of the Hiroshima bomb); fallout from

explosion was

this

carried to the inhabited atolls of Rongelap. Ailinginae,

Rongerik, Utrik and others.

confirmed
to

some

that

some

study carried out in 1994

15 atolls and islands were subject

radioactive fallout during the 1950s, although

most of them are now considered

impacts of these

clear.

The detailed

on the coral reef environment are

tests

unknown, although there were obviously significant

still

physical affects in the areas of direct impact, while a

number of

large ships

Since the 1960s

(Bikini.

were also sunk

human

in the atoll

lagoons.

pressures on these evacuated atolls

Enewetak and Rongelap have been repopulated

and re-evacuated on different occasions up

One positive
increases in some fish

to the present

day) has been minimal.

result

been significant

groups, including

of

this

has

predators such as sharks and jacks (Carangidae) on the

surrounding

reefs.

It

may

USA

among

the

in the region.

The

be that these are

most "pristine" coral reef communities

maintains a military presence in these islands and

continues to operate the Kwajalein Missile Range on

Kwajalein Atoll.

Although there

is

a considerable

mental legislation, enforcement

areas (Bikar and

Bokaak

is

amount of environ-

Two

limited.

protected

Atolls) were established prior to

independence but have not been re-established and hence

are not officially recognized.

they

are

concentrated

into

small

relatively

area.

Consequently there are various environmental problems,

including

sewage and solid waste pollution.

development has taken place with

little

Much

Tourism

is

growing

islands but remains very low level. There

is

in the

now some

dive tourism to Bikini Atoll where the sharks and wrecks

are considered major attractions.

concern for the

environment, and the mining of lagoon sand to obtain

building materials

breakdown of

is

widespread. There has been some

traditional landuse

exacerbated by the considerable movements forced during

the nuclear testmg (see below).

remains very important, and

However, artisanal fishing

is

now being more widely

encouraged. Commercial fishing

is

largely restricted to

foreign-licensed tuna vessels, but there

is

also an aquar-

ium fishery which has been operating out of Majuro

about 20 years, largely exporting to Hawai'i.

Some

for

high

value species are also being exploited, including trochus,

giant clams and marine turtles. Shark fins are obtained as

by-catch from the tuna fisheries. There

is

aquarium

trade), pearl oysters

level rise associated with climate

and trochus. Sea-

change

is

a particular

General Data
Population (thousands)

GDP

(million

US$1

Land area (km^l

Marine area (thousand km^J
Per capita

fish

consumption (kg/yearl

68
75

134
2 131
61

Status and Threats

Reefs at risk (%)

Recorded coral diseases

Perhaps the best known "use" of the atolls of the

Marshall Islands was nuclear weapons testing by the

Biodiversity

Reef area (km^l

Coral diversity

Mangrove area [km^]

threat to these low-lying islands.

in the

also a limited

amount of aquaculture development, focussed on clams

(for the

Marshall slands

and cultural systems,

USA

No. of mangrove species

No. of seagrass species

1940s and 1950s, when some 67 nuclear detonations

Micronesian reef scene: a coral reef pinnacle rises from deep water nearly

to tfie surface.

6110
222/340
na
4
na

Micronesia

and Nauru

Kiribati

MAPS

13e and

15

KiriDStI

islands and coral reefs straddle a

vast swathe of the Pacific

only

some 33

Ocean

but consist of

islands or island systeins.

typically divided into three broad groups.

actual islands are

now

Most of the

referred to by their Micronesian

names, although the island groups are

to

These are

by their European names. In the

still

largely referred

far west is the long

disparate chain of the Gilbert Islands or Tungaru group -

of

km

Caroline Island) and three other islands with fringing

one other submerged reef with no

reefs as well as at least

associated island. Lying on the equator, the country

largely unaffected by cyclones.

comes from

influence

pronounced windward side

western

islands

Islands

in the

lie

winds which

the southeast trade

create a

are

generally

is

The predominant climatic

the reefs.

to

while the

wetter,

dry equatorial zone. Rainfall

is

The
Line
also

which

significantly higher in all areas during El Nifio Southern

have no lagoon but are of similar origin. Often considered

Oscillation events. Although tidal ranges tend to be low

alongside this chain

(less than 2

this is a chain

1 1

atolls

is

and

the isolated island of Banaba, a

raised atoll reaching a height of

Nauru

five other islands

some

81 meters similar to

(see below), and the only "high" island in the

country.

The Phoenix

Islands include three atolls and

mean monthly
up

five other islands with fringing reefs. There are also at

least

two other submerged reef structures (Winslow and

Carondelet) which have no associated islands. The Line

Islands in the east

fall into

a northern

The northern group includes

atolls

and southern group.

the island of Teraina

of Tabuaeran and Kiritimati. The

Kirisimas and also

known

latter,

and the

pronounced

as Christmas Island, has a

largely infilled lagoon and the largest land area of any

atoll.

The southern Line Islands

and include the

Much

atoll

are mostly uninhabited

of Milleimium Island (formerly

of Kiritimati's lagoon

is infilled

and

it

meters

spring tides) there

at

variation in

is

sea level through the year (10-20 centimeters variation in

to

levels)

which can be further exacerbated by

40 centimeters during El Niiio

The

years.

comprise a typical diversity of habitats,

atolls

including channels, lagoon reefs and shallow reef

well as reef slope environments. There

between windward and leeward

is

flats as

a clear difference

sides, with the

windward

(eastern) sides typically having a continuous reef margin,

narrow reef

flat

and well developed

reefs are typically

much

more gradual slope with

submerged
all

at

low

tide.

wider, but in

atoll

The leeward

some places show

a less developed reef

flat,

often

Spur and groove formations are on

sides, but are usually best

has one of the world's largest

islands.

developed on

land areas ISTS067-726-94,

lee shores.

19951.

363

364

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Given the wide geographic spread of

country

this

it

is

linked to other environmental disturbance

including the

possible to follow

some of the wider

regional trends within

dredging of channels and construction of causeways,

the country

notably the diminishing species diversity

although these links remain unproven. Locally, notably in

itself,

moving from west

to east.

Some

5 hard coral species

been recorded from Tarawa and Abaiang Atolls

have

in the west,

while Tabuaeran in the east has 71. Blue coral Heliopora

coerulea

being

is

reported to be widespread

uncommon

in the

over nearby areas in the Pacific. Coral

cover on the outer reef slopes

is

typically very high, with

measurements on Tarawa and Abaiang of up

cover

Much

at

west despite

meters depth and 28-72 percent

of the remainder of the benthos

is

dominated by

mentioned above, a number of

Pacific Territories are geographically part of the

Baker and Howland Islands

north of the Phoenix Islands, while Jarvis,

Palmyra

lie in

lie to

the northern Line Islands. Further information

about these islands

is

given

The population of

m Chapter

Kiribati

is

not always available.

in the

to

problem

is a

in all

now rapidly
some of the

are

settle

Phoenix group.

Milkfish are raised locally in natural ponds in some

Eucheuma

a significant industry in the cultivation of

is

algae for export.

The possible introduction and

cultivation of non-native species

this

environment. Tourism,

About 4 000

is

under consideration,

could have serious implications for the wider

still

at

visitors to Kiribati

low

levels,

increasing.

is

were recorded

in 1995.

Phosphate mining has occurred on a number of the

had a major impact on the

islands. This has

terrestrial

vegetation, but the effects on coral reefs have been slight,

mostly linked to physical damage by access boats during

14.

low and almost entirely

concentrated in the Gilbert Islands. Elsewhere most of the

Maiden

the mining process. Kiritimati (Christmas) and

bomb

Islands were the location for hydrogen

many

areas because freshwater

British

Most of

islands are uninhabited, in

and there are moves

areas and there

the

Kingman and

altered circulation

being low, populations

increasing

although

In addition to the islands

which has

Solid waste disposal

fish.

Despite

areas.

uninhabited islands

including the Phoeni.x petrel and the

Kiribati island groups.

of spawning

10 meters.

Polynesian storm-petrel.

US

this atoll to link the islands,

57 percent

many

a problem. This

patterns in the lagoon and interrupted the migration patterns

to

nesting colonies in the Phoenix and Line Islands, with

the

Tarawa lagoon, sewage pollution may be

has been exacerbated by the construction of causeways in

at

coralline algae. There are several very important seabird

millions of birds,

the

and

US

tests

by the

While these

military in the 1950s and 1960s.

the islanders are heavily

have had serious medical implications for servicemen there

dependent on fish as a source of protein, and overfishing

have been no detailed observations concerning the impacts

a localized problem near population centers. Reports of

on the natural environment - most of the bombs were

is

is

increasing

incidence of ciguatera poisoning have

been

exploded

in the air

some 8-25 kilometers

fi-om the islands.

As with

Impacts on the reefs were never assessed.

islands in the Pacific, perhaps the greatest threat

other low
is

that

of

sea-level rise as a result of climate change.

Despite this

list

of

threats, the majority

of the reefs in

this coral reef nation are in excellent condition.

A number of

protected areas have been established. Although they do not

incorporate significant marine elements, they do ensure that

wider ecosystems are not disturbed. The Fisheries Division

intends to establish at least one protected area in each island

where fishing

is

prohibited, as well as seasonally closed

areas to protect spawning stocks.

Nauru
Nauru

is

single island country lying in considerable

isolation to the west

of

coral atoll reaching a

total

Kiribati. Geologically

maximum

depth of limestone

is

it

is

a raised

height of 71 meters.

some 500 meters over

The

a basalt

seamount. The edge of the island has a coastal terrace up

to

400 meters wide, perhaps indicating

reef Surrounding the island

with a reef

flat

up

to

is a

former sea-level

continuous fringing reef

300 meters wide. The biodiversity of

the reefs has not been extensively surveyed, but the coral

fauna

is

not considered highly diverse.

No

seagrasses and

only one species of mangrove have been recorded.

The branches of acropond corals greatly increase the reef's structural complexity, providing important shelter for
species such as these chromis Chromis

viridis.

MAP
176

174

1^-^' Makin

178

PACIFIC OCEAN

WinslowReef

KIRIBATI
Kanton

Phoenix Islands

r\Maiakei
Enderbury

\^

Abaiang
McKean

Island

WS

BimiB Island

McKean

WS

Rawakj
fPhoenm)
Island

WS

Bimie

Rawaki
BAIRIKI

Oiona
Nikumaroro

Maiana

Abemama Ip^

N4anra

'

Carondelet
70

140

21

km

17?

Aianuka

KIRffiATl
Gilbert Islands

^^'

Nonouti

.\ Tabitenea

Beni

"^

-0

Nikunau

^^Onotoa

PACIFIC OCEAN
Tamana

"

Arorae^
Ksraz

lesns

9 km

50
174

176

100

150

200

250 km
178

36

MAP

13f

Xeiaina

152

155

158

161

'

%, Tabuaeran

Kiritimati

WS

..

Motu Upua Closed Area CIA

Cook Islet Closed Area

(Kiritimati

WS) CIA

KIRIBATI
Motu Tabu

Northern Line Islands

Islet

Closed Area

(Kiritimati

WS)

CM

Kiritimati

Ngaontetaake

Jan/is Island

Islet

Closed Area

(Kiritimati

WS) CIA

NWR

Jarvis

(USA)

PACIFIC OCEAN
Maiden

Maiden Island
(Closed Area)

WS

Starbuck
(Closed Area) WS

166-54'00-

166-55'30-

PACIFIC

OCEAN

/^^

Starbuck

i66-5roo-

KIRTBATl
Southern Line Islands

o-aow

Nauru

0'3r3cr

1
Buads-Lagaon

Millennium

I.

(fonnerly Caroline L)

Anilmni

Ba,

Vostock Island

WS
Vostok

11

N.
1

km
Flint

100
161

158

155

200

300

400
152

500 km

Micronesia

On

of Nauru has been trans-

of the minuig mdustry has been the loss of traditional

formed by phosphate mining, with much of the center of

environmental knowledge. At the same time there are few

land, the entire surface

the island

now

unusable and the population concentrated

close to the coast. Although mining

is

the

income the closure of mining operations

very near future. Fishing

some

planned

in the

formal legal controls on reef utilization under the existing

fisheries

legislation,

Sewage pollution

is

and there are no protected

and

introduce treatment measures in the near future as part of

rare as well

the environmental rehabilitation of the island. Solid waste

fishes diminishing.

One impact

is

an important

activity,

also considered to be a significant problem.

Nauru

Kiribati
General Data

General Data

Population (thousands)

92

Population (thousands!

GDP

43

GDP

Imillion

US$1

Land area (km^l

Marine area (thousand km^l

3 600

Per capita

fish

consumption [kg/yearl

050

182

Status and Threats

A8

Recorded coral diseases

267

Land area (km^l

28

Marine area (thousand km^l

Per capita

fish

/i36

consumption (kg/yearl

50

Reefs at risk (%1

100

Biodiversity

Reef area (km^l

WO

110/365

Mangrove area (km^l

na

No. of mangrove species

No. of seagrass species

Cornetfish Fistulana commersonii are

12

US$1

Recorded coral diseases

Biodiversity

Coral diversity

(million

Status and Threats

Reefs at risk (%l

areas.

problem, although there are plans to

becoming

is still

there are reports of certain species

as average sizes of

is

main source of

na

common

<50

Reef area (km^j

Coral diversity

Mangrove area (km^j

No.

of

mangrove species

No. of seagrass species

on Micronesian reefs.

na

na
1

na

367

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

368

Selected bibliography
NAURU AND

COMMONWEALTH OF THE NORTHERN MARIANA

ISLANDS AND GUAM
Jordan

Wildlife to Spilled

Oil,

Mariana Islands. Volume 2

- Saipan,

Amsterdam, Netherlands.

Marianas.

Office. Saipan, Norttiern

Mink JF, Vacher HL 119971. Hydrogeology of norttiern Guam. In:

Vactier fHL, Quinn T (edsl. Developments in Sedimentology,
54: Geology and Hydrology of Carbonate Islands. Elsevier

Jacob P 12000). The status

119991. Diving

mortalities

Sea

Yap.

fvficronesica

1 1

fluctuations

level

reef animals

of

marine resources and coral reefs

of

Wilkinson

B,

South GR leds)

C,

Reef

Coral

International

the

Initiative

Regional Symposium, Noumea, 22-24 May 2000.

and Snorkelling Guam and

11975).
of

Salvat

In:

Proceedings

2nd edn.

GhassemI F 11997). Geology and hydroNauru Island. In: Vacher HL. Quinn T ledsl.
Developments in Sedimentology, 54: Geology and Hydrology
of Carbonate Islands. Elsevier Science BV, Amsterdam,

Jacobsen

m Guam.

G, Hill PJ,

geology

Lonely Planet Publications. Melbourne. Australia.

Yamaguchi M

Nauru.

of

Science BV. Amsterdam, Netherlands.

Rock T

11997). Geology

of

Resources Management

Coastal

Rota, Aguijan.

Tinian,

KIRIBATI

and hydrogeology
Tarawa and Christmas Island, Kiribati. In: Vacher HL,
Quinn T (edsl. Developments in Sedimentology, 54: Geology
and Hydrology of Carbonate Islands. Elsevier Science BV,

Coastal Environments and

J led! 119981. Sensitivity of

CD

Falkland AC, Woodrotfe

mass

and

Mariana Islands.

of

Netherlands.

227-243.

Lovell ER, KIrata T. Teklnaltl T (2000). National coral reef

PALAU AND FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA

Anthony SS 119971. Hydrogeology

status report for Kiribati.

selected islands of the

of

Vacher HL, Quinn T

Federated States

of Micronesia. In:

Developments

in

Sedimentology, 54: Geology and Hydrology

of Carbonate

Islands.

Elsevier Science

ledsl.

BV, Amsterdam,

southwest

Solomon

Initiative

led)

The Federated States of Micronesia:

11993).

National Environmental

Management Strategy. South

Pacific

Regional Environmental Programme, Apia, Western Samoa.

Henson B led) 11994). Republic of Palau: National Environmental Management Strategy. South Pacific Regional
Environmental Programme, Apia. Western Samoa.
Johannes RE 11981). Words of tt)e Lagoon: Fisliing and Marine
Lore

in

tfie

Coral Reef

GR

Initiative

Pacific:

Nauru,

Fiji,

Islands, Tuvalu

and Vanuatu.

coral reefs

of

New

In:

Wilkinson

the

Samoa,

Caledonia,

CR

(ed).

Status of Coral Reefs of the IVorid: 2000. Australian Institute

of

Marine Science, Cape Ferguson, Australia,

Regional Symposium,

Noumea, 22-24 May 2000.

Goldman B 119941. Environmental management In Yap. Caroline
Islands; can the dream be realized'' fvfar Poll But 29: 42-51
Grano S

Salvat B, Wilkinson C, South

South GR, Skelton PA (2000). Status

Netherlands.

Coral Reef

In:

of the International

Regional Symposium, Noumea, 22-24 May 2000.

ledsl.

Golbuu Y 12000). National coral reef status report for Palau. In:
Salvat B, Wilkinson C. South GR (edsl. Proceedings of the
International

Proceedings

Palau District of Micronesia. University

Map sources
Map 13a
US6S

For Guam, coral reefs and coastline are taken from

map

11978) (Azimuthal projection). Source data for this

include

various hydrographic and topological surveys (from 1945 to

19751.

Although these data are

map remains

old, the location of reefs

on this

accurate (Charles Birkeland, University of

GuamI, For the Northern Marianas, coral reefs are taken from
Pelroconsullants SA (19901*.

USGS

of

:50

(1978).

Map

Topographic

000 US Department

of

of

Guam, Mariana

Islands.

the Interior. Geological Survey.

California Press, California. USA.

Rock T

11999). Diving

and Snorkelling Guam and

Yap.

2nd edn.

Maps 13b and 13c

For Palau and most of the Federated States

Lonely Planet Publications. Melbourne, Australia.

Rock T 12000). Diving and Snorkelling Chuuk Lagoon, Pohnpei

and Kosrae. Lonely Planet Publications, Melbourne. Australia.

of

Micronesia,

coral reef data have been taken as arcs from Petroconsultants

SA

(1990)*. High resolution polygon data

were available

taken from USDI 119831 based on aerial photographs

MARSHALL ISLANDS
Emery KG, Tracey
nearby

Jl Jr.

atolls. Bikini

with field-checking
Bikini

and

geology.

US

Ladd HS 11954). Geology of

and nearby

Geol Survey Prof Pap 260:

atolls,

part

1,

1980.

Mangrove data

USDI (19831. Topographic

map

1969

Yap are also

of the Yap Islands IWaqabI,

Federated States of Micronesia.

of the

for

taken from USDI (19831,

-265.

Lyons H 11928). The sailing charts

in

for Yap.
of

Department

Marshall Islanders.

of

1:25 000.

United

States

the Interior, Geological Survey.

The Geographical Journal 72: 325-328.

Peterson FL 11997). Hydrogeology

of the

Marshall Islands.

Vacher HL, Quinn T ledsl Developments

in

In:

Sedimentology,

Geology and Hydrology of Carbonate Islands. Elsevier

54:

Map 13d
Coral reef data have been taken as arcs from Petroconsultants

SA(1990)*.

Science BV, Amsterdam, Netherlands.

ARG, Maragos JE, TIbon J 12000). The Marshall Islands.

Sheppard C ledl Seas at the Millennium: An Environmental Evaluation. Elsevier Science Ltd, Oxford, UK,

Price
In:

Wells

JW

11954). Recent corals of the Marshall Islands. Bikini

and nearby atolls, part 2. oceanography

Survey Prof Pap 260: 385-486.

Ibiologicj.

US Geol

Maps 13e and

For

Hydrographic Office 11955). For

Kiribati, coral reef

data have

been taken as arcs from Petroconsultants SA (1990)*.

Hydrographic Office (1955). Central Pacific Ocean Islands.
British Admiralty Chart No. 979. 1:55 200.

Zorpette G 11998). Bikinis nuclear ghosts. Scientific American.

913).

13f

Nauru, coastline and coral reefs were taken from

UK.
*

See Technical notes, page 401

May

1955. Taunton,

Polynesia

Chapter 14
Polynesia

20

The
in

Polynesia's

eastern section of the Pacific, stretching

an easterly direction from Tonga, and

Hawaii
in

km

in

features of

its

the north and French Polynesia

and Easter

Island,

A very

Polynesia.

large

westernmost islands

of

common

by the

New

includes both

Zealand

though these harbor no coral

reefs.

islands

wide region. The

U 000 years ago, with secondary migrations spreading

number

this

It

was one of the last areas in the world to be reached

by humans, probably to central Polynesia some 3 000-

known as

the south, constitutes the area

and reefs are scattered across

are defined

limits

peoples.

to

of

Tonga and Wallis and Futuna

It

out from these

lie

first

Samoans

populations. The

thought

plates, with considerable ongoing plate-margin volcanic

AD. Hawai'i, by contrast, was probably not settled

Tonga. The remainder of the region

activity in

on the Pacific

plate,

and

island chains that have been produced by the

ment

many

continues

With over
there

is

varied

11

in

move-

wide range

economic resource

morphologies and ecological communities.

The island arcs provide excellent examples

from volcanic

development,

coastlines

of

atoll

with

only

zation and

been

south the

of

the

latitudinal

development, with decreases

constructions

region.

almost
declines

Left:

all
in

marks

Atoll,

low

Tuamotu

Islands,

19961.

Right:

of

In all,

utili-

resources has largely

islands,

overexploitation

and there are

and pollution

however, the extent

of

human

such pres-

very good condition.

is

largely

populated by people

of

non-

have almost completely ceased. Alongside these

changes Hawai'i has developed the most extensive

in

French Polynesia,

particular

Polynesian origin and traditional uses of coral reefs

away from the

relatively

in

Hawai'i

network

of

marine protected areas

Ocean outside

one moves eastwards.

kilometers ISTS080-750-76,
food trade.

reefs

and there are marked

species groups,

Rangiroa

is

in

sures remains localized, and there are vast areas of

reef

the edge of the Indo-

Species diversity

diversity as

to

of reef

more developed

problems

development.

both diversity and reef

the cooler waters

Polynesia also

tropics.

Pacific

in

in

limits

few countries,

associated with the areas of most intense

the north and

Hawaiian and Austral Archipelagos both

examples

provide

In

for a

management

lost in the

typical

submerged volcanoes with

barrier reefs, and finally true atolls.

inter-island

for

Tonga, French Polynesia and Hawai'i. Traditional

sporadic coral communities through high islands with

fringing reefs, to partially

used

on fisheries. Tourism has become a very important

of coral reefs

harboring highly

of reef types

length were

remote and isolated with small populations dependent

the Hawaiian Islands.

000 square kilometers

in

movement and in the settlement of new areas.

In modern times this region has become an area of
contrasts. A number of the countries and states remain

surface over hotspots, and volcanic

of the plate

activity

30-45 meters

the other islands can be

all of

linked to mid-plate volcanic activity. There are

until

between 500 and 1000 AD. Large double canoes some

located

is

to

are

have populated the Marquesas around 300

on the boundary between the Pacific and Indo-Australian

is

one of the largest

in

the entire Pacific

Australia.

atolls in the Pacific, at

A peacock grouper Cephalopholis argus. The species

is

800 square

a target of the live

369

t/3

--

"^

-^

uj

u
^

U
o

>u

Ju
oz

51

Q,

tu.""

^i
i;,

,-^

^'

<*

^ x'

en

i3

/\
\^

'j'

r-

^^

"*.

^~'v

,.

cT

^^

R."^?

Polynesia

Tuvalu and
Wallis and Futuna
TUVSlU

is

a small archipelago (formerly the Ellice

consisting

Islands)

other platform
reefs.

of five true atolls and four

with encircling

islands

fringing

There are also several other seamounts which may

reach within 30 meters of the surface.

The lagoons
coral heads.

are

between the Pacific and Indo-Australian tectonic

Wallis has fringing reefs around most of

are reported to be rich in

Some 400

fish species

have been recorded from Funafuti There are small mangrove stands

in a

Attempts

few areas.

commercial fisheries have

number

1982,

until

but

the

into

narrow fringing reefs on

all

current

densities

not

are

is

only a small

lagoon proper. Futuna has

coasts, while the uninhabited

Alofi has only a few such areas.

There

is little in

the

way of

scientific description of

the reef communities around these islands.

that

The few

studies

have been undertaken show modest levels of diversity,

some 330

species of benthic

fish so far described.

been largely unsuccessful. Some sea cucumbers were

exported

is

of sand cays on the reef edge. There

with only 30 coral genera and

at establishing

plates.

coastline and

number

both coral cover and diversity, although detailed faunal

inventories have not been prepared.

its

further completely encircled by a barrier reef, with a

of deeper channels

predominantly sandy with some

The outer slopes

MAP 14a

Fishing

operating

an important activity, although largely

is

at a

still

subsistence level. However, there have been

may

considered high enough to revive the fishery. Efforts to

records of blast fishing. Fringing reefs around Futuna

establish a deep water snapper industry for export have

have been impacted by sediment runoff and are reported

largely

failed.

The country receives

main foreign

its

income through the grantmg of fishing licenses

offshore pelagics (predominantly tuna). There

is

for

no major

to

be degraded. There

islands,

and

there are

is

no significant tourism

to the

no formal management regimes or

protected areas.

tourist industry.

Wallis and Futuna

This overseas territory of France consists of three main
islands:

Wallis (Uvea),

Futuna and Alofi. All are high

islands of volcanic origin,

lying close to the boundary

Tuval U
General Data

^^

Wallis an d Futuna

j^^H

General Data

Population Ithousandsl

11

Population (thousands)

15

GDP

GOP

na

(million

US$1

Land area Ikm^l

(million

US$1

Land area (km^j

173

Marine area (thousand km^l

757

Marine area (thousand km^)

300

Per capita

113

Per capita

fish

31

consumption (kg/yearl

fish

consumption (kg/year|

na

Status and Threats

Status and Threats

Reefs at risk (%1

15

Recorded coral diseases

Reefs at risk (%l

26

Recorded coral diseases

Biodiversity

Biodiversity

Reef area (km^l

710

na/36/1

Coral diversity

Mangrove area (km^l

na

No. of mangrove species

No. of seagrass species

1^^^^^H

B^^

na
mm

9iO

Reef area (km^)

na/363

Coral diversity

Mangrove area (km^l

na

No. of mangrove species

No. of seagrass species

3
ff

371

MAP
I

14a
180

179

178

177

176

Nanumea

Niutao

Nanilumanga

PACIFIC OCEAN
TUVALU

oNui

Vaitiqiu

/^

^1 Nukufetau

Funafuti

MarCA n'""\

Funafuti

h ^
i

FUNAFUTI

9
9
ITTSff

178-1S

IZFOff

i176-45'

Wallis

(UvHi)j

lATA-UTU

Nukulaelae

WaUisK

>3

13-3ff

WALUS AND FUTUNA

(FRANCE)
10

PACIFIC OCEAN

10

14'1S

....

.^

FuMB

Home Is.
...

"^

AloE

20

40

60 km

Niulakita

11

20
176

;177

178

179

40

60

80

100

km

Polynesia

Samoa and
American Samoa
Tokelau,

group of
T0K613U
each
numerous

three small coral atolls,

is

with

on

islands

rim.

its

numbers of

are shallow with large

The lagoons

coral outcrops,

while the

maximum height of the

None of

these atolls has a deep channel into the lagoon,

making boat access

difficult.

islands

is

about 4.5 meters.

The area has been

affected by

MAP

14b

pendent western islands of Samoa (formerly Western

Samoa) and

Samoa

Upolu and

eastern

the

itself is

islands

of American Samoa.

dominated by the two large islands of

Savai'i with a few very small islands nearby.

Savai'i, geologically the youngest, experienced eruptions

from two of

its

volcanoes

in the early

1900s. There are

cyclones on a number of occasions, including 1987, 1990

fringing reefs around most of the coastline, generally

and 1991. Detailed information about the biodiversity of

close to the shore, but reaching up to 3 kilometers offshore

these reefs

is

unavailable, but

of the Samoan Islands

it is

be similar to

likely to

to the south

and Tuvalu

Tokelau, a territory of New Zealand,

is

that

to the west.

heavily depend-

along the northwestern coast of Upolu.

Information on biodiversity

About 50 species of hard

is

relatively

limited.

coral have been listed, although

ent on financial support for development. Concerns about

this is likely to

degradation of the natural environment from overfishing

of marine algae have been more complete, and some 300

and sewage pollution have led

to

some

environmental management. There

is

efforts to

a small

improve

fish

pro-

be a considerable underestimate. Studies

species have so far been described.

cessing plant on Atafu which prepares sundried tuna. At the

which

end of the 1990s the overall threats were very low, although

are small areas of seagrass,

there had been depletion of a

giant

clam and trochus. There

lation

and there are very few

number of
is

species such as

a relatively small popu-

Some 991

fish species

have been recorded in the wider Samoan archipelago, of

at least

890 are shallow reef-dwelling species. There

are well developed at a

reefs

and mangrove communities

few locations around Upolu. The

and islands of Samoa were severely impacted by

cyclones Ofa and Val in 1990 and 1991, although there

visitors.

is

reported to have been good recovery of coral cover and

diversity in

Samoa
The Samoa Archipelago

is

many

areas.

The people of Samoa

a hotspot chain of predominantly

high volcanic islands divided into the politically inde-

on the
market.

are generally heavily dependent

reefs at a subsistence level

An

and for the domestic

estimated 4 600 tons of fish were taken for

Decorator crabs cultivate other organisms on their bodies as a form of camouflage or defense. Here a crab has stinging
hydroids growing on

its

antennae, which

it

uses for defense.

373

374

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

subsistence in

American Samoa

1997, while domestic markets probably

add a further 75-80 tons of

fish,

crustaceans and other

The eastern portion of

the

Samoa Archipelago

invertebrates (1998-99 figures). There has been a noted

five high volcanic islands and. in the east,

reduction in biomass and size of fish in shallower and

is

more heavily fished

exporters,

trade

attempts
snails.

at

is

also

develops

some
there

giant

are

chemicals

and

sediments,

Swains

Atoll, a

remote

atoll

between the main islands and those of Tokelau

The high

Atoll.

its

It

admin-

which

lies

to the north.

islands are surrounded by fringing reefs, with

reef flats typically 50-500 meters wide terminating in a

increasmg problems of

reef slope which drops sharply for 3-6 meters and then

combined with uncontrolled use of

chemicals are creating high

istration also covers

USA. and

clam aquaculture. As the

from sewage and solid waste. Poor landuse

pollution
practices

There are two small aquarium

reef restocking with giant clams and green

There

country

areas.

while there have also been several

an unincorporated territory of the

consists of

Rose

loads

agricultural

of nutrients, toxic

placing

the

reefs

under

descends gradually down to a depth of about 40 meters.

Biodiversity

is

similar to

Samoas, with 890 species

of reef fish recorded around the entire archipelago.

200 coral species have been recorded. The

reefs

Some
were

increasing levels of stress. Tourism, the fastest growing

severely impacted by the 1990 and 1991 cyclones, having

some problems,

previously suffered a damaging crown-of-thorns outbreak

sector of the economy,

particularly in the

Samoa

is

also causing

development of hotel

(1978), but they are reported to have

facilities.

has only one major marine protected area,

although the Tafua Rainforest Reserve contains some

made

There are small areas of mangrove on Tutuila and

coastal areas, and there are plans to develop others. There

Aunu'u. The reef rim of Rose Atoll

are also increasing efforts to involve village participants

coralline algae.

in

conservation awareness. Traditional marine tenure

is

a considerable

recovery from these events.

It

dominated by

is

has an important green turtle nesting

colony, and having been cleared of rats

also a thriving

is

recognized, maintaining traditional ownership of adjacent

seabird colony. Swains Atoll lies at sea level, but there

lagoon and reef fishery resources by the villages.

a circular island on the reef flat completely enclosing the

Left:

white-belly damsel Amblyglyphldodon leucogaster sheltering in a branching Acropora. Right: Savai

reefs with sunlight highlighting ocean surface features lSTS093-7U-i9,

19991.

Island

and

is

MAP 14b

376

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Protected areas with coral reefs

Site

name

Abbreviation

Designation

lUCN

cat.

Size

ikm^i

Year

American Samoa
Fagatele Bay

National Marine Sanctuary

National Park of American Saimoa

National Park

Rose

National Wildlife Refuge

Atoll

NaMS

IV

NP

II

NWR

la

ETC

0.64

1986

37.25

1988

6.53

1973

IV

0.22

1979

IV

60.00

1990

Samoa
Reserve

Deep Marine

Palolo

Other area

Tafua Rainforest Reserve

brackish atoll lagoon. There

50 people on the

The

the

small population of some

Samoa

population centers there are

sewage

vast majority of the rapidly

of American
Tutuila.

is a

island.

lives

growing population

on the southern shores of

Although fisheries are very important, changes

economy have meant

that there

is

less reliance

in these areas

still

some

nutrient inputs

from

and elsewhere. There are two tuna

canneries which used to add considerable amounts of

nutrients to

Pago Pago harbor. These inputs have now been

in

substantially reduced with the construction of a treated

on

waste disposal pipe further offshore, and the dumping of

some

The

subsistence fishing than in the past. About 150 tons of

high nutrient waste

reef fish and invertebrates were taken by subsistence and

coastline on Tutuila has been heavily impacted by road

1994, and overfishing

building and construction, and nesting turtles have largely

small-scale artisanal fisheries in

has been shown to occur on Tutuila Island. There are

further problems arising from land-derived sediments and
pollutants.

Although there

is

sewage treatment

in the

Tokelau

main

at

8 kilometers distance.

stopped using the area.

A number

of reefs and related habitats have been

declared as protected areas.

Samoa

American

Samoa
General Data
Population (thousands)

GDPImiUion US$1

179

65

na

90

na

803

187

Marine area (thousand km^l

290

120

390

consumption

129

32

na

95

U2

Land area Ikm^l

Per capita

fish

20

(kg/yearl

Status and Threats

Reefs at risk |%|

Recorded coral diseases

Biodiversity

Reef area (km^)

Coral diversity

<50

A90

220

na /210

na/211

150/212
57

Mangrove area (km^l

na

No. of mangrove species

na

No. of seagrass species

na

na

Polynesia

Tonga and Niue

MAP

lAc

TOnQd S

from north

islands stretch for over

to

south.

They

The majority of Tonga's

800 kilometers

These are largely of reef

are located along the

Tonga Trench, which

the

at

nearly

000 meters

is

lie in

the eastern arc.

origin, although there are also

significant ash deposits, up to 5 meters thick

western edge of the convergent margins of the

and 13 meters thick on Kotu. They

Indo-Australian and Pacific tectonic plates. To their east

is

islands

one

groups.

km

The Tongatapu group

fall

on Tongatapu

into three

in the south

is

main

dominated

of the deepest points of the ocean. The islands consist

by the large uplifted islands of Tongatapu and 'Eua. The

of both relatively low-lying limestone islands and high

central Ha'apai group

volcanic ones. The volcanic islands form a westerly chain

low-lying islands. The Vava'u group in the north

along a volcanic arc (the Tofua Arc), from 'Ata in the

nated by the main island of Vava'u, but also includes a

south to Niuafo'ou in the north.

active

Many of

these are

the last major eruption of Niuafo'ou

complex spread of

wide spread of islands and reefs on

still

was

is

Tonga

in

also lays claim to the

its

south there have been recent eruptions in a number of

although

submarine locations, and on a few occasions these have

areas, there are reports

Shoal

new

new

islands.

islands have occurred as

in recent history,

while a

new

disputes this claim. In addition to these

of highly remote reefs to the south

as five times

kilometers east of Tongatapu and Gleaner Reef about 175

was reported 35

kilometers southeast of 'Eua.

Tectonic activity in the country

most of these islands soon disappear below sea

Although these volcanic islands

lie

is

considerable.

Many

islands and shoals are too active at the present time for

quite large and reaching to over 100 meters above sea

level again.

lie to

Islands,

and east of Tonga, including Albert Meyer Reef about 300

kilometers northwest of Tongatapu in 1999. Despite being

level,

Lau

the Metis

Around

many

island

and

domi-

southern side.

the southwest of 'Ata and south of Fiji's

led to the appearance of

is

Minerva Reefs which

1942, with more recent activity recorded in 1985. Further

Fiji

reefs

reef development and, in

many of

these areas, conditions

of the substrate and even conditions of ocean chemistry

in close

proximity to the limestone ones of Tonga, they are actually

may be

separated by the Tofua Trough which reaches depths of

communities. Uplift and subsidence are relatively regular

800 meters.

Left:

occurrences in

A marbled grouper Epinephelus polyphekadion. Large groupers

Vava'u Islands and reefs

unsuitable for the settlement of significant coral

in

northern Tonga ISTS068-252-50,

19941.

are

many

common

areas, particularly in the volcanic

on less heavily fished reefs. Right: The

377

MAP

lAc
175

:176

174

173

Niuatoputapu

Niuafo'ou

Group

172

TONGA
Tafehi

Hakau Topu Shoal c.

16

16

Niuatoputapu

'-

'Eua

PACIFIC OCEAN

leg-ac

iee-45'

leroff

Antiope Reef
'Ata

Pelorus

Gleaner Reef

Reef

I6e<s6'

'

les-sff

19'00'

1?'<5'

r' MuBlau*
17

17"

Lakepa*'

lOI-.j

Minerva Reefe

Niue

Niue

Uku*

'alofi

'-^!^/L^
6

18

10

15

.19*30'

km

Beveridge Reef

km

18-

Foilualei

TokuReef

Vava'u Group

PACIFIC OCEAN

Vava'u

Hung

Koioa

Nuapapu

Kapa

Late

19

19'

Home Reef
MaJinoe Island
Park and Reef R

Hakaumama'o
>?

Akkumanes Bank

Metis Shoal

ReefR

.^

Ha'ataHj

.,
^

SeacAR-

* Falcon Bank
TONGA
' Bethuiie

Kao

Luahoko o

m^

Niniva

Tofua

"^o"
I

Ha'afeva

Kotu Group

20

Kotu^^j
V

r.

C
Fonuafo'ou

Hunga Tonga
Hunga Ha'apai

'

Reserve

yTongatapK

Foa

Ha'apai

^'
J.

Group

Uonukuhahake

Kakau Lagoons

Island

MR

20'

"J

Tongatapu Group

^^^^^^

175*20'

i;

km

175'10'

Albert

Atata.

21

Fange'uta and Fanoa

Nomuka
Otu Tolu Group
a Fonoiiiia
^ .;?,:,
Mango
Nomuka
Telekitonga
Group

^cn^^^

Park and Reef R

Lifiika

Uiha' } Uoleva

'Ohja-

Bank

Ha'ano

>

Meyer Reef

ITS'OO'

""^

21

Z^"j"Tai^
Fa4
Tongatapu

Tongatapu

'^

Group
'Eua

Kalau
20
176

175

174

173

40

60

80

10
172

km
I

Polynesia

on the reefs

able underestimates. Coral cover

is

likely to

be highly variable, with records of only 2 percent

Monuafe but up

50 percent

to

at

Although large numbers of crown-of-thorns

been reported

many

in

starfish have

major outbreaks have not

areas,

been recorded. Cyclones cause periodic damage

with the

ones reported

latest

in

Hakaumama'o Reef

to reefs,

1995, 1997, 1999 and

in

2000. Although largely unaffected by the 1998 bleaching,

Tongan

the

appeared to have suffered a major

reefs

bleaching event similar to that reported in

Fiji in

2000.

Artisanal fisheries are an important activity in the

country. Studies have
artisanal catch

shown

that

made up of

is

almost 70 percent of the

reef fish (notably emperors

and mullet). Turtle eggs and meat are

notably

fisheries,

coral

still

many

eaten in

There are also several important commercial

areas.

and

aquarium trade dealing

an

in

fish,

rock (small pieces of reef rock housing

live

numerous species) together with limited numbers of

By contrast, reefs
developed among the eastern
islands.

reefs surrounding

are

widespread and well

islands.

There are fringing

most coasts, while platform and

type structures are also located in most of the

barrier-

mam

invertebrates. Holothurians have also

been widely taken,

particularly the sandfish Hololhuria scabra. Overfishing

is

problem

in areas

of high population density, notably

island

around Tongatapu. Target species for export have also

groups. The most extensive areas of reef are in the Hapa'ai

been overfished throughout the country. Two giant clam

group. The dominant winds are southeast trade winds,

species,

particularly from

March

there

is

March

October From November

to

a cyclone season, although trade

winds

to

still

predominate much of the time.

Little

information

diversity of

Tongan

is

reefs.

introduced

in

1990 and 1991.

number of

nurseries have been established to be

available describing the bio-

Some

Tridacna gigas and Hippopus hippopus. were

thought to have become locally extinct, but were re-

192 species of sclerac-

have been recorded

community

level.

was imposed

giant clam

managed

at

the

complete ban on sea cucumber export

for ten years in

1997 as a response to chronic

around

overharvesting. These problems of overfishing have been

Tongatapu. Other studies have revealed 229 reef fish

exacerbated by a lack of local ownership of reef resources,

from 39

enabling commercial collectors to harvest even close to

tinian

corals

families,

holothurians. In

all

at

1 1

reefs

55 bivalves, 83 gastropods and

13

cases these are likely to be consider-

^^^^V

local

communities. In addition to overfishing, certain

Tonga

Niue

General Data

General Data

Population (thousands)

102

Population (thousands)

GDP

U9

GDP

(million

US$1

(million

US$)

na

Land area (km^)

697

Land area (km^)

228

Marine area (thousand km^l

700

Marine area (thousand km^)

390

Per capita

fish

consumption (kg/yearl

35

Status and Threats

fish

consumption (kg/year)

62

Status and Threats

Reefs at risk (%|

i6

Recorded coral diseases

Reefs at risk [%)

43

Recorded coral diseases

Biodiversity

Biodiversity

Reef area (km^j

500

na/218

Coral diversity

Mangrove area (km^l

10

No. of mangrove species

No. of seagrass species

The lined butterftyfish Chaetodon lineolatus

Per capita

na

is

Reef area (km^)

Coral diversity

Mangrove area (km')

No. of mangrove species
No. of seagrass species

found from the Red Sea

to the Pitcairn Islands.

170

na/189
na
1

na

379

380

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Protected areas with coral reefs

1

name

Site

Designation

lUCN

Abbreviation

Size

cat.

Year

lkm>l

Tonga

MP

'Eua National Park

National Park

Fanga'uta and Fanga Kakau Lagoons

tlarine

MR

VI

Ha'amonga TriUthon

Park

Unassigned

Ha'atatu Beach

Reserve

Hakaumama'o Reef

Reserve

Malinoa Island Park and Reef

A.50

1992

28.35

1974

0.19

1972

IV

0.08

1979

IV

2.60

1979

Reserve

IV

0.73

1979

Monuafe Island Park and Reef

Reserve

IV

0.33

1979

Mui fiopo fioponga Coastal Reserve

Reserve

na

1972

Pangalmotu Reef

Reserve

IV

0.49

1979

ETC

Unassigned

na

na

CA

VI

54.00

na

Reserve

II

Nlue
Beveridge Reef

Ottier

Huvalu Forest

Conservation Area

relatively

destructive

fishing

appear to be

practices

degrading reefs, notably through smashing reefs

fish into nets, but also trampling

of reef

Area

flats

to

chase

and the use

of poisons such as bleach and pesticides.

Eutrophication

is a

problem

arising from both untreated

in

This has been blamed for an increase

mangroves and

a decline in corals in

forming a modern reef flat, becoming discontinuous in the

south and east.

Few

details are

known about

fertilizer

runoff

and there are reported

to

be over 43 coral genera. Tropical

Cyclone Ofa struck the island

1990 and was reported

in

have caused considerable damage to the reefs, particularly

Fanga'uta Lagoon.

on the western coast. Over 200 kilometers southeast of

Niue there

from the building of causeways

nificant

atoll-like

there

no vegetated land, there

Ha'apai and Vava'u.

while quarrying, construction and sand mining create

problems

in

some

Tourism

30 000

is

particularly important for Tonga, with over

number of protected

areas have

been established, largely focussed around Tongatapu.

Such protection measures

are difficult to enforce without

community involvement and

there

are

now moves

to

more community-based management of marine

establish

resources.

is

is

a substantial
structure:

The whole of Ha'apai has been declared

the lagoon channel,

cover

Niue

is

an internally self-governing

New

association with

in free

Zealand citizenship, and

Three proposed reserves were surveyed

on offshore pelagic

in

the Vava'u

1997.

There

is

is

diving.

Niue

in

It is

actually

the Pacific.

The

atoll, oval in

shape

height of about 70 meters above

one of the

island

is

which

exists

majority live in

New
New

an important

a limited

is

typically about

activity,

species.

500 meters wide.

although mostly focussed

There

amount of tourism

is

no export

to the island

fishery.

and some

substantial proportion of the eastern coastline,

is

included

in the

Huvalu Forest

Conservation Area. Although the marine components of this

Nine consists of a single uplifted coral

maximum

state

Zealand. All Niueans have

in fact the

including the offshore reef,

sea level.

and

Zealand. The resident population live almost entirely along

Fishing

significant

diverse and unfished.

the coastal terrace which

and reaching

is

and there may be other cays. Coral

South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP).

in

sig-

Beveridge Reef Although

reported to be high, and the fish populations

is

Conservation Area following a recommendation by the

group

seamount capped by a

apparently permanent sand cay on the northern mouth of

areas.

visitors in 1999.

to

seagrass and

in

Tongatapu. Further problems have been noted resulting

in

the diversity

of the reefs, although 243 marine fish have been recorded

Tongatapu and Vava'u.

sewage and

narrow platform cut into the former reef structure and

largest carbonate islands

almost surrounded by a

site are

not well

exploited.

known

protected, although
active

they are not considered to be heavily

Beveridge Reef has also been declared as

management.

its

legal status

is

unclear and there

is

no

Polynesia

Cook Islands
MAPS

The Cook

Islands are a group of 15 islands, or island

groups, scattered across a wide expanse of ocean.

Descriptions

typically

divide

the

geo-

islands

graphically into a northern and a southern group.

northern

Cook

The

Islands are a group of five atolls and a

platform island. With the exception of Penrhyn they are

located on the Manihiki Plateau.

formed when
atolls

this

was a shallow volcanic

have grown up as the plateau

by contrast,

is

seems

It

likely that they

feature

itself subsided.

and the

Penrhyn.

an isolated feature rising from the deep

Tema Reef

ocean. In addition to these islands,

surface

platform reef located between

Nassau

Island.

is

a sub-

Pukapuka and

one large and two small volcanic islands located

have been described as

have a volcanic center with a carbonate rim of reef origin,

now

uplifted to

some

height above sea level. Finally, the

main island of Rarotonga

Fringing reefs occur around

around Rarotonga

in the

be quite narrow. Reef

algae,

The lagoons
in the

The southern Cook

oceanic

island

types.

Islands

show

They follow two

parallel

chains

running from the northwest to the southeast, and they

continue as the Austral

Islands

in

terminating in the volcanically active

French Polynesia,

Macdonald Seamount,

probably indicating some form of hotspot origin to the

islands.
is

Palmerston and Manuae are true

a platform island (possibly

left

and Takutea

behind after the partial

collapse of an atoll structure). Aimtaki

Suwarrow Atoll, an

atolls

is

a near-atoll with

isolated atoll in the northern

Cook islands

of the makatea islands and

very level with a

flats are typically

are highly varied

among

the atolls.

southern Cooks, has a very sandy shallow

lagoon. Rakahanga's lagoon

wide range of

all

southern group, although these can

and spur and groove formations become characteristic

Manuae,

separated by a deep (more than 500 meters) channel.

a high volcanic island (652

hard platform, while the crests are dominated by coralline

structure lying on the same seamount as Penrhyn, but

is

is

meters) with substantial ridges and steeply incised valleys.

offshore.

Reef

in the

Mauke and Mangaia,

makatea (fossil reef) islands. They

lagoon. Four islands. Mitiaro, Atiu,

another platform

Flying Venus

iAd and e

and shows very

little

the other northern

is

virtually enclosed

active coral growth,

islands

by islands

whereas most of

have relatively deep lagoons

(average depths of over 10 meters) with varying degrees

of reef development. Winslow Reef,

is

in the southern

a shallow platform reef lying nearly

Cooks,

150 kilometers

northeast

of Rarotonga and lacking any above-water

structures.

Due

Islands

lie

to their southeriy location,

in the path

typically occur

between January and March.

I5TS055-97-58. 19931.

all

the

Cook

of hurricanes and storms, which

381

MAPl4d

S):

(S

tMn

^^B^^:....

/ ^
I /

sag

'

^^^^^^kJ

it
1
1

'

.J^ai

%/^

i
'

J
3j
,i^i

MAP I4e

:o:

io;

iOi

n
I

I
ss.

^\

\0\

-1

<

lOi

384

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Protected areas wi th coral reefs

t

Site

name

Abbreviation

Designation

lUCN

Size

cal.

Year,

(kmil

9
Cook Islands
Aitutaki

Hunting Reserve

HR

na

na

1981

Manuae Lagoon

Hunting Reserve

HR

na

na

na

Palmerston Lagoon

Hunting Reserve

HR

na

na

na

Suwarrow

National Park

NP

IV

1.60

1978

Atoll

biodiversity of Cook Island reefs has not received a

The

great deal of attention,

however

is

it

clear that they

some

lie at

planned

in a

number of areas and

is

distance from the mega-diverse areas of the Western Pacific.

1998 on Rarotonga and Aitutaki.

was

heritage

natural

project

developing a database of

is

and currently includes 578 fish species (of which

species,

491 are shallow water or benthic species),

16 stony corals

(excluding solitary species), 390 molluscs, 100 crustaceans

and 50 echinoderms (including 20 sea cucumbers).

March 2000 with bleaching observed

80 percent of corals. Sea-level

in

with

climate change could present significant problems for a

number of the low-lying

islands

and associated

Although a number of protected areas are

reefs.

listed

it is

the

reefs that offer the greatest protection. In 1998 five coastal

Politically

governing

large

the

and abundance of species

The Cook

of

areas in Rarotonga were designated as temporary non-

mangroves and none are recorded.

harvesting zones using a traditional (Rani) system - these

Cook

Islands

state in free association

Cook

Niueans,

European

live

in

levels,

east

internally

New

self-

Zealand. Like

probably

far smaller than pre-

with about half of the people living on

Utilization

resources

considerable. In

households undertook

of,

at

996 about 70 percent of

some form of

least

fishing, including both gleaning

exports, with large black pearl

industries

fish.

Islands,

Tourism

from reef

flats

farms

in

Manihiki Atoll

in

associated
is

with

and

trochus

an important industry for the

which receive about 100 000

There are some human impacts on the

with

urban

Sedimentation, chemical

visitors per year.

traditional

may

system

being refined, with the addition

and

agricultural

development.

and nutrient pollution are

Rarotonga

in

Cook

Isl

ands

General Data
20

Population (thousands)

GDP

Imllllon

75

US$)

232

Land area (km^l

Marine area Ithousand km^j
Per capita

fish

consumption (kg/year)

830
68

Recorded coral diseases

Biodiversity

Reef area Ikm^l

Coral diversity

90 percent, and that there had been decreases

Mangrove area |km2|

in diversity

fish families over the previous five years.

57

Reefs at risk (%l

all

1999 suggested that

Such

observations are probably linked to increased stress from

urban development. Foreshore development has been poorly

this

lead to similar implementation in

other areas.

benthic cover of algal turf had increased by 20 percent to

some

is

of a permanent reserve area. The successful revival of

Status and Threats

reefs, particularly

potential threats. Surveys of flinging reefs in the vicinity of

the township area of

observed and the system

and boat-

Snorkelling and diving are popular activities.

associated

local

all

providing the main source of export income. There are also

ornamental

by the

communities. The benefits of these areas are already being

subsistence

based fishing. Marine resources are also extensively used

minor export

are not legally gazetted but are supported

and reliance on, coral reef

Rarotonga.
is

an

are

with

lie

New Zealand citizenship, and

New Zealand. The remaining

relatively small,

is

Islands

Islanders have

majority

population

in

rise associated

around the high (volcanic) islands and lowest around

the natural distribution of

Cook

also recorded in

to

in

mass bleaching event

low population densities and the remote location of many

that the diversity

the uplifted (inakaiea) islands.

up

is

been suggested
greatest

has

It

causing coastal erosion.

There were reports of a crown-of-thoms starfish outbreak

51

120

/172

No. of mangrove species

No. of seagrass species

na

Polynesia

French Polynesiap
the Pitcairn Islands and

CUpperton Atoll

MAPS

and h

I4f. g

^Okm

Polynesia

French

largest territories

in

represents one of the

the Pacific

some 6 000 square kilometers of

and incorporates
coral reefs.

It

is

divided into five distinct archipelagos, each following a

chain oriented from northwest to southeast. Four of these

archipelagos trace the

movement of the

Earth's crust over

volcanic hotspots and their structures are younger in the

southeast,

where there are a number of high

Tuamotu Archipelago

in the

islands.

The

center of the territory also

archipelago.

oldest

the

atolls,

They

of low coralline

consist

with the exception of Makatea, which

raised,

is

reaching some 113 meters above sea level. These atolls

include
1

some of

the largest in the Pacific - Fakarava at

400 square kilometers and Rangiroa

at

nearly

800

square kilometers, with some 240 islands along

its atoll

rim. Taiaro Atoll near the center of the group

slightly

uplifted, with a

of

this

lagoon

is

completely enclosed lagoon. The closure

is

thought to have been relatively recent,

originated from volcanic activity, but these volcanoes are

and there are some surviving reef communities despite

associated with a shallow plateau on the edge of the

their apparent isolation

The Marquesas,
together with a

and the raised

The Society Islands

spreading East Pacific Ridge.

group of high volcanic islands

number of smaller

islets

and shallow

banks, form the most northerly archipelago. They

lie in

the largest island in the country.

Moorea
The

with very low rainfall showing a peak in June. Their

is

it

is

salinities.

the best

known

in the

an active volcano with

only sparse coral development along

and are climatically quite

from the other islands,

among

region. Mehetia in the southeast

the path of the westward flowing South Equatorial Current

distinct

are

its

coastline. Tahiti

is

Like the neighboring

a high volcanic island with vertiginous slopes.

coastlines of both islands have discontinuous fringing

reefs

and are surrounded by offshore barrier

each

reefs,

the

broken by numerous passes. To the northwest many of the

equator so they are rarely impacted by cyclones. Despite

islands have similar structures with high central islands

northerly

this,

latitude

places

reef development

fringing reefs and

is

many

them

relatively

close

poor. There are short stretches of

less clearly

These reefs are very young, and

The Tuamotus make up

defined structures.

their diversity

the largest

is

low.

and geologically

Broad view of the western Tuamotus, including

15TS055-73-J. 19931.

to

five

and barrier

reefs;

however, Maupiti

is

a near-atoll,

remaining structures to the northwest are true

The Gambler

Islands

lie at

and the

atolls.

the southeastern

end of the

Tuamotus. and are sometimes considered as part of

of the larger atolls: Arutua, Apataki, Kaukura. Toau

and Fakarava

this

385

386

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

ikm
larger group.

the eastern extent of French

lagoons only Poriies and Acropora dominate, and in the

They represent

islands are a cluster of four large vol-

near-closed lagoons only Acropora. Outer slopes largely

canic islands (Mangareva, Taravai. Aukena and Akamaru)

harbor Pocillopora. Acropora and Porites. with coral cover

surrounded by a single barrier reef These and other smaller

ranging from 40 to 60 percent

The main

Polynesia.

islands

in

lagoon also show some fringing reef

the

development. The small

atoll

of Temoe

sometimes

is

The Austral

Islands

lie to

the southwest and include the

rock pinnacles of Marotiri (Bass Islands) and the high

volcanic island of

Rapa

percent cover in

some

considered part of the Gambler group.

in the far southeast.

These are the

are significant coral communities.

Pontes and Pachyseris

corals are absent, and algal cover

is

islands in the Austral group

lie

much

high.

The remaining

further north

and have

The

reefs of French Polynesia include

some of the

Information

is

which have never been

visited

by

are low, there arc a

scientists.

in the

eastern region of the Indo-Pacific, diversity

is

relatively low, particularly

on a unit-area

country.

is

somewhat hidden

Some

been recorded. There appear

to

to

90 meters. There are

communities

number of unique

Cyclones have regularly affected the reefs of the

Tuamotus and Society

Islands.

A number

impacted by crown-of-thorns starfish

1980s, exacerbated by cyclone

Bleaching

at

in 1991

damage

such low

be some general patterns

dominant species among different reef types. The

led to mortality

1970s and

some

areas.

more severe bleaching event

live corals.

Further bleaching recorded in 1998 was relatively patchy

but led to significant mortalities in

The majority of

islands

some

and reefs

in

areas.

French Polynesia

human populations and remain

unimpacted by human activities. Fishing is critical

are remote from significant

more remote from urban and tourism developments.

late

1990s

it

was estimated

that about

in

atoll

at subsistence level. In a

overfishing.

One of

few places there may be

the major industries in the country

river

is

black pearl culture, which employs around 5 000 people

at

600 farms on some 50

US$130

barrier reef with broad reef flats has developed around Uturoa, Society Islands.

and

In the

4 000-4 500 tons of

lagoon fish were landed annually, about 3 500 of which

were

islands. This industry supplies

earns about

t9941.

in

of 20 percent of the

Acropora, Psammocora and Synaraea, while

barrier reefs ISTS068-258-45.

of reefs were
the

moderate levels was reported from various

about 98 percent of the world market

some

in

for all of the populated islands, but particularly for those

159 molluscs have

barrier reef can be seen to correspond to inlets

each of

species recorded from

lagoons of high volcanic islands are dominated by Pontes,

in

endemism

largely

vast

in the species totals for the

down

atolls,

The

168 coral species, about 800 reef fish, 30

echinoderms, 346 species of algae and

in the

that

Even

5 meters.

generally

and the considerable diversity of reef types

and physico-climatic conditions mean

diversity

basis.

most

Marquesas and Gambler archipelagos.

the

particularly limited describing the Gambler,

Marquesas and Austral archipelagos. Located

total reef area

best

some 50

studied in the Pacific, but there are nonetheless

islands or atolls

some

distinctive features about the

locations in the 1980s, and a

well developed fringing and barrier reefs.

a depth of

the archipelagos and, although general rates of

southernmost islands of the region, with relatively low sea

temperatures. There are no fringing reefs although there

at

the deeper reef slopes have high coral cover, with over 90

mouths

in

million per annum.

Some

black pearls and

The

oysters are

of the channels through the

of the adjacent island, a

common

occurrence on

MAP

14f

MAP

i4g

Polynesia

no detailed

caused considerable damage to some areas. Only three

knowledge of the impact they may have on planktonic

protected areas currently incorporate coral reefs, making up

systems or the predation of reef larvae, no major

a tiny proportion

suspended

and while there

lagoons,

in

mental effects have been observed

some prawn aquaculture

is

to date.

for local markets.

There

detri-

is

are

also

Trochus and

to

Tourism

reef area in the country. There

and

develop community-based management systems for a

another major industry on some islands,

is

Pitcairn

1996. All hotel developments are

in

and a number of hotels extend over the reef

jetties or

total

in local handicrafts.

with 164 000 visitors

coastal,

of the

efforts to increase the total area protected,

number of atoll lagoons.

green snails have been introduced and are now utilized for
food and

ongoing

flat

The easternmost

on

of the small group of the Pitcairn Islands. Pitcairn

pontoons. While hotels are required to treat their

wastewater there

may be some

islands of the Indo-Pacific region consist

introduction of nutrient-rich

is

a relatively recent volcanic island reaching

Henderson Island

waters into the lagoon or via the groundwater. Coastal

meters above sea

development more generally has led

which reaches 34 meters above sea

modifications of the coastline

Sewage pollution

is

in

to

Tahiti

considerable

two small

and Moorea.

cover

sediment runoff, possibly exacerbated by pesticides and

Ducie

which may have localized impacts.

In Tahiti

level,

is

a raised atoll

while there are

Oeno, with only one small

Ducie with one main island and three smaller

also a problem close to urban areas in

these two islands, while they also have high levels of

fertilizers,

atolls,

level.

is

itself

some 347

island,
islets.

and

Coral

reported to be very high, typically 80-90 percent on

10-30 meters, but slightly lower (40-70 percent)

at

around Oeno, dominated by Acropoia and Montiponi. The

it

has been estimated that 20 percent of reefs in urban areas

fringing reefs around

Henderson have lower coral cover,

have been destroyed, while 75 percent of the fringing reefs

typically 10-30 percent

on the fore reef slope, dominated by

in

Bora-Bora, which

destinations, have

is

one of the most popular

been moderately

compared

In terms

to severely disturbed.

Overall however, the total extent of these impacts

or very low

Pocillopora. There are no reefs around Pitcairn.

tourist

to the total area

is

of coral reefs

and high

in

The remote

1996.

The

effects

and

is

is

most southerly

Pitcairn

including atmospheric tests from

The islanders make very occasional

of these are not well known, although

atmospheric

tests in particular

visits to

it is

would have

Ttiis

The

Oeno

atoll for

and islands

are largely protected by their isolation, whilst

Henderson

Island

one of only 18 scleractmian corals recorded on

of

reefs

fishing but do not rely on these visits.

tests until

atoll

atoll in the world.

the only inhabited island, with a low population.

of Mururoa and Fangataufa were

is

their easterly location

both the most easterly

tests,

Extensive colonies of Porites arnaudi on Clipperton Atoll.

Pacific,

Ducie

atolls

1966 to 1974. and for subsequent underground

likely that the

latitude.

the Indo-Pacific and the

French Polynesia.

used for nuclear

of biodiversity these reefs have low species

numbers, as might be expected from

low

species

is

now

is

probably restricted

tfie atoll tpfjolo:

World Heritage

JEN

Veronl.

Site.

to ttie reefs of the

Eastern

389

MAP

I4h

o
CM
a;

I
I

O
O
U

^-1-..
a

CO

SB

I
I

:|

1
O;''

"1

i^
:l

Polynesia

Protected areas wi th coral reefs

B

Site

name

lUCN

Abbreviation

Designation

cat.

Size

Year

Ikm'l

French Polynesia

TaiaroAtoUlWA Robinson)

Strict

SNR

IV

11.88

1973

SciUy (Manuael

Territorial

Reserve

TRes

IV

113.00

1992

Bellinghausen (Motu One]

Territorial

Reserve

TRes

IV

12, iO

1992

Atoll de Taiaro

UNESCO

20.00

1977

37.00

1988

Nature Reserve

Biosphere Reserve

Pitcairn Islands

World Heritage

Henderson Island

Clipperton Atoll
Clipperton Atoll
1

western coast of the Americas (see Chapter

located in the Eastern Pacific, about

is

100 kilometers southwest of the Mexican part of the

American mainland. Although

French Polynesia
roughly circular

is

it

system. The reef slope

more sand and

This
terms.

is

is

in

areas.

a 50-200

The deeper slope has

very low, with

fish are

endemic

to the island, including

abundant species. The biogeographic

some of the most

affinities

of these

species include elements of true Indo-Pacific and Tropical

Eastern Pacific species. The enclosed lagoon contains

only brackish water and

is

devoid of corals or

fish,

location

actually

in

biogeographic

places

it

in

The

island

is

uninhabited and rarely visited. There

no legal protection of the natural resources.

now

scarce and

originally reported to be abundant, are

Pacific islands - the Tropical Eastern Pacific, with close

been suggested that a group of Mexican fishing vessels

to

the

^^f

reefs

and coral communities of the

US$1

Land area (km^l

Marine area (thousand km2
Per capita

fish

population in 1993.

GDP

3 02^

Land area (km^)

5 030

Marine area (thousand km^)

consumption Ikg/year)

64

29

Reefs at risk (%)

Per capita

US$1

fish

consumption (kg/year)

na
53

800
na

Reefs

at risk (%)

Biodiversity

Biodiversity
6

000

174/168

Reef area Ikm^)

Coral diversity

Mangrove area (km^)

Mangrove area (km^l

No. of mangrove species

No. of mangrove species

No. of seagrass species

C.50

Recorded coral diseases

Recorded coral diseases

Coral diversity

(million

Status and Threats

Status and Threats

Reef area (km^)

Population (individuals)

3 109

No. of seagrass species

has

may

General Data
2^9

Population (thousands)
(million

this

it

Pitcairn islands

French Po lynesia

General Data

GDP

have intensively fished

is

Sharks,

completely different biogeographic region from the other

affinities

the

in

dominated by algal growth.

extremely important

is

easterly

is

in

is

It

including 98 nearshore or demersal species. Nine of these

relatively gentle with high coral

many

Tropical Eastern Pacific. Biodiversity

5).

atoll

It is

rubble.

atoll

Its

lagoon. There

developed reef and the only

18 recorded scleractinian coral species and 115 fishes,

terminating in a spur and groove

flat

cover (33-83 percent)

its

fact the best

from

about 4 kilometers across, with an

island completely encircling

meter wide reef

a considerable distance

administered by these islands.

atoll

Site

<100

60/42

na

391

392

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Hawai'i and the US minor

outlying islands

MAPS

14i

and

20

Hawaiian

The

Islands

are

most

the

isolated

archipelago in the world, lying considerably north

and east of the vast majority of Pacific

They were formed

as the Pacific tectonic plate

islands.

moved

northwest over a stationary hotspot beneath the ocean

floor.

The youngest

island in the group

is

thus the island

of Hawaii in the southeast, which shows near continuous

volcanic activity. Together with seven other main islands,
it

forms

a distinct

block of high volcanic islands making

up the majority of the land area of the archipelago.

Moving northwest,

the older volcanic islands have largely

subsided and there

is

a long chain of islands

and reefs

at

low nutrient content.

significant

factor

From March

to

Away from

for

coastal

the high islands this

km

is

ecosystem productivity.

October they are swept by the northeast

trade winds which generate cool air temperatures and a

pronounced windward

wave

leeward gradient with greater

to

energies, but also higher rainfall and runoff

eastern shores. There

is

on

pronounced seasonality with

distinctly sub-tropical temperatures during winter

particularly in the northwestern islands.

The

months,

islands are

occasionally swept by tropical cyclones.

Fringing reefs are by no means continuous

among

the high islands of the southeast, though they are well

or near sea level leading to Kure Atoll in the northwest.

developed

These

(southern and southwestern) shores. Along the coast of

latter reefs lie

Further north

some

distance north of the tropics.

and west of these

Emperor Seamounts extending

growth was insufficiently rapid

to

on leeward

Hawai'i Island there are no true fringing reefs, but well

developed submerged reefs occur along the western Kona

former reef-capped volcanic islands. Their

northward migration took them

places, particularly

sequence of

the

meters towards the Kamchatka coastline of Siberia. These

represent

number of

thousands of kilo-

is

for

in a

latitudes

where reef

coast.

Recent underwater lava flows provide a substrate for

looking
east.

at

colonization by reef organisms in the south and

Fringing reefs are better developed in a few locations

keep up with crustal

along the western shores of Maui, the southern shores of

subsidence, and then out of the regions of hermatypic

Molokai and the northeastern shores of Lanai. Oahu has a

coral growth completely.

number of

The Hawaiian

Islands

lie in

to

the path of the westerly

well developed reefs, including a well studied

fringing reef in

Hanauma Bay and one of

flowing North Pacific Equatorial Current. The surrounding

reefs in

pelagic waters are renowned for their low productivity and

patch reefs and a coastal fringing

Left: Honolulu, the largest city in the Pacific, with reef

structures

in

Kanehoe Bay, which

the only barrier

protects a large
reef.

number of

Fringing reefs are

the fore. Right: Ohau, Hawai'i ISTS065-96-7.

19941.

MAPl4i

11'

-^

lis

3 It
I

fi

^
8s

5S

111

8 S

51
Sfi

:ffla

II!

..,..^^..

1S

I-

SS3

ill

I V:

i|

FT

:::;/

I
z

-^c:.

s
3j

5I

.w
1^
I*

a.

!
II

MAP

14j

Polynesia

dominant, the major reef-building species being Pontes

and PociUopora. Another feature of the Hawaiian

some species

has been the adaptation of at least

reefs
to the

relatively cool conditions, possibly indicating a genetic

variance from the

same species found

in other locations.

There are no native mangroves

Islands, although a

modern times and two have become

species Halophila hawaiiana. which

in

established and spread

of the high islands. There

to several

Hawaiian

the

in

few species have been introduced

is

only one seagrass

endemic

is

to

Hawai'i,

and seagrass beds are unusual. Millions of seabirds nest

the northwest Hawaiian Islands, and a

shorebirds rest or overwinter here. These are

and most important seabird colonies

largest

Ocean. Five species of marine

in

number of migratory

turtle

among

in the

the

Pacific

have been seen

in

Hawaiian waters, and the French Frigate Shoals are one

of the largest remaining nesting grounds for the green

found around much of the coastUne of Kaua'i but remain

poorly developed around Niihau. There

submerged

is

reefs are located northwest

of the main Hawaiian Islands. The

islands

first

of the northwestern

have small basaltic elements. Nihoa and Necker

still

are very isolated basalt islands,

and there

monk

importance for the Hawaiian

cal

little

is

infor-

endangered Mediterranean monk

cally

Caribbean

monk

declining. Several other marine

mammals

Frigate Shoals are a near-atoll with just a small basaltic

Megaptera novaeangliae, which spend

at

the

western edge. The Gardner Pinnacles

represent the last basaltic outcrop, and consist of three tiny,

steep-sided rocks lying on a

and sand

at its base.

coral islands with

common

submerged

reefs around their edges,

while west of these are three true

Midway and Kure Atolls.

atolls: Pearl

and Hermes,

In addition there are several reefs

with no associated islands. These include the large

Reef northwest of

tory cycle in the islands between

the Gardner Pinnacles, a

Maro

complex of

The population of
and others, and

it

that the total population

and on the northern edge of the

are

all

their
to

of

this

has been the considerable opportunities for the

development of new species. Some 52 species of stony

coral,

500 of nearshore

fish,

000 of marine molluscs

of the islands

is

probably four to

These people

located on the main islands, with about 75 percent

is

the largest city in the entire insular

is

one of the world's top tourism

also

Only a very few people now

reduce the likelihood of pelagic larvae being carried to

Over millions of years one consequence

Immigration and

live in a

manner which

could be described as subsistence, or depend heavily on

been emphasized by the domin.ant oceanic currents which

the archipelago.

was much

destinations, receiving about 6.5 million visitors annually.

tropics, has

that they are not highly diverse. Their isolation has

to this day.

five times that of the original population.

Pacific. Hawai'i

isolation

part of their migra-

November and May

native Hawaiian people

remains low

on Oahu. Honolulu

meant

occur, including

expansion of newly arrived populations, however, means

sidered an atoll or platform-type structure.

location of the Hawaiian Islands, in considerable

500
still

diminished by the arrival and colonization by Europeans

shallow reticulated reef systems which might be con-

The

during which time they mate and give birth.

platform with coral

Laysan and Lisianski Islands are both

numbers

and growing population of humpback whales,

large

criti-

are

Although there remain about

seal.

criti-

Monachiis

and the extinct

seal

individuals and they are highly protected,

mation about the marine communities nearby. The French

pirmacle

seal

shauinslandi. The closest relations of this seal are the

barrier reef off the western coast of Kaua'i.

The majority of Hawaii's

These same islands are also of

turtle in the Pacific.

own

fish catches.

supplement

There

are,

however,

their diet, for recreational

many who

fish

purposes or

at

small-scale commercial levels. All of these operate with

modern equipment, including

gill

nets, spears, trolling,

surround nets and traps. In addition to these, recreational

and commercial collection of fish for aquaria

is

wide-

and 450 of marine algae have been recorded, of which

spread and poorly regulated. The nearshore fish popula-

and other

tions are reported to be depleted around nearly all the

typically about 25 percent of each of these

groups are endemic to the Hawaiian Islands and a few

nearby reefs. This

is

any coral reef area

in the world.

the coral communities

corals, the

the highest level of

is

One

endemism

for

particular feature of

islands. Larger-scale

reef species.
islands

most parts of the

may be

in

Pacific.

active hotspot. Lava flows are continually adding

new land

commercial fisheries primarily

focus on pelagic species, but also operate on a

the relative paucity of acroporid

major reef builders

Although there are species of Acropora these are rarely

An

main

is

reported to have

closed.

More

has developed which

to tlie

number of

spiny lobster fishery in the northwestern

coast of Hawai'i.

become severely overfished and

recently a major shark fin fishery

is

extremely controversial, not least

396

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Protected areas with coral reefs

Site

name

Designation

Abbreviation

lUCN

Size

cat.

ikm'i

Year

na

na

Hawai'i

Coconut Island - Hawai'i

Marine Laboratory

Refuge

Hanauma Bay

Marine

Ref

IV

MLCD

IV

0.41

1967

National Wildlife Refuge

NWR

la

029.60

1945

Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale

National Marine Sanctuary

NaMS

IV

3 548.13

1997

Kahoolawe

Restricted Area

RestA

Unassig ned

Kealakakua Bay

Marine

MLCD

IV

FMA

Unassig ned

Hawaiian Islands

18 sites)

Life

Life

Conservation District

Conservation District

Management Area

Kure

Fisheries

Kure Atoll

State Wildlife Sanctuary

Molokini Shoal

Marine

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands

Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve

Puako Bay

Fisheries

Waikiki

Marine

Waikiki Island -

Diamond Head

Hawai'i Islands Biosphere Reserve

US minor

Life

Fisheries

Management Area

UNESCO

Biosphere Reserve

National Wildlife Refuge

Howland

National Wildlife Refuge

Island

Jarvis Island

National Wildlife Refuge

Johnston Island

National Wildlife Refuge

Kingman Reef

National Wildlife Refuge

Midway

National Wildlife Refuge

na

la

0.96

1981

IV

na

1981

362.00

2000

na

na

0.30

na

CRER

VI

FMA

Unassigiled

3/il

MLCD

IV

FMA

Unassigiled

Atoll

NWR
NWR
NWR
NWR
NWR
NWR
NWR

National Wildlife Refuge

Atoll

because of the waste and perceived cruelty of returning

effects of the latter

living sharks to the water with

still

European settlement
terrestrial

na

na

na

995.^5

1980

outlying islands

Baker Island

Palmyra

1969

MLCD

Conservation District

Conservation District

na

1.28

SWS

Management Area

Life

na

no

fins.

led to radical

changes

in

the

environment, with the degradation or clearance of

likely to

228.43

1974

la

131.73

1974

la

151.83

1974

Unassigned

129.95

1926
2001

II

958.99

II

208.36

1988

II

2 086.69

2001

approach remain controversial, but are

be impacting reefs

Bay on Oahu has been

in

some

Kanehoe

areas.

the site of extensive monitoring over

30 years, including studies before, during and after the

large tracts of native forest by settlers and the feral animals

discharge of sewage into the bay. This

(goats and deer in particular) that accompanied them.

the best examples of coral reef restoration in the Pacific.

These changes have also led to considerable sedimentation

Coastal erosion

environments and may have killed many reef

in nearshore

is

a natural

coastal

significant

erosion. Efforts to prevent

to the coral reef

fish.

There

environment, including marine algae and

evidence that these are spreading and

is

displacing resident reef species in

some

may be

number of areas.

led to better treatment in

some

Efforts to reduce this have

places, but also to

in the

Hawaiian

number of

developments now being threatened by such

it

are extremely costly

and also

disturb and interrupt natural sediment flows, leading to the

damage or

loss

of offshore reefs. Construction

in

nearshore

marine areas has also been extensive, including harbor and

areas.

With urbanization there have been problems of sewage

discharge

occurrence

provides one of

Islands, but urbanization has led to a large

communities. Hawai'i

is also one of the few places where

numbers of exotic species have been introduced

site

more

remote discharge of sewage into deeper water. The overall

runway developments and road construction.

Tourism

is

the

major industry

in

Hawai'i, heavily

focussed on locations on the larger islands. Coastal tourism

developments, including golf courses,

may be adding

to the

Polynesia

by wider coastal development, effluent

stresses caused

discharge

and the physical disturbance of nearshore

communities. Diving and snorkellmg are popular, although

limited

in

Hana'uma

some

areas

by

rough seas and currents.

Bay, the most popular snorkelling destination on

Oahu, receives up

000

to 10

Frigate Shoals and, seasonally,

outer islands

developing, notably on

to the
is

native population these islands have primarily been seen

as important for defense, and they are administered at the
federal level. Their importance in terms of biodiversity

is

increasingly recognized.

with the Phoenix Islands of Kiribati to the south. Jarvis

Island

similarly small with fringing reefs, an outlier to

IS

the west of the northern Line Islands in Kiribati. All three

Atoll.

number of marine protected

legislation covers

Lacking any

Baker and Howland Islands are both low coral islands

Efforts to regulate and protect coral reefs in Hawai'i

include a large

in the Central Pacific.

with surrounding fringing reefs, geologically associated

on Laysan. Tourism

Midway

and reefs

permanent

highly restricted, although ecotourism

is

atolls

on Midway. French

In the northwestern islands there are no

residents, although there are workers

remote

now

visitors per day.

number of

Islands (see separate accounts), but also a

areas. Federal

most of the more remote islands and

surrounding reefs as national wildlife refuge.

In

their

2000

all

of these islands were exploited for guano in the 18th

century. Johnston Atoll

and reefs of

is

one of the most remote reefs

midway between Hawai'i and

(he Pacific, lying

Although

Kiribati.

may

it

in

the islands

bears strong affinities to

of the other reefs and shallow banks which lay outside

the Hawaiian fauna

these declared refiiges, together with a very large area of

connecting these faunas to those of the rest of the Pacific.

Wake

surrounding seas, were declared a Coral Reef Ecosystem

Atoll

it

also provide a stepping stone

a small atoll lying to the north of the

is

Reserve. The combined legislation for these areas has

Marshall Islands, with three islands dominating most of

created a contiguous marine protected area, second in size

the rim. Biodiversity

only to the Great Barrier Reef

Humpback Whale

islands the Hawaiian

Among

in Australia.

the

main

National Marine

and the relatively northerly

From

Sanctuary covers significant areas of offshore waters.

Closer to centers of

human population

sites protected at the state level.

there are several

The degree of protection

relatively low.

is

which may be

product of the shallow lagoon combined with the isolation

latitude.

perspective.

geological

Kingman Reef make up

The 50 or so

Islands of Kiribati.

Palmyra Atoll and

the northern end of the Line

islets

of Palmyra have

been under private ownership since the 1920s, but The

afforded by these varies considerably.

Nature Conservancy,

US-based non-governmental

a large

organization, bought the entire atoll in early 2001, and will

US minor

outlying islands

In addition to Hawai'i. the

a

number of other

USA

territories in the Pacific.

American Samoa, Guam and

Hawai'i,

maintain

holds jurisdiction over

the

These include

Northern Mariana

US$1

Land area (km^l

fish

020

6 392 711

16 759

high

at

the north of

tide).

Isl

and,

USA

consumption (kg/year|

(million

US$1

Land area (km^l

Marine area (thousand km^l

21

Per capita

57

Recorded coral diseases

fish

consumption

Reefs

67

at risk (%l

180

na/i9

Reef area (km^l

Coral diversity

na

Mangrove area (km^l

No. of mangrove species

na

No. of mangrove species

National statistics

(kg/yiBarl

Recorded coral diseases

Mangrove area (km^l

No. of seagrass species

Wi

Biodiversity

Biodiversity

Coral diversity

GDP

Status and Threats

Reefs at risk (%1

Reef area (km^j

Population

na

Status and Threats

Kingman Reef to

deep lagoon, with no true islands but some exposed

rocks (including

Johnston

Marine area (thousand km'l

Per capita

for conservation.

an atoll with a slightly submerged western edge

General Data

Population (thousands!
(million

and

is

USA

General Data

GDP*

it

Palmyra

No. of seagrass species

220
na

na

na

397

398

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

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Rakahanga \1989\.
Lands and Survey, New Zealand.
Lewis KB, Rongo TT. Utanga AT (19821, Penrhyn (includes
Flying Venus Reefl. 1:200 000. New Zealand Oceanographic

the

Hawaiian-Emperor Cham. Science2W: 1737-1743.

Jokiel PL. Coles SL 119901. Response of Hawaiian and other
8:

of

of

Summerhayes

Biol Ecol 221,: 1-30.

RW

Grigg

number

series). Aitutaki [19831.

Palmerston

[19831.

and

Midway Atoll, Northwestern Hawaiian Islands: statistical

power in retrospect. Bull Mar Sci 58131: 804-825.
Friedlander AM. Parrish JD 119981. Habitat characteristics
affecting fish assemblages on a Hawaiian coral reef. J Exp

Mar

available for a

These were based on photogrammetry from 1973-75

RNZAF photography. For Rarolonga further high resolution
data were taken from Utanga and Lewis [19811. All remaining
islands are based on lower resolution data from the sources
1980sl.

listed.

HAWAII AND THE US MINOR OUTLYING ISLANDS

Brainard R, Maragos J, DeMartini V, Wass R, Parrish F, Boland
V, Newbold R 12000). A joint NOAA/USFWS coral reef

change

Ke

Maps 14d and

CCOP/SOPAC

New

by

Misc.

Zealand

for Co-ordination of

Resources

in

South Pacific

Offshore Areas.

countries, coral reef data have been taken as arcs from

SA

Petroconsultants

Maps Uf,

(199C1'.

Ug and Uh

For most of this region, coral reef data have been taken as arcs

Map
In

Uc

from Petroconsultants SA (19901*. For the Society Islands,

Tonga, for the

coral reefs and

mam

islands of Eua and Tongatapu coastline,

mangroves were taken from DOS

Information on these

maps

is

11971, 19751.

based on aerial photographs

reefs and coastline have been prepared from IGN [19881.

IGN (1988). Archipel de la Societe. Map no. 513, 1:100 000,

Edition 4. Institut Geographique National, Paris. France.

in 1968 and field-checked in 1972. For Niue, coastline

and coral reefs were taken from DLS 119851, based on 1965

taken

Remaining coral reef areas

photography.

of

Tonga, plus

Maps

1(1

and Kj

Beveridge Reef have been taken from Petroconsultants SA

In

I1990I*.

Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, Maui, Kahoolawe and Hawai'i are taken

DLS

119851.

Map

of Niue.

Mercator Department

DOS

11971).

IDOS

Tongatapu

60051

Sheet

of

1:50 000.

Universal Transverse

Lands and Survey,

Island.

Kingdom

TONGATAPU,

New

Zealand.

of Tonga. Series X773

Edition

1-DOS

1971

Hawai'i, coastline

from

USFWS

119781.

and coral reef data

for Niihau,

These maps were subsequently

Kaua'i,

digitized

by the USFW/S. For the remaining islands, coral reef data have

been taken as arcs from Petroconsultants SA (19901*.

In

the

US

outlying islands, coral reefs and coastline have

399

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

been taken from

NOAA

11986, 1990, 1991) for Jan/is, Baker,

Howland, Palmyra and Wake islands. For Jofinson

Kingman

Reef, coral reef data fiave

Atoll

and

been taken as arcs from

PetroconsultantsSA 119901.

NOAA

119861. Islands in

Howland

Islands.

revised 1986. Silver

NOAA

119901.

Wake

Silver Spring,

ttie

Pacific

Ocean -

NOAA

IN05I Chart 831

Spring, USA.

Island.

NOAA

Janiis,
16.

Baker and

1:15 000. 1978,

INOSI Chart 81664. 1:15 000.

USA.

NOAA (19911. Palmyra Atoll - Approaches to Palmyra Atoll.

NOAA INOSI Chart 83157. :47 750. Silver Spring, USA.
USFWS 11978). National Wetlands Inventory Maps. 1:24 000.
1

United States Fi^h and Wildlife Service,

See Technical notes, page 401

St.

Petersburg, USA.

Technical notes

Technical notes
PARTI
The

initial

mentioned in the text are included on the maps.

The source information for coral reef data on each map is
provided at the end of each chapter It is highly important to
read this information in order to assess the accuracy,
resolution and age of the information. Two standard sources
have been used in a number of countries which are not
that locations

sections of this book present a global overview of the

world of coral reefs from a biological and a

human

perspective.

They provide a holistic overview of reef ecology, human uses

and threats, and also the techniques of reef mapping.

detailed

PARTS

For the purposes of this work, a

number

of

is

divided into

SA

UNEP/IUCN
is

chapters, each of which

where

is

sub-divided into sections, linked

strictly follow poli-

boundaries - many do deal with individual countries or

tical

for all

cover

due

geographic areas. The definition

tree
IS

of issues,

commencing

with

probably the most

canopy

is

it

not complete

is

of forest

includes areas

Where

greater than 10 percent.

absent for a particular country or island

to a lack of data rather

map

the World

this

forest

may be

than an absence of forest cover

Ivlangrove forest information

global forest

Each section covers a range

is

detailed and accurate global dataset available

territories, but others contain parts of countries, or several

countries combined.

below;
b).

based on UNEP-WCIvtC

multiple sources. While this forest layer

maps. These sections do not

(1988a,

data holdings which, like the coral reef cover, are derived from

three broad realms: the Atlantic and Eastern Pacific; the

wider Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia; and the Pacific (Parts
II, II! and IV respectively!. These are then divided into regional

to particular

provided

are

but

(1990) and

Inland forest cover information

geographic sub-

divisions have been used. Firstly the world

chapter,

every

in

Petroconsultants

ll-IV

UNEP-WCMC

part of the

is

was

labovel. This layer

Mangrove Atlas (Spalding

largely developed for

et al.

Although

9971.

this

information about the physical geography of each region or

remains probably the most accurate global coverage available.

country under consideration, followed by information on the

It

may be incomplete
A major

and biodiversity Even where

little information is available, every effort has been made to
mention all the major reef features in each country, including

dive centers. For the

remote and largely unknown formations. Information about

atlas a

new

centers

in

reefs, both in

the

human

terms

of structure

on

utilization of the reefs follows, with information

where applicable. These texts are followed by

detailed data tables and references Isee below].

Where

possible, statistics describing biodiversity, fish-

and other information have been placed in the

text. These are intended to complement the figures provided
in the data tables. They are taken from various sources and
hence are of Limited value for country comparisons. For
example,

in

providing biodiversity statistics,

supply information on coral diversity,

definition.

Rather than ignoring such

reproduced using the wording

many sources

but without

full

statistics, the figure is

of the original

source ("corals",

"hermatypic corals", "zooxanthellate corals", "hard corals",

"scleractinian corals"). Similar problems arise

in

numbers

of

and in fisheries statistics,

which often do not separate coastal from pelagic fisheries.

number

or outdated for a

made

has been

purposes

of countries.

to establish the location of

work, these have been

of this

defined as any center that provides certified training.

coral reef regions.

UNEP-WCf^C
all

In this

dataset has been prepared of over 2 000 dive

Protected area information

their protection

eries

effort

taken directly from the

is

protected areas database. Within this database

marine protected areas are highlighted and all these sites,

their location is known, are marked on the maps. The

where

type or designation of protection

given as an abbreviation,

is

while for those protected areas containing coral reefs, the

designations are provided

protected area

is

A marine
lUCN World

the data tables.

in full in

this context

in

defined by the

Commission on Protected Areas and includes

gazetted sites which incorporate at least
subtidal areas.

11

some

all

does not therefore include private protected

areas which do not enjoy any legal status, nor does

sites

legally

intertidal or

it

include

which are proposed, but are not yet legally established.

fish ("reef fish" or all fish species),

CRSSA

11996).

Two

mam

styles of

map

Petroconsultants

are provided. At the start of each

chapter are low resolution regional

more

maps

maps which

provide a

The regional
maps show coral reefs against a background of shaded bathymetry and shaded relief on the land areas, which have been
generated using advanced GIS techniques on digital elevation
model (DEMI data (from CRSSA. 1996 and USGS, 19961. They
have been simply annotated to show the location of individual
countries and a small number of major oceanographic features if these are not shown on the high resolution maps.
The high resolution maps are linked to the sections within
each chapter All have a common key. as provided on page 12.
Apart from coral reefs, all maps also show major towns, rivers
and the distribution of forests. Offshore, simple bathymetry is
also provided, along with the distribution of mangrove forests
context for the

detailed

that follow.

along the coastlines. Every effort has been

made

to

ensure

1:1

Analysis,

Spatial

New

University.

THE MAPS

'96. Center for Remote

Cook College. Rutgers

GlobalARC GIS Database

Sensing and

Brunswick, NJ. USA.

SA

(1990).

fvlUNDOCART/CD. Version

map prepared from

000 000 world

the

2.0.

Operational

Navigational Charts of the United States Defense Mapping

Agency Petroconsultants ICES)

Spalding

The

Blasco

|vlD,

F,

International

Field

CD

Society

London, UK.

Ltd,

(1997).

World Mangrove Atlas.

Ecosystems.

fvlangrove

for

Okinawa, Japan.

UNEP/IUCN

11988a).

Coral Reefs of

and Eastern

Atlantic

tf)e

World.

Volume

1:

UNEP Regional Seas

UNEP and lUCN, Nairobi,

Pacific.

Directories and Bibliographies.

Kenya. Gland. Switzerland and Cambridge, UK.

UNEP/IUCN
Indian

I1988bl.

Ocean.

Bibliographies.

Coral Reefs of

UNEP
UNEP

Regional

ttie

Seas

World.

Volume 2:
and

Directories

and lUCN, Nairobi, Kenya, Gland,

Switzerland and Cambridge, UK.

USGS

11996).

GTOP030. US Geological Survey EROS Data

Center, Sioux Falls, SD, USA.

402

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

GENERAL DATA

is little more than a measure of research

however general patterns can be drawn by looking

recorded diseases

Country areas: areas are from the World Resources

1996-97 dataset.

Institute

effort,

at figures

from

number

of

countries across a region or

regions.

Population: Population figures are estimates for

2000, taken from the

US Census Bureau. These

estimated from the latest available national

year

tfie

figures are

statistics.

Please note

GDP; GDP

figures are taken from United Nations statistics

and are based on 1996 data.

that,

BIODIVERSITY
where appropriate or

Isee note above).

These

the statistics found

Marine area: Areas are draft estimates of the area of ocean

up to the 200 nautical mile limit or equivalent EEZ boundary.
They are provided to give an approximation of the marine
waters, and the potential area of influence, of particular
countries. In most cases these areas have been obtained by
adding the EEZ area

to the territorial

being obtained from WRI, 20001.

few cases

sea area Iboth figures

should be noted that,

this leads to overestimation of the total

some

areas, as

It

in

marine

countries claim a larger territorial sea than

the standard 12 nautical miles. These figures have no political

basis and do not imply any sovereignty.

data for

all

WRI does

not provide

nations. For the remainder, figures have

been

obtained from a variety of sources, notably the South Pacific

Island

Web

Pacific

in

Atlas developed at the University of the South

Fiji

lwww.usp.ac.fj/-gisunit/pacatlas/atlas.htm|.

Figures are rounded

(or

to

the nearest

the text

in

complement

the tables as described below.

In

these

based on standardized procedures

and definitions, and hence are intended to be directly comtables, the stastistics are

parable between countries, although

in

some cases

they are

unlikely to include the latest information from all sources.

UNEP-

Reef area: Reef areas have been calculated from the

maps. In order to avoid the problems associated with

scale and resolution, data were gridded to a
square kilometer grid prior to calculation [see Spalding and Grenfell,
1997). Although true error terms cannot be calculated caution
should be applied in the use of these statistics for detailed
analysis. Figures have been rounded to the nearest 100
square kilometers, while for those countries with small areas
of coral reefs the terms <100. <50 and <10 km' have been
used in order to provide an approximate estimation.
WCI>/|C

Coral diversity: Two global sources were available for the

gives

fish

to

calculation of coral diversity, and their presentation together

000 square kilometers).

Per capita

in

meant

statistics are

000 square kilometers

100 square kilometers for countries with areas of less

than

available, biodiversity

figures taken from national sources are provided

consumption: Data are largely taken from

for

some

idea of the probable range of estimates available

any country.

FAOSTAT, the database operated by the United Nations Food

UNEP-WCIv|C maintains, on behalf

CITES

and Agriculture Organization lhttp://apps. fao.org/). Some,

First figure:

based on Gillett
119971 and are estimated averages for the 1990s. Others come
from the World Resources Institute IWRI, 20001. All are based
on all fish and seafood.

Secretariat, a database of all scleractinian corals. This data-

particularly for the Pacific islands, are largely

set

IS

xanthellate Scleractmia [as defined by Veron, 2000) within

database were marked, and used

list of

STATUS AND THREATS

at risk:

at

the World Resources Institute IBryant et al. 1998) new figures

were generated, using the improved global reef map presented in this volume. The single figures presented are the
percentage of each country's reefs which fall into either the
medium or high level of threat. These threats, as explained in
Chapter 2, were based on fishing, coastal pollution, marine
pollution and sedimentation. It is important to note that these
measures were produced at coarse resolutions, and are
broadly indicative rather than highly accurate. They are also a
measure of potential threat rather than actual reef state. In
a number of countries threatened reefs remain in good
condition. Threats can also be diminished or removed by
active management interventions, which were not included in
the model.

country the total

is

listed.

number

likely to

of

be conservative. For each

recorded types

These figures are derived from

of coral
a

disease

UNEP-WCIvIC

database Ivro/w.unep-wcmc.org/marine/coraldis/index.htm),

which has been developed from more than 150 published

or authoritative

sources. These cover

diseases, although

there are likely to

some

29 different

be problems over

and the true identification of some of these

remains controversial. In many cases the total number of
identification,

in

the generation of a

recorded species by country. Taxonomic unreliability

and problems

Using the original threat coverage generated

Coral diseases: Data are

based on around
000 published sources which
known records from particular countries. All zoo1

provide

this

Reefs

of the

of

synonymy

exist with this dataset,

however

the simple species totals generated from such data are only

influenced by these errors and are

partially

still

broadly

These figures remain unreliable for smaller

countries where there are few readily available published
species inventories, and they have been omitted where they
accurate.

may
many

are clearly very inadequate. For larger countries, they

be accurate measures of described species, but

cases such figures are as

much

as they are true measures

Second

figure:

measure

of

in

research effort

of diversity.

These represent expected numbers

of

species by country and are based on the electronic [GISI

database used to generate the species distribution maps in

Veron (2000). This database recognizes biogeographic
regions rather than political boundaries. Note that, for
localities where the geographic area is small [like Hawai'i
and Singapore), species numbers are from original records
(Veron, pers. com.) rather than from the database, and that
for countries where a political boundary crosses a single
geographic region (like Mozambique and Tanzania), only a
combined total number of species is given. These figures are
largely based on interpolations from distribution ranges, and
as such they incorporate species which are predicted, but
may not occur, in some countries. These are thus maximum
figures, and may be exaggerated in a number of countries.

Technical notes

Mangrove area: Data are largely derived from the World

Mangrove Atlas ISpalding et al, 19971.

VI:

Managed Resource Protected Area: protected area

managed mainly for the sustainable use of natural
ecosystems.

mangrove species: WCMC data,

World Mangrove Alias, witti updates.

No. of

largely taken from

tfie

BIBLIOGRAPHY
No. of seagrass species: Tfiese figures are

likely

be

to

Every chapter concludes with a bibliography which includes

conservative. Ttiey have been derived from a database under

many

development at UNEP-WCMC Records of species distribution

have been incorporated into this database from over 60
sources, primarily published books and papers. In a number

well as additional reference materials which

of cases, reviewers

be higher

to

In

have pointed out that true totals are

likely

of the

sources used

as further reading.
relied

In

in

the compilation of the texts, as

gray literature and the

heavily on

may be seen

addition to these sources the authors

Web

for

recent

material.

cases where a clearly documented figure was

provided, the data

Bryant D, Burke

were amended accordingly

L,

McManus

Spalding

J,

119981. Reefs at

A Map-Based Indicator of Threats to the World's Coral

Reefs. World Resources Institute. International Center for
Living Aquatic Resources Management, World Conservation
Ivlonitonng Centre and United Nations Environment
Risk:

Programme, Washington DC, USA.

Gillett

119971.

Solomon

The Importance of Tuna

Pacific

to

Forum Fisheries Agency Report

Countries.

Island

97/15. Honiara.

Islands.

Spalding MD, Grenfell

AM

119971.

New estimates

of global

and

regional coral reef areas Coral Reefs 16; 225-230.

Spalding MD, Blasco

The

F,

International

Field

CD

World Mangrove Atlas.

Mangrove Ecosystems.

119971.

Society

for

Okinawa, Japan.

Veron JEN 12000). Corals of the World. 3 vols. Australian

Institute of Marine Science. TownsviUe. Australia.
WRI 120001. World Resources 2000-2001: People and
Ecosystems: The Fraying Web of
Institute,

PROTECTED AREAS
Within the

known

Life.

World Resources

Washington DC, USA.

UNEP-WCMC

IN

THE DATA TABLES

protected

areas database, sites

to include coral reefs are further

annotated and

it

is

these sites only which have been incorporated into the data
tables. Alongside the site

abbreviation

is

name and

designation a designation

provided Ithis abbreviation

is

used on the

mapsl. The lUCN management category is also provided,

giving an indication of the legal regime protecting the site.
This does not always equate with

The following provides

management
be found

management

summary

short

categories, while

more

effectiveness.

of

the

lUCN

detailed information can

at:

http://www.unep-wcmc.org/protected_areas/categories/
index.html:
la:

Strict

Nature Reserve; protected area managed mainly

for science
lb:

Wilderness Area; protected area managed mainly

for

wilderness protection
II:

National Park: protected area

managed mainly

for eco-

system protection and recreation

III:

Natural Monument; protected area

managed mainly

for

IV:

Habitat/Species

managed mainly

Management

Area:

protected

for conservation through

area

management

Protected Landscape/Seascape: protected area

managed

mainly for landscape/seascape conservation and for

recreation

however

there are likely to

come feedback
as

It

comes

to

in

le-mail: informationldunep-wcmc.orgl,

and replacement data

intervention
V;

made

to ensure accuracy throughany compendium of this size

be oversights. The authors would wel-

Every effort has been

out this book,

conservation of specific natural features

light

coralatlas/index.html

be posted on our web-page

lwww.unep-wcmc.org/marine/

will

403

404

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Index
Agartcia tenuifotta 121. 130

Agassiz.

Bahamas

Island,

104

al Kin.

Abemama,
Kiribati

365
247, 248

Gilbert Islands,

365

Abrolhos MNP, Brazil 172. 175

Abu Dhabi, United Arab

El Kizan

see Daedalus, Red

Sea
236,

239

Acanthaster plana

New

40,

Acapulco, Mexico

42-3
1

Federated States

Atoll,

of

217.338,386,389

Acropara abrotanoides 307

93. 95,

125, 128, 140. 165

Acropora palmata3i.

93. 108.

150, 155

Dammam,

IDohal, Qatar 252,

254
Bridge, India/Sri Lanka

214,215.218
Adang Rawi Reefs. Thailand
261.262

Oman

248.

250

Maldives 224

see Gulf

of

Al Hanish,

Red Sea 245

Red Sea 245

Al Mukalla,

Yemen

248, 249

Al Wadj Bank, Saudi Arabia 236,

Island,

Mariana

Admiralty Islands, Papua

New

Guinea 326, 327

Aeoliscus stngatus 203

photography 85

Africa see East Africa; South

West Africa

Agan-an MuMR. Philippines

284. 285

Agaricia 62

Aganciaspp.

121, 122. 128

Apataki, French Polynesia 387

Apia,

Apo

Islands 350, 352

Island,

Vanuatu 338,

Samoa 375

Island, Philippines 70, 283,

284

Apo Reef PLS/NatP, Philippines

anchor damage 156

Andaman Islands, India

282, 284, 285

179,

Andaman Sea

Aqaba. Gulf

Guam

of,

350

see Gulf

Aqaba, Jordan 236

Aqaba MP, Jordan

Bahamas 104
Andulay MuMR, Philippines 284,
Island,

236, 239

aquaculture see mariculture

aquarium trade 50-1,

74. 278,

374

285

Anemone

Arabian Gulf 57. 178. 179.234.

251-5

153, 158

City DS, Maldives 223,

Bahrain 254
Iran

anemonefish

254-5

Kuwait 254

33, 180

pink 287

Qualar 254

two banded 238

Saudi Arabia 241

United Arab Emirates 253-4

angelflsh 41

grey 155

ArabianSea2U.

queen 124

Arabian tectonic plate 251

SIX

banded 348

247. 248

Aralura Sea. Indonesia 277. 302.

308. 309

aragonite 62

Albert Meyer, Tonga 377

Aniwa

Arakan Wowontulap NR,

Alcyonaria seeOctocorallia

Anjouan see Nzwani, Comoros

Aldabra Atoll SpR/World

Annotto Bay. Jamaica 138

Heritage

Site.

Seychelles 200,

and Futuna

371.372

MR.

St.

Artificial

Reefs

Atoll.

Seychelles 200,

117, 118

Amblygtyphidodon teucogasier

St.

St,

Island.

Vanuatu 338.

Lucia

Anse Pointe Sable-Man Kote

St.

Lucia 160.

Guadeloupe
IGalapagosI

Guadeloupe
159, 166

UNESCO

131, 133

BRINI, Mexico 112, 113-4. 116

Archipielago de Camaguey.

Cuba

167

134, 135

200.

Archipielago de los Canarreos,

Volbert. Seychelles 201

Archipielago de los Colorados,

Cuba 134

201

Anse

la

Biosphere Reserve,

Archipielago de Revillagigedo

Anse Royale, Seychelles

Ambohibe, Madagascar 195

Venezuela

Biosphere Reserve, Ecuador

Anse Mamin Reef MR.

Mangroves MR.

Site,

Archipielago de Colon

Lucia 160, 167

160. 167

Amanu. French Polynesia 387

Archipel de

UNESCO

Lucia 160, 167

Lucia 160. 167

202

NP/Ramsar

169, 170. 171

Anse L'lvrogne Reef MR,

Alpheidae 36

339

Archipielago Los Roques

St,

Anse Galet-Anse Cochon Reefs

Niue 378

Ambryn

St.

Indonesia 273, 279

Archaeogastropoda 37

Lucia 160, 167

MR,

Alofi Island. Wallis

Alphonse

Vanuatu 340

Anomura 36

Anse Cochon

algae 29-30
Alofi,

Island.

Anse Chastanet Reefs MR.

202, 204

of

Aqaba

261-3, 267

Andros Barrier Reef, Bahamas

Andros

Apra Harbor,

Anguilla 158, 159

374

Agaricia agaricites 125. 140.

Vanuatu 339

Island,

Albatross Island 206, 207

Ambergris Cay, Belize

Agana Bay, Guam 350

262, 265

Aore RecR, Vanuatu 339, 341

Angoche, Mozambique 190

202, 204

Aden

Aoba

225

Aldabra Group, Seychelles 200,

of

Amphipnon penderaion 287

Anambas Islands. Kalimantan

Anegada Passage

16

Islands 350

Saudi Arabia 252

Ao Phang Nga NP, Thailand

Anegada, Virgin Islands 154

1

Al Halaniyat Island,

Alamagan

remote sensing 86

Africa;

Cook Islands

240, 242

Actinana 33

Atoll,

383.

Al Llth, Saudi Arabia 242

119, 121, 122. 128. 140. 149.

Aden, Gulf

Cook Islands

Aitutaki Island,

Al Kabir,

Acropora seriata 307

Amphiprion fuscocaudatus 180

103, 104

381,383,384

Acropora abrothosensis 293

Adams

Cook Islands 381.

Akumal, Mexico

losses 98, 108, 135, 158

Ad Dawhah

100, 102

384

/\cropora 14, 23, 29, 143,216,

Acropora cervicornis

Aitu Island,

Aitutaki HR.

Aceh, Sumatra 275

330,331

bicinctus 238

212,214,217.262

Bermuda

Anton Lizardo, Mexico 114, 115

Anuta Island, Solomon Islands

Amphipnon

340

Islands 361. 362

Netherlands Antilles
Antipatharia 34

Amirante Islands, Seychelles

Anatom

Micronesia 356, 359

383

12

Antilles see Lesser Antilles;

Amirante Trench. Seychelles

Anao CRes Guam 350, 353

Anatahan Island, Mariana

Caledonia 335, 337

Airplane PA,

60,

Antigua 158, 159, 161

American Samoa NP 375. 376

268. 276

361

see also crown-of-thorns

Acanthundae

155

351

Ailinglapalap. Marshall Islands

Abul Thama, Bahrain 254

aerial

Aguijan, Mariana Islands 350,

Ailinginae Atoll. Marshall

Abu Galium MRPA, Egypt

Addu

Agrihan Island, Mariana Islands

Ahnd

Anthozoans 32-4

American Samoa 374-6

200. 202

Agulhas Current 191

Emirates252, 254, 255

Ad

Reef 312

Aguille de Prony SpR,

172, 174

America, East Pacific coast 110

200, 202

350

Abrolhos Archipelago. Brazil

active

Agelaga Islands, Mauritius 206,

Agincourt Reefs, Great Barrier

Yemen

Aborigines302, 304, 316, 317

Abu

350

207

Abaiang, Gilbert Islands,

Kiribati 364,

78-9, 80

Guam

Agat Bay,

Abaco

Abd

Antarctic species 321

Cuba 134

Index

Archipielago de Sabana. Cuba

Ardasier Banks and Reefs.

Maldives 223

Atoll.

AtoLdasRocas, BiR,

Aride Island SNR, Seychelles

201.204

Brazil 172,

UNESCO

Biosphere Reserve. French

100, 102

Arkan Mountains. Myanmar

atolls

Aulostomus maculatus 136

Samoa

Arkan Peninsula, Myanmar 262,

375,

Austral Archipelago, French

263-4

Arnavon MarCA. Solomon

Australia 179.302-4

Islands 331. 333

la

Plata,

Dominican

Banco de Navidad. Dominican

Republic 150-2. 151

Bahia Gayraca, Colombia 130,

Banco

Mexico 112. 114

Ingles.

Banco Nuevo. Mexico

131

Banco

112, 114

Cayo Nuevo, Mexico

112

131

Panama

Bahia Honda.

Polynesia 369, 386, 390

Banco de

Republic 106, 150-2, 152

Republic 151, 152

Bahia Granale, Colombia 130,

376

Banco Chinchorro BRINI,

Mexico 114, 115, 116, 118

Mexico 115

Aunu'u. American

263-4

Mexico

Nf^lP,

Bahia del Espinlu Santo,

16-17

Banc du Pracel. Madagascar

195, 196

Bahia de Loreto

Bahia de Samana, Dominican

Polynesia 391

Ansto PA. Bermuda

Ascension, Mexico

la

112, 116

deTairo

Atoll

Bahia de
115

173, 175

Spratly Islands 288

An

see also individual countries/

regions

13^.135

Banda Sea, Indonesia

126

Bahia State, Brazil 174

277,

273, 274,

308

Arno. Marshall Islands 361

Coral Sea 319

Bahrain 253, 254

Bandar Abbas,

Arorae, Gilbert Islands, Kiribati

high latitude reefs 320-1

Bale Beau Vallon, Seychelles

Bandar Sen Begawan, Brunei

Northern 308-9

365

protected areas 321

Arothron nigropunctatus 228

Western 305-7

Arrecife Alacranes. Mexico 112.

see also Great Barrier Reef;

NMP,

Homos. Mexico

114,

Arrecife Tnangulos, Mexico

Sciences 317. 338

Arrecifes de

Cozumel NP,

Mexico 112, 115. 116

Myanmar
Ayr.

Mexico 112, 116

artificial reefs

Aru Islands. Indonesia 274.

277, 277-8

el

Bajo Sisal. Mexico

Lamentations), Red Sea 2^^.

Aruba. Netherlands Antilles

169. 170-1

Babeldaob [Babelthuapl
Patau 35A, 355, 357

Babuyan Channel, Philippines

Arufura Sea 274

Arutua. French Polynesia

ascideans 40

Islands, Philippines

281,282

Reef. Northern

Australia 304. 309

Australia 308. 321

AsirNP, Saudi Arabia 241. 245

Asquith Bank. Seychelles 202

Bacalar Chico MR, Belize 118,

Papua

Bahia Banderas,

Caledonia

334, 335

astronaut photographs 84-5

Asuncion, Mariana Islands 350

Atafu Atoll, Tokelau 373, 375

Athi-Galana-Sabak! Rivers 183.

103-5, 134
fvlexico 112,

Bahia Concepcion,

Ivlexico 112,

Atlantic Northern Equatorial

Current 153

Bahia Culebra, Costa Rica 126,

Ocean 92-3

reefs at risk 65

species diversity 21

Baluran NP, Indonesia 268, 279

Bampton

Reefs,

New

Caledonia

Bahia de Amatique, Belize 118

lU

Kiribati

Bahia de Chismuyo WRef,

Honduras

123, 12/i

Western

Basidot FiS, Philippines 284,

285

Bass Islands see Marotin,

Bassas da

223,

Madagascar

194,

195

Banc du Bisson, Madagascar

Banc du Borneo, Madagascar
Banc du Geyser, Madagascar
195, 197

Western Indian

198,209
159,

162

Batam

225
d'Etoile,

India,

190,

Basse Terre, Guadeloupe

banana industry 120

195

118

Island,

Australia 306

Ocean

195

Bahia de Chetumal, Belize

barrel sponge 28

French Polynesia

Banaba. Gilbert Islands,

Banc

128

112,

318

Banana Reef DS, Maldives

113

126

Bashi Channel, Taiwan 292

282

363,365

131

NWR

barracuda 175

Barrow

335

Bahia Chengue, Colombia 130,

Barra del Colorado

barrier reefs 16

268

Ball's Pyramid, Australia

Bahia de Campeche, Mexico

184

Atlantic

New

113

New

NP, Indonesia 268,

Balintang Channel, Philippines

Assomption, Seychelles 202

Astrolabe Reefs.

Indonesia 268. 272, 275

back reef 25

Guinea 326, 329

Antilles

160, 166

159, 161

Balaclava MP, Mauritius 209

Bali Sea, Indonesia

Bagiai WIvIA,

160, 164, 165

Barbuda, Lesser Antilles 147,

394, 396

BaciUariophyta 30

Bahamas

Astove, Seychelles 202

Baker Island NWR, USA/Kiribali

Ball Barat

Lanka

S, Sri

218,220

Barbados MR, Lesser

272, 279

Assab. Eritrea 245

Asteroidea 39

USA/Kinbati 364,

394, 397

Ball,

120

Ashmore Reef NNR, Northern

Island.

Bako NP Mala/sia 268, 270

282

Babuyan

387

Ashmore

Island.

Lanka 218, 219

Barbados, Lesser Antilles 158,

182. 185

Baker

2^5

Sri

Bar Reef Marine

1 1

Ba)uni Archipelago. Somalia

(Gate of

Islands, Vanuatu 338,

339

BarReef,

14

Bajos del Norte. Mexico

Mandeb

bank barriers 17-18

Banks

Bajo Serpiente. Mexico 112. 114

WMA, Papua

Guinea 326, 329

bank reefs 17

Bajo Nuevo. Colombia 131

Bab

75

New

114

NP. Mexico 112. 115, 116

Banglade5h214, 216, 217

Banian Island

Bajo Madagascar. Mexico 112.

Queensland 312

267.

272

Bangkok, Thailand 262, 263

MNP. Seychelles

Baja California 112. 113

264.265

262,

194. 195

Baie Lazare. Seychelles 200.

201.204

Arrecifes de Puerto Morelos

Arrecifes de Sian Ka'an BRlNl,

273, 276-7

201

Delta.

butterflyfish 164

Banggai Barrier Reef, Indonesia

Bangka 268
Bangka Island. Sumatra

Baie des Assassins.

Baie Ternaie

Avicennta marina 237

Ayeyarwady River

112, 114

banded

Baie de Port-au-Pnnce, Haiti

Madagascar

Australian Institute of Marine

Austronesians 323

115

bandcheck wrasse 353

150, 151

316.317
1 1

New

Caledonia 335, 337

Australian Aborigines 302. 304,

Mexico 112, 116

Arrecife Cabezo. Mexico
Arrecife

Baie de Bourail SpR,

Torres Strait

114
Arrecife Alacranes

252

Darussalam 268

201

Arothron mappa 334

Iran

Island, Indonesia

275

Batan Islands, Philippines 281,

282, 286, 292

Batanta, Indonesia 274

batfish 352

The Baths NaM,

Virgin Islands

154, 157

bathymetric mapping 86
balhymetric surveying 81

406

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Bats Cave Beach RpZ, Grand

Cayman

142,

U3

local patterns 22, 24

Bone Bay, Indonesia 273

Bukatatanoa Reefs,

over geological time 21-2

Boneparte Archipelago,

bump-headed parrotfish 345

Bunaken NP. Indonesia 273.

and reef zonation 24-6

Northern Australia 308, 309

Battimalve Island, India 214

regional patterns 21-2

Bongalonan MuMR, Philippines

Bay

structural 27-8

Batticaloa,

Sn Lanka

218, 219

Bengal 178,262,265

of

Bay Islands, Honduras

121, 122,

123

total

species estimates 28

Yemen

BirAli,

248, 249

190, 191-2, 193

Bazaruto NP. Mozambique 190,

Head Peninsula,

beach communities 24

beaked

butterflyfish 314

Beautemps-Beaupre

New

Caledonia 334, 335

Kiribati

Bedouins 237

Biscayne Bay NP, Florida 96, 99

Bei-Men Coast PA, Taiwan 292,

Bismarck Archipelago, Papua

New

Belitung 268

Guinea 323, 325, 326,

327

Belitung Island, Sumatra 268,

275

Bivalvia

37-8

Belize 62, 70, 110, 117-20

black band disease 62, 140

Belize Barrier Reef 117, 120

black butterflyfish 354

Belize Barrier Reef World

black corals 33-4, 136

Heritage Site 118, 120

41.42

butterflyfish 22,

banded 164

Boqueron RVS, Puerto Rico

154,

157

beaked 314
Bennett's 219

Bora-Bora, Society Islands 388,

black 354

eastern triangle 352

379

"boring cryptofauna" 27

lined

Borneo 266, 268, 269-71, 275-6

racoon 234

Bougainville Island, Papua

New

325-7, 328

57.

saddleback 183
spot-naped 261

Bougainville Reef, Australia

Black River FiR, Mauritius 206,

209

Bellinghausen IMotu One]

butter hamlet 147

Islands

142

Guinea

black pearl culture 386, 389

Belize City 118

Cayman

Site,

Burma Banks, Andeman Sea

265

389

Bismarck Sea 326

Islands, Australia 314,

315

Buru, Indonesia 273

Booby Pond and Rockery

Ramsar

365
Biscayne Bay, Florida 96, 97

296

Japan

booby, red-footed 212

Phoenix Islands,

Birnie,

Atoll,

318

Burias, Philippines 282

Bonin Islands see Ogasawara

Islands,

Birgue latro 228

279

Bunker

187, 189

Irian

Jaya 274, 277

193

Island, Philippines 281

Bongoyo Island MR, Tanzania

birds43-4, 316, 364, 395

Bird's

Bongo

343, 344

Bundaberg, Queensland 315,

285

Bird Cay BS, Belize 118

Bazaruto Archipelago,

Mozambique

284, 285

Fiji

312,318
Bourail,

New

Caledonia 335

Bowen, Queensland 312

TRes, French Polynesia 388,

black-spotted pufferfish 228

391

Blackbird Cay, Belize 118

Bowse Bluff-Rum Point MP,

Grand Cayman 142, 143

blacklip pearl oyster 52

box

Blambangan Peninsula, Java

Brachyura 36-7

Cabo Cruz, Cuba

Bravo hydrogen bomb 362

Cabo Pulmo, Mexico 112

Brazil 92, 147, 172, 173-5

Cabo Pulmo NMP, Mexico

Solomon Islands

Bellona,

330,

331

New

Bellona Atoll,

268, 275

Caledonia

Blanche King PA, Bermuda 100,

335, 336

Belmopan, Belize 118

Bridgetown, Barbados 160

102

Belo-sur-Mer, Madagascar 195,

196

blast fishing 48, 59, 189, 199.

278, 283, 295

Bengal snapper 212

Blenheim Reef,

Beqa Island and

Delta,

Fiji

20,

344

79, 342, 343,

Berau

Barrier,

British Indian

Ocean Territory 226, 227

Bennett's butterflyfish 219

Kalimantan 276

Berbera, northern Somalia 248,

250

142, 143

blue chromis 95

betel nut

chewing 333

Beverdige Reef, Niue 378, 380

Bien Unido FishR, Philippines

blue starfish 302

Cyanophyta
boat-based surveying 81-2,

86-8
1

26

Big Bay, Vanuatu 339

Bogue

Big Broadhurst Reef, Great

Bohol, Philippines 281, 285

Barrier Reef 312

Bight of

Bangkok 261

Bight of Biafra 175

Bikar

Atoll,

Marshall Islands

361,362
Bikini Atoll,

138, 140

Bohol Sea, Philippines 281,

285

Bokaak

Atoll,

Marshall Islands

361,362

MarshalUslands

Bimini Island,

283

Bahamas 104

Bintuni Bay, Irian Jaya 274, 277

MuMR,

Philippines 284,

285
biodiversity 27-8

global patterns 19-22

Bolisong

Philippines

284, 285

71, 161, 169,

170-1

Bonaire MP, Netherlands

Antilles 169, 171

Cades Bay MR, Antigua and

159, 166

Caesar Point-Mathurin Point

St.

Lucia 160, 167

Cagayan Islands ETC,

Philippines 284. 285

Brunei Darussalam 268,

Caicos Bank. Caribbean 106.

269-70, 288

107

Islands.

Cook

Islands 382

Calag-calag

Bucaro Aore RecR. Vanuatu

Philippines

Island,

US

Virgin Islands

NaM, US

Papua New
Biosphere

Reserve, Cuba 134, 137

building materials 53

Guinea 325, 326, 327-8

264, 265, 288
112, 114, 116

Cancun, Mexico 115, 116

Cangmating MuMR, Philippines

Guinea 326, 327

UNESCO

New

Cambodia

CampecheBank

342, 343

Atoll,

Buenavista

California Current 113

Calvados Barrier Reef, Papua

Island Reef

Budd Reef

Philippines 284
Calfornia, Gulfof 112, 113

160, 167

154, 155

Buck

MuMR,

284, 285

Calancan Bay, Marinduque.

339, 341

Tobago

Caicos Passage 104. 107

Cairns. Queensland 312, 316

Bryozoa 38

Budibudi

Bonaire, Netherlands Antilles

Philippines

Cahuita NP. Costa Rica 126. 129

Virgin Islands 154, 157

MuMR,

MuMR,

brown algae 305

Buck

Bolinao Reef, Philippines 50,

284, 285

Cabulotan

Reefs MR,
Akhawein).

(El

Buccoo Reef NR, Trinidad and

Bolbometopon muracatum 345

360,361,362

Bio-05

Jamaica

Cabrits NP, Dominica 159, 166

Barbuda

308

The Brothers

112,

113, 116

284, 285

39

Brushwood
FS,

Chagos

Egypt 236. 239

blue-green algae see

Bocas del Toro, Panama

284, 285

Territory

Broome. Northern Australia

Blue Hole NM, Belize 118, 120

134, 135

Cabugan MuMR, Philippines

Ocean

Britomart Reef. Australia 312

brittle stars

blue coral 22, 33, 309, 354, 364

Bermuda 95, 100, 101-2

Bermuda Platform 101
Bermuda Rise 101

British Indian

35

Archipelago

Bloody Bay-Jackson Point MP,

Cayman

worms

226-9, see also

blenny, nalolo 184

Little

Brisbane, Australia 318

bristle

126, 129

Cabo Corrientes, Cuba 134

32

jellyfish

Cabo Blanco SNR. Costa Rica

284, 285

Cannouan,

St,

Vincent and the

Grenadines 160

Index

Cantherhines macrocerus 150

Caohagan MR/TZ. Philippines

Chaeotdon fasciatus 234

International Trade

Cat Ba Islands. Vietnam 289-90

Chaetodon baronessa 352

Endangered Species

Guinea 326. 327

Cat Be NP. Vietnam 288. 291

Chaetodon falcula 183

Cap d'Ambre, Madagascar 195

Catanduanes. Philippines 282

Chaetodon

Cap

la

Houssaye 206

The Cathedral PA. Bermuda

Chaetodon lineolatus 379

Cap

la

Houssaye-St. Joseph,

284. 285

Reunion

MP

206. 209

Cap-Haitien. Haiti 151

Cape Arnhem. Northern

Cape

Grenville.

Cape

Melville

Queensland

31

NP. Queensland

Cape

Chaetodon stnatus 164

Ciathria venosa 135

Chaetodontidae 41

cleaner wrasse 41, 42, 199

Caulerpa 30

Chagos Archipelago
179.212.226-9

Cauvin Bank. British Indian

Chagos goby 226

climate change 59, 61-2

Chagos

Clipperton Atoll 93, 110, 114,

Ocean

Territory 227

York,

Queensland

31

Queensland 308. 311. 317

Capricorn Channel. Australia

315
Capricorn-Bunker Islands,
Australia 310. 314. 315, 316

103,

134

Cayman

Cape York Peninsula.

Brae.

Cayman

Islands

134, 142

Cayman Dive Lodge RpZ, Grand

Cayman 142, 143
Cayman Islands 110. 134. 139,
141-3

Caracas. Venezuela 169

Cayman Trench

Caraquet PA. Bermuda 100. 102

Cayo Coco/Cayo GuiUermo TNA,

Caravelle LtCA/NR. Martinique

Cuba

121, 141

Cayo Lobos, Mexico 115

284, 285

Carcharhinus ambtyrhynchos

Cayo Norte. Mexico

Cargados Carajos, Mauritius

206, 207

134.

Cayo Sabinal TNA. Cuba 134,

12.

14

biodiversity 27

Cayos Arenas. Mexico

coral decline 59. 63. 93

Cayos Cajones, Honduras 123

Eastern 147. 148

Cayos Cochmos. Honduras

112. 114

Cayos Cochinos BiR, Honduras

Western 110-12

Caribbean Current 114, 125,

Caribbean

monk

Cayos de Ana Maria WRef. Cuba

Cayos de

seal 58

Caroline Island, see Millennium

la

Cordillera RNat.

measurement 82

coastline protection 55

Chelbacheb (Rock) Islands.

Cobourg MP, Northern

Palau 355

Australia 308, 321

Cobourg Peninsula, Northern

rostratus 314

Chelonia mydas 105, 122. 209

New

Site.

Cockburn Harbour, Turks and

Caicos88

Chlorodesmis

Cockburn Town. Turks and

31

Caicos 107

Solomon Islands

330.

Coco Islands. Myanmar 214.

262

331
Christiansted Harbor.

US

Virgin

coconut crab 228

Coconut Island-Hawai't Marine

Islands 154
Kirilimati.

Laboratory Ref 393. 396

Cocos

Kiribati

Island.

Western

Guam

Island.

350

Cocos Island NP/World

Heritage

Costa Rica 126,

Site,

129

Cocos (Keeling! Islands.

Australia 306. 321

307

Australia 302, 306, 307

Coetivy Island, Seychelles 200,

202

Chromis vindis 364

Chubb

Northern Australia 308.

321

Chironex fleckeri 32

Choiseul.

Australia 308

Cobourg Peninsula Ramsar

Chromis cyanea 95

Cayos Miskitos RMar,

Nicaragua 122, 123, 124

Island. Kiribati

coastline

Christmas Island frigatebird

Puerto Rico 154. 157

Caridea 36

Islands 154

management,

integrated 76

Cheilinus undulatus 42. 49, 58

Christmas Island NP, Western

126, 130, 131

134, 137

130

coastal

Charlotte Amalie, British Virgin

Australia 302. 306. 307

Cayos de Albuquerque.
Colombia

islands

chapeiroes 174

Christmas

122. 123. 124

see also indtvidal countries/

coastal development 46, 57

Reef, Mexico 115

Christmas Island see

121-2, 123

sponge fauna 31-2

co-evolution 27

Chankanab

Chlorophyta 30.31

Cayos Areas, Mexico

reefs at risk 65

Cnidarians 32-4

Challenger Deep 300. 351

chitons 37

137

Caribbean 92-3

Challenger Bank 101

Caledonia 334, 335, 336

137

389, 390, 391

clownfish 321

China 288. 290-1.292

Cayo Romano NP, Cuba

234
Caretta caretta bA. 316

212.216,221.226

Chesterfield Islands.

131

Gierke Reef. Western Australia

306

Stricture 212. 221, 226

Chelmon

134, 137

Cayo de Roncador, Colombia

160, 167

Carbin Reef MuP, Philippines

20. 61, 73,

Chagos-Laccadive Ridge 178,

Cay Sal Bank, Bahamas

Cape Verde 174

38. 52. 58. 332. 345. 357.

358. 379

Cau Mau Peninsula. Vietnam

Cay Corker, Belize 118

311

Cladophora catenata 135

clams

Cato Reefs. Australia 318, 319

289

Australia 308

Cittarum pica 105

358

flavirostris

Chaetodon oxycephalus 261

100, 102

in

Coleoidea 38

Bahamas

Cay,

105

Colombia 130-2

Caroline Islands, see Palau

CazonesGulf. Cuba 134, 136

Chukai. Malaysia 266

Colombo,

Carondelet, Phoenix Islands,

Cebu. Philippines 281, 283. 284.

Chumbe

Colombus, Christopher 79

365

Kiribati 363.

Caroni

Swamp

285

FoR, Trinidad

of.

Northern

St.

Irian

Jaya

Vincent and the

Grenadines 160

of

Cephaiopholis miniata 199

Cartier Island. Northern

Cephalopoda 38

Carybdea alata 32

Cerf Island, Seychelles 200, 204

Cenanthana 33
certification schemes 74

cast nets 47. 48

Cevi-i-Ra iConway Reefl.

Casteaux Islands. Papua

New

343, 344

Federated States

Micronesia 32. 348

Chuuk Lagoon. Federated

Chuuk

Carysfort/South Carysfort Reef,

cetaceans 44, 316

Atoll,

States of Micronesia 359

Cerantharia 33

Florida 96

Islands. Thailand

261.262

Cartagena, Colombia 130. 131

Cassiopea 32

Island Coral Park MS,

Tanzania 187. 189

Chuuk

212-14
Cephalopholis argus 369

Australia 308. 309

Chumbe

Chumphon

274, 277

Central Indian Ocean 61.

Australia 308. 309, 311

Carriacou.

Colombus

187. 188

Celebes Sea see Sulawesi Sea

Cendrawasih Bay,

160
Carpentaria. Gulf

Island. Tanzania 186,

of

[Trukl,

Federated States

Micronesia 356, 358, 359

Cienaga de Zapata

Fiji

NP/UNE5C0

Colon,

Sri

Lanka 218

Reef, Belize 118

Panama 126

Colpophyllia natans 121

Colvocoresses Reef. British

Indian Ocean
Comarca Kuna

Panama

Territory 227
Yala indCo,

129

Commissioner's Point Area PA,

Bermuda 100, 102

Comoros 180. 195. 197-9
Con Dao iCon Son]

Islands.

Vietnam 289

Biosphere Reserve, Cuba 134.

Con Dao NP, Vietnam 288, 291

137

Conception Island, Bahamas

ciguatera 31. 49

CITES see Convention on

103

Conception Island NP.

407

408

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Bahamas

Cuneuse MNP, Seychelles

value of 47, 66. 76

100, 105

Conservation International 329

zonation of 24-6

mapping;

Constellation Area PA,

see also

Bermuda 100, 102

consumers 73-5

reef monitoring; reef

Endangered Species

in

(CITES) 50-1. 278

Conway Reef

[Ceva-i-Ral,

Fiji

3U

3^3.

James

79,

30^

New

Cook

Reef.

Cook

Reef. Vanuatu 338. 3i0

Caledonia 335

customary tenure 67

decorator crab 373

cuttlefish 38

deforestation 269, 333

Cuzco Beach, Guantanamo,

Del Este NP. Dominican

318,321
122. 123

cornetfish 367

Isla

115. 116

Mujeres APFFS, Mexico 112,

225

130,

coral grouper 199

Cayman

Club RpZ.

U3

Derby. Northern Australia 308

Cypraea 37

Desecheo

Daedalus (Abu

El Kizanl.

Coral Reefs of the World 89-90

Cozumel

227, 229

Island.

Mexico

14,

244. 245. 246

Dampier Archipelago. Western

damselfish 22.

Coral Sea Plateau 319

crab, coconut/robber 228

coral shrimps 36

crabs36-7. 307, 373

humbug 344

Corales del Rosario NatNP.

Crawl Cay. Belize 118

white-belly 374

Colombia

Crawl Cay, Nicaragua 122, 123

131. 133

Crinoidea 39

coralline algae 226

Cristobal,

corals 15-16. 33-5

Cristobal Colon PA.

adaptation 61-2

354

Crocodylus porosus 354

Crooked Bank. Bahamas 103

communities 24-6

reproduction and dispersion

Crown

Island

WMA, Papua New

Guinea 326. 329

23
trade

in

50-1. 278

coral reefs

192.

compound

threats to 63-5

genetic resources
global

in

53-4

management 72-3
of

66-7

134-7

overfishing of 57-9

Cubozoa 32

ownership

Cuchillas del Toa

damage

62-3. 64

productivity of

Cumberland

restoration of 75

Queensland 312, 315

22

and sea temperatures

Curacao, Netherlands Antilles

20,

59-62

and sedimentation
types of 16-17

Islands.

161, 169. 170-1

22. 24,

57

Curacao UP. Netherlands

Antilles 169, 171

39. 61

Islets.

Australia 318

185

Point MP.

Cayman

Islands

Diego Garcia. British Indian

New

Guinea 308,

Territory 73. 226-8. 229

East Timor 273, 308

Dmgalan

308, 309

Bay, Philippines 282

Dinoflagellata 31

mapping

18.

79.

307

Diplona spp, 62, 121

Diploma cUvosa

80

theory of atoll development 17

Yemen

Ocean

Diego Suarez. Madagascar 195

Dill,

247, 248

Diplona stngosa
disc

30

anemones 33

138

Davao

Gulf, Philippines

David.

Panama

Discovery Bay Marine

285

Laboratory 140

126

Dawat Ad-Dafl/Dawat

disease see coral disease

Al-

Musallamiyah/Coral Islands

diving 54-5, 69

PA. Saudi Arabia 241. 252. 255

Djibouti 245. 248.

Daymaniyat Islands,

50

Discovery Bay. Jamaica UO.

Dascyllus aruanus 344

Dascyllus carneus 42

153. 154

Diadematidae

Dtctyota 135. 150. 163

313,326

Darsa.

Culebra Island. Puerto Rico

47-53

Darnley Island, Queensland

reef

101,

142. 143

102

Darwin, Charles

UNESCO

137

pollution of 22. 24. 57

salinity

81, 110,

Biosphere Reserve, Cuba 134.

of 16,

100,

Darwin, Northern Australia

Cuba

physical

Bermuda

Daru, Papua

Venezuela

Dick Sessingers Bay-Beach

Parley Reef, Australia 312

Ctenella cfiagius 226

Site,

250

diatoms 30

186, 187, 188

Dart Reef, Australia 312, 318

169,171

67

Dar es Salaam, Tanzania 46,

311,313

and ocean currents 20-1

of

(PrivRl,

Crustacea 35-7

Cuare Ramsar

growth 15-16

knowledge

197.207.295.314,316,

341.353.357

Oman

Diamond Reef MNP, Antigua

and Barbuda 166
DianiMNaR. Kenya 182, 184.

18

Philippines 284, 285

Darlington PA,

crown-of-thorns starfish 60,

Dhofar.

dhow 66, 186

Diadema antiUarum 61 93
D/adema die-off 61. 64, 98,

Diamond

229
Dangriga. Belize

223.

225

163. 166

British

Territory 227.

Danjugan Island

crocodile, estuarine

evolution 21-2

and

Bermuda

100. 102

UO

disease 62-3, 93,

reef

126. 127

Ocean

Haa DS, Maldives

132. 135. 140. 143, 147. 152-3.

Danger Island SNR.

Indian

Panama

29,41.42

28,

220

devil scorpionfish

Dhigali

Australia 305, 306, 307

Corallimorpharia 33

Cuba

224, 225

236. 239

Daito Islands. Japan 292, 294

115,116

Site,

Devana Kandu DS, Maldives

Dahlak Archipelago, Red Sea

British Indian

Granma

del

NPA/Vorld Heritage
134, 137

Cow

SNR,

Island. Puerto Rico

Desembarco

Red

Dahab PCo. Egypt

Island

200,

154

Dahab, Egypt 236

cowrie 37

CoralSea302, 310, 311-12

Cousine Island 73

coral reefs, see reefs

New

Caledonia 334, 335

Cousine. Seychelles 201

Ocean Territory

coral mining 189. 220. 222

Guinea 326, 327

D'Entrecasteaux Reefs,

Sea 239. 242

201.204

58

U2,

New

338

Dacyitus trimaculatus 180

131

Cousin Island SpNR, Seychelles

causes 59-62

Islands

Uma

202

Courtown Cays. Colombia

Isle

Cyclone

spp- 174

Des Noeufs. Seychelles

Costa Rica Coastal Current

Coral

D'Entrecasteaux Islands, Papua

Costa Rica 125-8, 129

Coral Atoll Program 80

map

Dendropoma

Cyclone Ofa 373

cyclones301.338, 373. 379

Isla

coral bleaching 56, 103-4. 179.

global

Dendroptiyllia dilatata 175

115. 116

anemones 33

coral

112.

Dendroneptittiya 33

Cyanophyta 29

Cyclone Val 373

Costa Occidental de
British Virgin

Republic 151. 152

283-4

Seychelles

Atoll.

202

CozumelAPFFS. Mexico

Islands 154, 157

Cuba 137
cyanide fishing 48. 50. 59, 278,

Cooper

Islands 15i

235

rift

Coringa-Herald NNR, Australia

Costa Occidental de

Island, British Virgin

Dead Sea

individual currents

Coringa Islands. Australia 318

Cooktown, Queensland 311

Cooper Island BS.

and

British

Virgin Islands 154, 157

Decapoda 36-7

Cosmoledo

Cook Islands 381-4

Dead Chest Island BS,

curio industry 53

Curtis Island. Queensland 315

Baudo 132

Corn Cays, Nicaragua

Cook, Captain

248, 250. 252

currents see ocean currents

protection; Reefs at Risk

Cordillera del

Convention on International

Trade

reef; reef

Oman

Daymaniyat Islands NR,

201,204

Oman

248

249-50

Doberai Peninsula see Bird's

Index

Head Peninsula,
Dog

Island.

Irian

AnguiUa

Jaya

158, 159

Doha (Ad Dawhah), Qatar

252,

Dolangan GR, Indonesia 273,

279

Ensenada de
Colombia

131, 133

Epi Island, Vanuatu 338, 339

Efate [Vate) Island, Vanuatu 338.

Epinepheius sp, 290

Epmephelus lanceolatusAO,

340

Dominica 159, 162-3, 166

Egg

Dominican Republic 150-2

Egmont,

dominos 180

Bahamas

Islands,

British Indian

Ocean

New

Egum

Dothio River, Grande Terre

Egypt 236. 237-9, 242

AtoU, Papua

Guinea

326, 327

336-7

maps

Biosphere Reserve, Florida

Ramsar

Site,

Western Australia 306. 308

EilatCoralR. Israel 236. 239
Eklonia spp. 247

99

Dubai, United Arab Emirates

252

Egypt

Ducie, Pitcairn Islands 389. 390

Duff Islands.

Solomon Islands

dugong44. 192,316,317.354

Dugong dugon

44.

92, 31

6,

WRef. Honduras

ElNidoMR.

Philippines 284,

285

Durand Reef. New Caledonia

El

Nino Southern Oscillation

El

23,

61-2

Quebrachal WRef, Honduras

123. 124

El Salvador 123. 124

El

Eagle, British Indian

Ocean

Territory 227

183. 185. 186

East Australia Current 302, 310,

320

Whale Sanctuary
Site 112

East Rennell World Heritage

Solomon Islands 331-3

East Timor 273. 308

Eastern Blue Cut PA,

Micronesia 355

Bahamas

104

Bermuda

Eastern Caribbean 147, 148

Eastern Fields Reefs. Australia

Australia 318, 320. 321

elkhorncoral34,

93. 108, 119.

Eastern Peros Banhos Atoll

Ocean

Territory 227, 229

eastern triangle butterflyfish

352

see Tuvalu,

Polynesia

Emae Island. Vanuatu 340

Embudu Channel DS. Maldives

Micronesia 355

Channel CA, Palau 359

Farsi,

Arabian Gulf 252

Fasht

Adham

339

342. 343

Fiji

Ethiopia 245

Falutaka Island, Solomon

Islands 330, 331

Fawaspp. 175
1

74

Fayu, Federated States of

Eua NP, Tonga 378, 380

Eucheuma 52. 364

feather stars 39, 266. 289, 330

Eunicea spp. 168

Federated States of Micronesia

Euphrates River 251

Micronesia 356, 358

355-6, 358-9

Eurasian tectonic plate 272

Felidu AtoU, Maldives 221. 223

Europa seellot d'Europa

Fernandina, Ecuador 131, 133

Eusimilia fastigiata 121

Fernando de Noronha MNP,

Brazil 172, 173, 175
Fiji

300, 342-5

NPs/UNESCC Biosphere

early reef

Reserve, Florida 96, 99

threats to reefs 20, 50, 344-5

Everglades NP, Florida 96, 99

Fiji

Exmouth

Filitheyo

Western

Gulf,

Australia 306

Exploring Isles,

maps 78-9

Platform 342. 343

Kandu DS, Maldives

224. 225
Fiji

343. 344

Exuma Cays 105

Exuma Land and Sea Park NP,
Bahamas 104, 105
Exuma Sound, Bahamas 104

fire

corals 32

fish

40-3

dispersal 23
diversity

27

see also named

Fish

fish

Head DS. Maldives

223,

fish traps

48

fisheries 47-51

Endeavour see Space Shuttle

Strait.

Fadhipolhu AtoU, Maldives 223

Fagatele Bay

Islands 392

Queensland

Samoa

NaMS. American

New

Caledonia

Atoll,

Marshall

Fris AtoU. Federated States of

Fakaofo

Atoll,

fish

stocks 57-8

history 47

Micronesia 355, 358

365

schemes 74
enhancement 75
certification

export 49-50

375. 376

Fairway Reef.
335. 336

Enderbury, Phoenix Islands,

Enewetak

Fatu Hiva, French Polynesia

Favia gravida

Tonga 377. 378

Tokelau 375

Islands 360, 361,362

Fakarava, Tuamotu Islands,

Echinoidea 39, 61

Enggano, Sumatra 267

French Polynesia 385. 387

Echtnopora lameitosa 34

Ensenada. Mexico 112

Echinoderms 38-40

Bahrain

387

HR, Puerto Rico 154, 157

'Eua,

reefs.

254

Australia 306.

Emperor Seamounts. Hawaiian

Kiribati

Micronesia 355
faros 117,221,277

225

311

Eauripik, Federated States of

Arabia 241. 245

Esmeralda Bank, Mariana

321

Endeavor

244, 245

Farasan Islands PA, Saudi

Farquhar AtoU. Seychelles 202

223. 225

Emden H5PZ.

311,319.326
"Eastern Pacific Barrier" 93

British Indian

NNR,

Mariana Islands 350, 351

Esmeraldas, Ecuador 131

Everglades and Dry Tortugas

Ellice Islands

100. 102

Vanuatu

Elato, Federated States of

121. 122, 128. 140. 149. 155

Eastern Atlantic 92

Island.

eutrophication 22, 24, 57

Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs

107

Erromango

Elapidae 43

Eleuthera Island,

East Caicos. Turks and Caicos

Ebiil

Egypt 236

World Heritage

East African Coastal Current

SNR.

El Tur,

(Suez), Egypt 236

El Vizcaino.

East Africa 178

Site.

Suweis

Islands63, 350. 351.353

Faraulep, Federated States of

Eritrea 244, 245. 246

Ethel Reef,

lENSOl Events

335

188,208

Estuarina Nacional Bahia Jobos

124

317,354

Equatorial Undercurrent 133

Espintu Santo, Vanuatu 338,

123.

Farallon de MediniUa, Mariana

Farasan Islands, Red Sea 240.

Islands 350. 352

15

ElGiote. Mexico 114, 115

El Jicanto

330. 331

Mexico

El Garrafon.

Fangauta and Fanga Kakau

Farallon de Pajaros (Uracasl.

338, 340

Akhawein see The Brothers,

El

Equatorial Channel, Maldives

Eretmocheiys imbricataA2,

Eighty Mile Beach

Fangataufa AtoU 389

Lagoons MR. Tonga 378. 380

377

Equatorial Current 360

Ocean 214

DryTortugasNP/UNESCO

Epinepheius polyphekadion

300. 360

threats to reefs 53. 55

DryTortugas. Florida 96, 97

Fana, Palau 354. 355

41

Equatorial Counter Current

78. 79

Eight Degree Channel. Indian

Drupetta 307

British Virgin Islands 154, 157

Falmouth, Jamaica 138

224

early reef

drop-off 24

Fallen Jerusalem Island BS,

Epinepheius stnatus 136

Dongsha Qundao Reefs see

Tung-Sha Reefs

96, 98,

104, 105

Territory 226, 227

drugs 54

NatNP.

Utria

131. 132. 133

education 67, 76

dolphins 44, 316

Micronesia 355
Fallaron de MediniUa reef 63

126. 129

Ecsenius naloio 184

Ecuador

254

Ensenada de Muertos. Panama

Ecklonia radiata 305

ecolabeling 74

Falalop, Federated States of

Uve trade 49, 58, 284, 290.

317,345
productivity 50-1

protected areas 70

see also aquarium trade;

maricuUure

409

410

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

George Town, Cayman Islands

French Frigate Shoals,

fishing

blast 48. 59, 189, 199,278,

Hawaiian Islands 393, 395,

283, 295

397

cyanide 48, 50, 59, 278, 283-4

Legal controls

68-9

giant

357, 358, 379

385-9. 391

target species 48-50

traditional controls

Frigate

67-8

Rock \NR.

Vincent

St,

fringing reefs 16, 20

Meno/Gili Air/Gili

Trawangan RP, Indonesia

279

Flacq FiR, filauntius 206, 209

Fugo Island MR/TZ, Philippines

282, 284

flalworms 35

311
Flinders Reefs, Australia 312,

313,318,320-1
Flint,

372

gleaning 47-8

366

Flores, Indonesia 273, 277

Fushi Kandu DS, Maldives 224.

225

Flores 5ea, Indonesia 273, 277,

308

Global Coral Reef Monitoring

Network 65

189

Flora Reef, Australia 312, 318

Fushivaru Thila DS. Maldives

223. 225

Guadeloupe

Terre,

159,

162

Grand Turk Cays Land and Sea

NP, Turks and Caicos 107.

global area, estimates 17, 18

187,

New

107

Fungu Kisimkasi see Latham

MR, Tanzania

New

Grand Turk, Turks and Caicos

120

Gleaner Reef, Tonga 377, 378

Yasini

Grand Recif Sud,

Grande

glaciations 21, 22, 93

Fungia 38, 113

Fungu

Madagascar 194-6

Caledonia 335

Gladstone, Queensland 315

Island, Tanzania

Line Islands, Kiribati

268,

Gladden Spit MR, Belize 118,

Funafuti, Tuvalu, Polynesia 371,

Flinders Entrance, Torres Strait

Recif,

Caledonia 334

Fromia monilis 180

flatback turtle 316

FiR,

Grand Recif de Koumac,

Fua Mulaku, Maldives 224

66, 186

Grand

364, 365

Fistuiana commersonii 367

fishing

Caledonia

335

Mauritius 206, 209

Gilbert Islands, Kiribati 363,

Gill

New

Grand Passage,

Grand Port-Mahebourg

giant grouper 40, 41

and the Grenadines 160. 167

unsustainable 57-9

dhow

French grunt 165

Grand Macabou LtCA,

Martinique 160, 167

Solomon Islands 331

clam 38, 52, 58, 332, 345,

Ghizo,

French Polynesia 52, 301,

methods 47-8

141, 142

108

Grande Terre, New Caledonia

334, 335, 336-7

global distribution 18

Grande

Global Positioning Systems

Grapsus

IGPSI81
global

Terre, Seychelles 202

sp, 192

Great Astrolabe Reef,

warming 62

Fiji

342,

343, 344

Florida 95, 96, 97-9

Futuna, Polynesia 371, 372

Glovers Reef, Belize 118, 119

Great

Straits of 96, 104

Futuna Island. Vanuatu 340

Glovers Reef MR, Belize 118,

Great Barrier Reef 14, 28. 301.

Florida Everglades 96, 97

Florida Islands,

Gnathodentex aurolineatus

Islands 331, 332-3

Florida Keys

NaMS

99

Gulf of Mexico 95, 98-9

Flower Garden Banks, Gulf

Atoll.

Maldives 223

Papua New Guinea

325,326,327,328
Venus Reef, Cook Islands

381,382

Fondo Cabo San Lucas APFFS,

Mexico 112, 116

Goidu Atoll see Horsburgh Atoll

human impacts 55, 316-17

management and research

Golfe de Takjoura. Djibouti 248

317

Golfede

mass spawning events 23

Galapagos Islands MRR/World

Heritage Site/UNESCO

Fort

George Land and Sea NP,

Turks and Caicos 107, 108

Fort Lauderdale. Florida 96
Fort Point P. British Virgin

Islands 154, 157

Fort-de-France, Martinique
160, 163

Fortune Island MRATZ,

Philippines 282, 284

Madagascar 195
Frank Sound RpZ, Cayman
Foulpointe,

Islands 142, 143

Frederick Reefs, Australia 318,

319

la

Gonave.

northern reefs 302, 313

131, 133

Golfo de Batabano,

Gama, Vasco da 79
Gambler Islands, French

Cuba

Islands 393, 395

Honduras 123

Panama

126. 129

Golfo de San Bias 126, 128

Mandebl, Red Sea 244, 245

Gaveshani Bank, India 215
Gazelle Peninsula, Papua

Gonaives, Haiti 151

Goodenough

New

Papua

Bay,

New

Gordon Reef, Red Sea 237

218, 219

Great Chagos Bank, British

Indian

Ocean

Territory 226,

Great Corn Island, Nicaragua

122, 123, 124

Barrier Reef 311

Islands 288

Bahamas 104
Bahamas 104

Gorgonia ventalina 132

Great Exuma,

Gebel Elba, Egypt 235

gorgonian corals

Great Inagua,

Gebel Elba CA, Egypt 239

gorgonians 33. 101

Great Nicobar, India 214

Gecarcoidea nataiis 307

Gram Coast 175

Great Nicobar

Gemini Seamounts, Vanuatu 338

Grand Cayman. Cayman Islands

genetic resources 53-4

110. 134, 141,

13-14, 135

141-3

Genkai QNP, Japan 292, 296

Grande Comoro

Fregate, Seychelles 201

geographical information

Grand Cul-de-Sac Mann

Turks and Caicos 1Q7, 108

82-3

Great Basses Reef, Sri Lanka

Great Discovery Reef, Spratly

Fregate, Mauritius 207

French, Bush and Seal Cays S,

315,317,321

Great Detached Reef, Great

Guinea 326

Guinea 326, 327

CoMPMorld

227

Rica 126
Golfo de Uraba, Colombia 131

el

Great Barrier Reef

80,

Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica 126, 128

Lamentations IBab

Swam and Pompey complexes

Great Barrier Reef expedition

Golfo de Santa Elena, Costa

Gastropoda 37

origins 310

HeritageSite71,72, 304, 311,

Golfo de Nicoya. Costa Rica 126

Golfo de

Indian

Gardner Pinnacles, Hawaiian

of

126.

134. 137

Golfo de

126. 129

Gate

Panama

Golfo de Guacanayabo.

Costa Rica

Ganges Bank, British

Ocean Territory 227

134.

129

Maldives 224

Site,

Cuba

313-14,315

Golfo de Chiriqui.

Gambierdiscus toxlcus3^

NWR/Ramsar

Ana Maria. Cuba 134

135. 136

Polynesia 385-6, 387

Atoll,

Haiti 149.

151

Golfo de

Gandoca-Manzanillo

Andaman Sea

Chagos 226

Biosphere Reserve, Ecuador

forest fires 269

262

central section 313

currents 310-11

sp. 161

goby.

Gan, Addu

Forrest Strait,

Gobfosoma

Galapagos Islands, Ecuador

Forcipiger flavissimus 42

Formosa Bay, Kenya 182

60,314,316

Galana River. Kenya 182, 184

13C, 131
of

Mexico 99. 112, 115

Flying

Gaa Faru

biodiversity 27.

Capricorn-Bunker group 314

goatfish 40
96, 97, 98,

Flower Garden Banks NafwIS,

Fly River,

41

251

Florida Keys 96

103

311-12 315.318

120

Solomon

Bahama Bank

systems

IGISI

89-90

George Town, Bahamas 104

NR/Ramsar

197, 198

Site,

159, 162, 166

Guadeloupe

UNESCO

Biosphere Reserve, India 217

Great Palm Island, Queensland

312
Great Sea Reef,

Fiji

342, 343

Great Tobago Island. British

Virgin Islands 154

Index

Greater

Greater

Lucia (South Africa!

St.

WP190.
St.

Lucia Wetland Park

World Heritage

South

Site,

Greater Sunda Islands 268

Green Cay NWR. US Virgin

Island. Great Barrier

316

60,

Green Island Reefs PRes,

green

turtle 105, 122,

Ul,209.

316
160. 164.

Grenadines 160, 164-5

GulfofOman248,

Haputo ERA,

trade

Banda RP,

Nassau 136

Guadeloupe Channel 159

Guadeloupe Passage 159
348. 350,

351-3

Guam
353

hawksbiU

Vietnam 288. 291

Ha'amonga

Trilithon P.

123,

Ha'apai Group, Tonga 377, 378.

Guanacaste World Heritage

Costa Rica 126, 129

Site,

Haatafu Beach

R,

Tonga 378,

380

Guanaja, Honduras 123

Hachijo Island, Japan 292

Guanlanamo, Cuba

Hadummati

Atoll.

Haemuiidae

h\

Guantanamo

Bay,

134, 137

US Naval

Base, Cuba 137

Guapinol WRef, Honduras 123,

124

Gubal

123, 124

Straits,

Guguan

Red Sea 236

Island.

Mariana Islands

350

Gulf of

Aden

57, 233, 234, 244,

246. 247-9

249-50

northern Somalia 248. 250

Aqaba

235. 235-7, 236

Gulf of California 112, 113

Gulf of Guinea 174-5
Gulf of

Honduras 117

Cayman Islands 142, 143

Heemskercq Reefs, Fiji 342,

Hall Islands, Federated States

Micronesia 356, 358

Halmahera.

Irian

Jaya 273-4.

277

Halmahera Sea, Indonesia

of

288, 291

Solomon Islands 331

Honiara,

Honolulu, Oahu, Hawaiian

Islands 393
Island,

hook and

Hebopora coerulea

Hormuz
Hormuz

22. 33. 309,

354. 364

Japan 292, 294

line fishing

Island, Iran
Straits,

48

255

Arabian Gulf

57,247,251.252,253.255

Heliporacea 33
Island, Pitcairn

Horn

Island.

Queensland 31

Horsburgh (Goidul

Islands 389

390,391

Atoll,

Maldives 223

Horsburgh

Island,

Western

Australia 306

Horseshoe Reef,

British Virgin

Islands 154, 156

292, 293

Heniochus diphreutes 205

Herald Cays, Australia 312. 318,

Horseshoe Reef PA.

British

Virgin Islands 154. 157

Horseshoe Reef MP, Papua

Hereheretue, French Polynesia

New

Guinea 326. 329

Horseshoe Reef.

387

Hermes and Minnie Breslauer

PA, Bermuda 100. 102
.Hermit Islands,

Papua

New

Guinea 326, 327

Hamelin Pool, Western

Heron

St.

Vincent

Grenadines 160

hotspots205, 212, 216, 221,

226, 300

hermit crabs 36

heron 44

hammerhead shark 98-9

see Gulf

consumption 59

Helen Reef, Patau 354, 355

Haiophila hawaiiana 395

Australia 305, 306

fish

Honshu

319

273-4

Yemen 250
Gulf of

Moon Cay, Belize 118

Moon Cay NaM, Belize

of

Honduras

livefishtrade49, 317, 345

Barkers-Flats RpZ,

Hengchun Peninsula, Taiwan

Thila DS, Maldives 225

Ha//mec/a spp. 30, 135,313

of

biodiversity 247. 249

Djibouti

Tonga

118, 120

285. 286

Guinea, Gulf of 174-5

of

Heritage Site, Pitcairn Islands

R,

378, 379, 380

Hakura
Half

Virgin

Henderson Island World

149-50, 151

Hakaumama'o Reef

Honduras, Gulf

Hong Kong

316

Henderson

Hainan. China 288, 290

Half

Guindolman ETC. Philippines

Maldives 224

Haemulon flavotineatum 165

Haiti

Guatemala

97

96,

turtle 43, 105. 188,

Hawksnest Bay, US

Head

Holothurians 39-40

Honduras 121-2, 123

seal 395

343, 344

380

124

Hotothuna scabra 379

Islands 154, 155

Tonga

380

Guamera WRef, Honduras

Hotocanthus citians 124

UNESCO

Hawk's Channel, Florida

Ha Long Bay, Vietnam 289, 290

Ha Long Bay World Heritage
Site,

TSea, Micronesia 350,

monk

120

Holmes Reef, Great Barrier

Reef312,318

393. 396. 397

Hawaiian Islands

Hawaiian

159, 162, 163

Hoi Chan MR, Belize 70, 118,

NWR

Biosphere Reserve 393, 396

330,331,332,333

Guam, Micronesia

NMS

Whale

Guadalcanal, Solomon Islands

Guadeloupe

18 sitesl

Hawaiian Islands Humpback

Gymnothorax meteagns 295

grunts 41

hogfish 101

Hogsty Reef, Bahamas 103

Hawaiian Islands 369, 392-7

393, 396

Gygis alba 73

Bermuda

PA.

100. 102

Hawaiian Islands

Maldives 223, 225

peacock 369

Hog Breaker

393

Guraidhoo Channel OS,

marbled 377

Current 310

Hispaniola 149-52

Hawaii Volcanoes NP. Hawai'i

274

49, 58

Islands 154, 156, 157

Hiri

134. 135

395

Gunung Lorentz NP, Indonesia

leopard 304
live

Api

Havana. Cuba 134

Havana Bay. Cuba

Indonesia 273. 279

Queensland 312

Hippopus hippopus 379

Hawaii Island 300. 392. 393.

Gunung

Bay FMA, Hawai'i 393

Hind Bank MarCD. Virgin

78,79

War 253

groupers

290

Hat Nopharal Thara-Mu Ko Phi

Hatshepsut, Queen, temple of

gulls 183. 364

Philippines

Hinchinbrook Island,

Stream

Gulf

40. 120. 255,

Hilo

Phi NP, Thailand 262. 265

95. 103

MuMR,

285, 286

251.252.254

ground-truthing 83, 86, 88

coral 199

350, 353

262. 265

263. 267. 288

Australia 308

Guam

Hila-ltan

Hat Chao Mai NP, Thailand

Papua 325, 326

Hikkaduwa Marine NR, Sn

Lanka 218, 220

Hao, French Polynesia 387

Gulf of Thailand 259, 261,262.

Groot Eylandt, Northern

223,

Gulf of Mexico 98-9, 112, 114

Gulfof Paria 160, 166

Lanka 218,

Sri

220

225

250, 251,252

Guinea

325

Hikkaduwa,

Islands 393

Hans Place DS, Maldives

New

Highlands, Papua

Hawaiian

215.216.217

Gulf of Suez 233. 235-7

165-6

higher plants 30-1

Hawaiian Islands 393, 396

i,

Hibernia Reef, Northern

Australia 308, 309

MLCD, Oahu,

Hanoi, Vietnam 288

Gulf

Grenada

MNP/UNESCO

Gulf of Salwah, Arabian Gulf

green snail 58

Bay,

Biosphere Reserve, India 214,

Gulf of

Antigua and Barbuda 159, 166

Bay, Oahu. Hawaiian

Islands 392, 393, 395, 397

Hanelei Bay, Kaua

Gulf of Martaban 262

Islands 154, 157

Reef

Gulf of Mannar, India/Sri Lanka

Gulf of Mannar,

green algae 30

Hana'uma
Hana'uma

216,217

214.215-16,218

Africa 190, 193

Green

GulfofKutch, India 214, 215-16

Gulf of Kutch S/NP. India 214,

193

Island, Great Barrier

Reef 314, 315

Heteractis sp. 33

Houtman, Frederick 305

Houtman Abrolhos

Islands.

Western Australia 305. 306,

307

Howland

Island, US/Kiribati

364, 394, 397

412

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Howland Island NWR,

HP

Cocos PA, Seychelles 201,

lie

203, 204

US/Kiribati 39A, 396

Reef DS, Maldives 223, 225

ledela Gonave,

Haiti 149, 151

NP/Ramsar Site.
Bahamas 104, 105
Inban MuMR, Philippines
Inagua

Hsiao-Lui-Chui, Taiwan 293

lede laTortue,

Huahine. Society Islands 388

le

Denis. Seychelles 201

India 179,212, 214,

Huangyan Dao see Scarborough

le

Desroches. Seychelles 200.

Indian

Yemen

Hulao Hulao Reef

2/i5,

Pam SpFR. New

le

ILb

MuMR,

Humboldt SpR, New Caledonia

335. 337

Indispensable Reefs, Solomon

le

Therese, Seychelles 201

le

Tromelin, Western Indian

Ocean 209

New

Caledonia 33A,

326, 327

Guinea 326
238

53, 236,

Hurricane Allen 63-4, 139,

UO

Hurricane George 98

New

Caledonia

Caledonia

des Saintes, Guadeloupe

Western Indian

Ocean 208-9
198,208-9

197,

Indian

NR, Western

Ocean 209

Portugueses FR, Mozambique

Hurricane Hugo 155

190, 193

see also individual countries/

Ingham, Queensland 312

Mozambique

190, 191. 192

Initao

MP. Philippines 285. 286

Queensland 312

International Center for Living

Aquatic Resources

Management IICLARMI 84
communities 24

Andaman

Sea 262

lotrochota birotutata 135

224

lot Bailly

lot

Polynesia 378, 380

Islands

lot

Ramsar

Site,

Qatar 252

Canard SpR,

lot

llot

llot

International

Center for Living Aquatic

Resources Management
Federated Slates of

Micronesia 355

Maldives

Tie

a Vache, Haiti 149, 151

Tie

aux Recifs, Seychelles 200,

201

aux Vaches, Seychelles 201

Barren, Madagascar 195,

196

lot

198,209

d'Europa NR, Western

Ocean 209

New

Goeland SpFR,
Laregnere SpR,

New

MaTtre SpR,

Caledonia

New

Caledonia

335, 337

Signal SpR,

335, 337
lot

New

Caledonia

335, 337
lot

Vert SpR,

Isabela.

Ecuador

Ishigaki Island.

Caledonia

335, 337

mperiuse Reef, Western

Australia 306

nagua Bank, Bahamas 103

Japan 292, 293,

Puerto Rico 154, 157

Mexico 112

Panama

Coiba,

Isla

Contoy NP, Mexico 112,

115, 116

Cozumel, Mexico

114, 115,

Costa Rica 126

de Rosario, Colombia 130,

Islas

de San Bernardo,

Islas del Cisne,

Honduras

121.

Cisne MRP. Honduras

123. 124

UNESCO

de California

Biosphere Reserve.

Islas

Los Hermanos. Venezuela

Mexico 112. 113
Mexico 112.

Islas Revillagigedo.

113. 114

de Quatre WR.

St.

Vincent

160. 167

isthmus
Izu

of

Panama

93

Shoto Group. Japan 292,

294. 295

J
jacks ^3

116

de Aves. Venezuela 169.

170

Jaffna.

Sn Lanka 218
Sn Lanka

Jaffna Peninsula.
la

Juventud. Cuba

134

de Malpelo FFS 131. 132,

133

Islas

126

Isla

Isla

Isla Uvita,

Israel 236. 233. 239

Caja de Muerto RNal,

de

Socorro, Mexico 112

Isla

Isle

Bastimentos NP, Panama

126, 129

Isla

Saona, Dominican Republic

Islas Marias.

131. 133

294, 295

Isla

New

San Benedicto, Mexico 112

Isla

169

Irrawaddy River see

Isla

Tenia SpR,

Isla

Mexico 112. 116

Isla Clarion,

New

112

Islas del Golfo

294

Isla

Roca Partida, Mexico

Isla

Islas del

Indonesia 274.

277-8. 308. 325

Isla

Caledonia 335, 337

lot

lot

223

Ties

190,

Iraq 252

Ayeyarwady River

India

Punta Nizuc NP, Mexico 116

123

Iriomote NP. Japan 292. 296

Caledonia 335, 337

IcIUogorgia spp. 149

Tie

Caledonia

d'Europa, Western Indian

Indian

Atoll,

New

de Bassas da India see

Ocean

Ihavandhipolhu

Caledonia

254-5

Iriomote Island. Japan 292.

Casy SpR,

Bassas da

Hypopiectrus unicotor 147

Ifalik,

New

Mujeres, Punta Cancun

Isla

Colombia 130, 131

Islands 288

Irian Jaya.

335, 337
Hot

Hydrozoa 32

ICLARM see

Caledonia

335, 337

Huvalu Forest CA, Niue,

Huwar

New

SpR,

335, 337

Mujeres, Mexico 116

Isla

131

Iran 248. 251.

Maldives 221,

Morro Grande, Colombia

Isla

150, 151

337

Atoll,

Venezuela 168,

169

Hurricane Marilyn 155, 161

Huvadhoo

Gorgona NatNP, Colombia

131, 132, 133

130

Hurricane Luis 155, 161

Hurricane Mitch 114, 121, 124

Santo, Mexico 112,

113

Margarita, Venezuela

Investigator Shoal. Spratly

lot

Isla Espiritu

Lobos, Mexico 112, 114

Ammedee et Recif Abore

SpR, New Caledonia 335,

Hurricane Lenny 163

Site,

Costa Rica 126, 129

Isla

Investigaor Channel.

Hurricane Hattie 119

Coco NP/Ramsar

Isla del

Isla

intertidal

Ihas da Inhaca e dos

140

129

protected areas 267-8,

Innisfail.

Western Indian

les Glorieuses,

Coco, Costa Rica 126,

Isla del

169, 170

Inhambane. Mozambique 190

159. 162

BiR, Costa

279-80

Inhaca Islands,

les Glorieuses

Hurricane Gilbert 64, 114, 139,

279

regions

des Pins,

Ocean

Hurricane David 163

New

de Sable,

Cano

Isla del

Isla la Orchilla,

biodiversity

socio-economic factors 278-9

les Eparses,

Hurghada, Egypt

Caledonia 334,

334. 335
les

Huon Peninsula, Papua New

New

336
les

Papua New Guinea

Gulf,

195,

Costa Rica 128

Isla del Cafio,

Isla

Indonesia 44, 179, 267, 272-80,

288

Madagascar

335
les

Atoll,

335

Huon

Tromelin NR, Western Indian

196

340

Huon

Islands 330, 331,332

Indo-Australian tectonic plate

300, 377

Ocean 206, 209

de Providencia, Colombia

Rica 126, 129

see a/so Central Indian

Indian tectonic plate 272

les Belep,

CaledoniaA'anuatu 334. 338,

215-17

178-9, 267

Ronde, Mauritius 206

les Barren,

New

15,

Paul. Mauritius 207

Hundred

281.282.283

Ocean

le

Le

Isla

131

le

humbug damsel fish 3^^

humpback whale 316. 395
humphead wrasse ^2, ^9. 58
Islands. Philippines

285,

286

Ocean; Western Indian Ocean

335. 337

Philippines 285. 286

Hunter Island.

Caledonia

de Mona RNat, Puerto Rico

154, 157

reefs at risk 65

202

Reef. Pfiilippmes

Huatulco, Mexico 112, 113

Hudaydafi,

Haiti 149, 151

Isla

218.219
Jakarta. Java 268. 272

Jakarta Bay. Java 275

Jaluit.

Marshall Islands 361

Index

Jamaica 63-4,

Kalukalukuang

139-40

138,

Jamaica Passage 152

Japan

lOital

MP, Japan 292,

Kamaran

Jarvis Island. USAyKinbati 364,

Islands.

Red Sea 244.

NWR.

US/Kinbati

394. 396

Jayapura. Indonesia 274

NP/Ramsar

Honduras

Jeddah, Saudi Arabia 240-1,

Islands 392, 395, 396

Kanzan (Volcanol

Islands,

Japan

jellyfish 32.

354-5

Jennifer Bay-Deep Well MP,

Cayman

States of Micronesia 356

268, 279

Laut GR, Indonesia 267. 279

Jmjiradwip

ISt, fvlartin's Island],

Bangladesh 214. 217

Kan Beyru

Thila DS. Maldives

Jizan. Saudi Arabia 240. 241.

Kanmata. Indonesia 268

Karimata

245

John Pennekamp Coral Reef

Strait,

96.

South China

Archipelago. Java

268, 275

Karun River 251

99

Johnston Island.
Johnston Island

Johor

USA 63. 397

NWR. USA 396

Singapore 270

Strait,

Kasan Hanto Higashi Kaigan

iKagoshima) MP. Japan 296
Kat

Chau SpA. China

288. 291

Jordan 236, 238. 239

Kate PA. Bermuda 100. 102

Joseph Bonaparte

Kaua'i, Hawaiian Islands 393

Gulf,

Northern Australia 308

Joubin.

ML

79,

Kauehi. French Polynesia 387

Kaukura. French Polynesia 387

80

Juan de Nova. Western Indian

Ocean

195,

Juba

Kavachi.

Ocean 209

River,

Solomon Islands

330.

Kawthoung. Myanmar 262. 265

Kayangel. Patau 354, 355

Junceetla 32

Kealakakua Bay. MLCD.

Hawaiian Islands 393. 396

Keeling Islands seeCocos

Islands, Australia

Kaashidhoo

Fi|i

Kadavu Passage,

Kadu Rah

Maldives 223

Atoll.

Kadavu Group.

78, 342,

Fiji

343

342, 343

Thila DS, Maldives

Islands 393. 396

Oahu. Hawaiian

Islands 393

Kakadu NP/Ramsar

182.

183-5

Kepulauan Aru Tenggara NR.

Kepulauan Banggai, Indonesia
273. 276-7

Kailua Bay, Oahu. Hawaiian

Northern Australia 308

Kalpitiya Peninsula. Sri

Lanka

Kepulauan Tanimbar, Indonesia

Kuala Lumpur. Malaysia 267

Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia

Kepulauan Tukangbesi.

266
Kuching. Malaysia 268

Kuda Haa DS, Maldives

Kepulauan Wakatobi NP,

Key Largo NaMS. Florida

96. 97.

Kepulauan Banyak, Sumatra

Key West NWR. Florida

Khao Sam Roi

Kharg

96. 99

Yot

NP. Thailand

Island. Iran 252.

255

Khuran

Straits

Ramsar

255
Site,

252

Indonesia 267. 279

Kepulauan Batu, Sumatra 267

Kepulauan

Kai,

Indonesia 274

Kepulauan Kapoposang RP.

125, 127

Yala see

San Bias.

Kure

Atoll,

Hawaiian Islands

Kure

Atoll

SWS. Hawaiian

Islands 393, 396

Kure FMA. Hawaiian Islands

393. 396

Marshall Islands 361

Kimbe Bay, Papua New Guinea

327. 328. 329

Guinea 326, 329

223. 225

Kutch. Gulf see Gulf of Kutch

Kuwait 252, 254

Reef, USA/Kinbati

364. 394. 396, 397

Kiribati 365,

Kuredhu Express DS. Maldives

Kuroshio Current 281, 293, 294

Kimbe Bay FMA. Papua New

Kingman

Kuna

392. 393, 395

Island. Iran 252.

Iran

Kuna Indians

Panama

Kharko

Kuwait City 252

Kwajalein Atoll, Marshall
Islands 360, 361,362

362-7. 397

Kyoto.

Japan 292

Kyushu

Island.

Japan 292. 294

Kyushu-Palau Ridge 294

296
Kiritimati. Line Islands, Kiribati

363. 364, 366

Kish Island. Iran 252. 255

Kisimani Channel, Tanzania 187

MNP, Kenya

182, 185

Kiunga. Kenya 182, 183

Kiunga

L
La Alemania WRef, Honduras
123. 124

La Blanquilla, Venezuela 168,

MNaR/UNESCO

169. 170

182, 185

La Blanquilla ETC, Mexico 112.

115. 116

Kiwani Bay, Zanzibar 187

La Ceiba, Honduras 123

Kiyanguchi MP, Japan 296

La Desirade, Guadeloupe 159.

Klein Bonaire Island

Adjacent Sea

and

Ramsar

Site,

Netherlands Antilles 169, 171

Islands.

Cambodia

La Parguera RNat, Puerto Rico

154. 157

Kolombangara. Solomon

Labrador

P,

Singapore 267

Labridae41,42

Islands 331

Kolumandulu

Republic 106, 150-2

La Tortuga, Venezuela 169

265

224

162
La Digue, Seychelles 201

La Plata Bank, Dominican

263

Koh Tang

Kepulauan Banyak RP.

Kuda Huvadhoo Channel,

Maldives 224

99

Kill,

223.

225

Ko Phuket Reefs. Thailand 262.

267
Site.

Kalimantan 268, 273, 275-6

218.219

Taiwan 292. 296

Indonesia 274, 279

Islands 393

Micronesia 356. 358. 359

Biosphere Reserve. Kenya

296

Kenya

Islands 393

Kahoolawe RestA, Hawaiian

Point,

Kenting NP, Taiwan 292, 293,

Kenting Uplifted Coral Reef NR.

223, 225

Kahana Bay, Oahu, Hawaiian

Kahuka

318. 319

South

Kotu Group. Tonga 377. 378

Kismaayo. Somalia 182, 185

Kenn Reefs, Australia

Site.

Kepulauan Sula. Indonesia 273

Kisite

kelps 305

Ramsar

Kosrae. Federated States of

Kinshima-YaKu NP. Japan 292.

331

Somalia 182. 185

Kepulauan Senbu NP.

Kingston. Jamaica 138

393

198.209

Juan de Nova NR. Western

Indian

Kaula Rock, Hawaiian Islands

Kosi Bay

Africa 190

262. 265

Kanmunjawa

SP. Florida 96, 99

John U Lloyd SRA. Florida

275. 278. 279

NP. Thailand 262. 265

Sea 268

292

342, 343

Koror, Patau 354, 355. 357

Khao Laem Ya-Mu Ko Samet

223. 225

Strait
Fiji

Koro Sea 343, 344

Indonesia 273. 280

Karang Gading Langkat Timur

292, 296

jewellery trade 53, 136

Korea
Koro.

Indonesia 273

Karang Bolong NR, Indonesia

Islands 142, 143

Jeou-Perng Coast PA. Taiwan

267

274

Kapmgamarangi, Federated

280
Korea, Republic 292

Indonesia 268. 280

292. 294

242

Indonesia 268. 279

Kepulauan Senbu, Indonesia

Kangean 268

123. 124

Reserve. Indonesia 268. 273.

Indonesia 274. 279

Kamrau Bay, Indonesia 274

Kanehoe Bay, Oahu. Hawaiian

Java Sea 268

Jeanette Kav>/as

WMA, Papua New

Guinea 326. 329

Java 268, 272, 275

Indonesia 268, 279

Kepulauan Padaido RP,

Japan 292. 296

Kamiali

H.^ritage

Site/UNESCO Biosphere

Kepulauan Lingga. Indonesia

245

Kametoku IKagoshimai MP.

366. 394. 397

Komodo NP/World

Indonesia 268. 273, 279

Kepulauan Karimun Jawa NP,

296

Republic 150. 151. 152

Site.

Indonesia

Kepulauan Karimata NR,

Kamae

179. 292

Jaragua NP, Dominican

Jarvis Island

Atoll,

277

Atoll.

Maldives

Labroides bicolor 199

Labroides dimidJatus 41

413

414

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Laccadives see Lakshadweep

Lacepede Islands, Northern

Lachnolaimus maximus 101
Elliot Island,

Great Barrier

Reef 315

Papua New Guinea

326,

327
Gulf, Pfiilippines

282

lagoons 25, 26

Lembata

Nusa Tenggara

Mexico 112, 116

Laguna de

Pananna

Cfiiriqui,

Caledonia 335,

123, 124

Lakemba Passage,

Fiji

343

Laksfiadweep Islands

337

216,217

Irois, Haiti 149,

US

Virgin

Islands 154. 155

Lesser Antilles 147, 158-66

Lamotrek, Federated States

of

Micronesia 355

LampiMNP265
Archipelago, Kenya 182,

183

Lan-Yu Islands, Taiwan 293

Lombok, Indonesia
Long

Leyte Gulf, Philippines 285

Long Island

79

land reclamation 53, 63, 222

Landsat Thematic Mapper 83-4

Lansdowne Bank, New

Caledonia 335, 336

Bermuda

and ranging

Lihir Group,

18,

19

326. 327

102

Larus novaehoUaniae 358

larvae 23

170

123, 124

Panama

126. 129

Lassuan MR/TZ, Philippines

285, 286

Latham

Island, Tanzania 187,

Lau Group,

343, 344

Fiji

Lau Lagoon, Solomon Islands

331,332
Lau Ridge,

342, 344

Laughing Bird Caye, Belize

118
Lavan, Iran 252

Lavongai (New Hanoverl, Papua

Guinea 326, 327

Layang Layang, Malaysia 269

Madracis decactis 173, 174

Island,

Vanuatu 339

Mafia Channel, Tanzania 187

Howe

Island Group,

MPA/Vorld Heritage

189

Site,

Magnetic Island, Queensland

312

Los Arcos ETC, Mexico 112,

Mahakam

Kalimantan

River,

275-6

Los Rogues Archipelago,

Mahe, Seychelles 200, 201

Maiana, Gilbert Islands, Kiribati

365

NP/Ramsar

Maibishi MP, Japan 296

Mozambique

Islands,

Queensland

New

Gulf, Philippines 281,

282, 283

lionfish

289

Lisianski Island, Hawaiian

Islands 393. 395

Little

Bahama Bank

Little

Barrier Reef, Saudi

103

Arabia 240

Caledonia

Lanka

15

Makassar, Indonesia 279

Makassar

Strait,

Indonesia 268.

277
Makatea, French Polynesia 385,

387-8

Makemo, French Polynesia 387

Lubang

Makin, Gilbert Islands, Kiribati

Islands. Philippines 282

Lutjanidae41. 120

365

Lutjanus apodus 127. 137

Makira ISan Christoball,

Lutjanus ehrenbergii Al

Solomon Islands 331

Makundhoo Kandu DS,

36

Maldives 223, 225

Luzon, Philippines 281, 282, 283

Makunudu

Luzon

Malacca, Straits 57, 266, 267.

Strait, Philippines 281,

282

Lyra Reef,
326, 328

Atoll,

Maldives 223

272

Lynher Reef, Northern Australia

308, 309

Sri

Majahual, Mexico

Lu-Tao Islands. Taiwan 293

Lutjanus synagns

Republic 151. 152

218.219

New

Lutjanus kasmira 27. 212

Sur NP. Dominican

Basses Reef,

Guinea 325, 326

Loyalty Islands,

Society Islands 388

361,362

268, 270

334, 335, 337

225

Litoral

Darussalam

Iti,

Majuro, Marshall Islands 360,

Louisiade Archipelago, Papua

lined butterflyfish 379

Lingayen

of

Micronesia 356
Louisa Reef, Brunei

Line Islands, Kiribati 363. 364,

Little

Venezuela

Site,

Losap, Federated States

Lindeman

100, 102

Madivaru DS, Maldives 223, 225

Limpopo

Lithothamnion 119
Fiji

Madiana PA, Bermuda

Maiao

River,

208-9

Guinea

see Archipielago Los Rogues

Lions Head DS, Maldives 223,

Laticaudinae 43

New

Limon. Costa Rica 125. 126

Linkia laevigata 302

188

Madang, Papua

247

188

Los Rogues NP/Ramsar Site

366, 397

Las Perlas Archipelago,

180, 194-6,

Mafia Island MP, Tanzania 187,

Venezuela 168, 169, 170

312,313,315

Las Iguanas WRef, Honduras

Island Group,

116

lime production 333

197,

Madagascar

Mafia Island, Tanzania 186, 187,

Howe

Australia 318, 321

Lihou Reef and Cays. Australia

190

Las Aves. Venezuela 168, 169,

Lord

Islands,

365

macroalgae

Maewo

Australia 318, 320-1

Papua New Guinea

Kiribati

Madracts spp, 175

96, 97,

338. 339

Lord

Lihou Reef NNR, Australia 319.

100.

WMA. Papua New

Lopevi lUlveahl Island. Vanuatu

321

Lartington PA,

103, 104

99

Caledonia 334, 335

274

Site,

326, 327

Bahamas

Guinea 326. 329

318.319

Laos 262, 288

Island,

Looe Key NaMS, Florida

Lighthouse Reef, Belize

of Punt, expedition 78,

268, 278

Long Cay, Belize 118

Leyte, Philippines 281, 285

New

Gulf, Indonesia

McKean, Phoenix

344

ILIDARI 86

Lanai, Hawai'i 393

131, 133

342, 343,

Lifou.

Macclesfield Bank, Paracel

Mackay, Queensland 312, 315

Fiji

light detection

Philippines

Ecuador

lobster 36, 58, 108, 119, 133,

Lomaiviti Islands,

ranging

Macahutom MP,

Ramsar

L'Etang FiR. Reunion 206, 209

and

see Marine Aquarium

Machalilla

316

light detection

MAC

Lobophyton 33

54,

LIDAR see

UNESCO

Islands 288

spiny 35, 105, 155,396

100.

see

Man and the Biosphere

Programme

McCluer

loggerhead turtle

102

MAB Programme

Lobophora variegata 135

Lesser Sunda Islands 268, 273

Leuwang Sancang NR,

Thila DS. Maldives 223,

225

285, 286

136

LHerminie PA, Bermuda

laminar corals 34

New

151

Indonesia 268, 280

Bay,

trade 49, 284, 290, 317,

Reef 311, 313

151

Maaya

Council

Lizard Island, Great Barrier

Lethrinus miniatus 319

ILaccadivesI, India 212,214,

live fish

160, 167

345

201

Honduras

Lamu

Tobago

Haiti 149, 151

Les Bancs de Seche-Croissant

New

Tobago GS, Trinidad and

Little

Les Mamelles NR, Seychelles

Laguna de Guaymoreto WRef,

Bahamas 104
Little San Salvador WBR,
Bahamas 104, 105
Little Sound EnvZ, Cayman
Inagua,

Islands 143

Leptosens payracea 128

Les

126, 127

Lameshur

Island,

277

Leslies Cayemites, Haiti 149,

Laguna de Chankanaab PNat,

Land

159,

SpFR,

Lagonoy

161-2

Leeward Islands

LesArcadms,

Barrier Reef 315

Cayman, Cayman Islands

134, 141, 142

Little

leopard grouper 304

Lady Musgrave Island, Great

Lae,

20, 302, 305,

307

Australia 308, 309

LittleBay FNR. Anguilla 166

Little

Leeuwin Current

lace corals 32

Lady

Laysan Island, Hawaiian Islands

393, 395, 397

Islands, India

Malaga MuMR, Philippines 285,

286

Papua New Guinea

Malaita,

332

Solomon Islands

331,

Index

Manila Reef. Federated States

Malakal, Palau354, 355

Malakula Island. Vanuatu 338,

Maiden

Island. Line Islands,

366

Kiribati 36^.

Maldives 223

Kenya

Malindi.

182. 183. 18^

MNP. Kenya

182. 185

Biosphere

Resen/e. Kenya 182, 185

Malinoa Island Park and Reef

Vanuatu 339

Malolo Barrier Reef.

Fiji

3i2,

Maldives

Atolls.

Atoll,

383

Manuae Lagoon HR, Cook

Islands 383, 384

Manus

Malpelo Island see

Isla

de

Malpelo FFS

Papua New

Indonesia
Atoll,

Papua New

Mamanuca

mammals

Island,

Colombia 132

Group.

Fiji

3^3

Belize 118.

Managaha

Northern

FiPr.

Mananara Marine NP,

Madagascar

195. 196

Mananara Nord UNESCO

Biosphere Reserve,

Madagascar 196

Mananara

River.

Madagascar

Manatee FoR. Belize 118

Mangaia

Island,

Cook Islands

New

Caledonia 334. 335

Maria Island. French Polynesia

Mangkalihat Peninsula.

Kalimantan 268. 276

Manglares Churute ER/Ramsar

Ecuador

Mangoky

Delta,

131, 133

Madagascar

Maria Islands NR.

St,

Lucia 160.

2A, 30-1. 216, 291

Mesogastropoda 37

248.

Microdictyon

marinum

63. 300. 348.

23, 49,

Micronesia 348-9, see a/so

Federated States

Eitrea 244, 245. 246

75. 120. 263.

332, 357, 364. 386. 389

Celeste PA,

Bermuda

100, 102

Marie-Galante. Guadeloupe

Marmduque.

Philippines 281.

283, 284

Marine Aquarium Council

Mammal

Middle (Grand) Caicos, Turks

Matthew

Island.

and Caicos

New

Dominican

Republic 152

marine protected areas 69-72

Marino Ballena NP. Costa Rica

Islands,

Mariana Islands

Hawah 392,393

Mauke

River,

Papua New

Guinea 327

393,395

Island.

Marovo Lagoon, Solomon

Islands 331, 333

Marquesas Archipelago, French

Polynesia 369. 385. 387

Atoll.

Hawaiian Islands

393. 395, 397

Cook Islands

Midway

Atoll

NWR, Hawaiian

Islands 396

381.383
Mauphihea, Society Islands 388

Midway Islands 14

Maupiti. Society Islands 385,

Mikmdani Bay, Tanzania 189

Miladhunmadulu

Mauritius205-7. 208. 209

Atoll,

Maldives 221, 223

Marshall Islands 361

Maxillopoda 36

Mill,

Mayaguana Bank. Bahamas 103

military activities 63, 73, 137,

155,228. 287,348,353,364

Malaysia 266-71

milkfish 364

Mayotte 195, 197, 198. 199

Millennium Island,

Maza

V\/MA.

Papua New Guinea

Kiribati 363.

366

MiKepora platyphyllia 281

311.326.329

MiUepora alcicornis

168, 174,

175

187. 189
187. 189

MiUepora complanata 149

Meandrinidae 226

Milleporina 32

Medilerranean-Tethys Sea 175

Mills

Megaptera novaeangUae 395

Mehetia. Society Islands 385

Meiuns, Palau 354. 355

289

Polynesia 386, 390

320

Midway

350. 352

Mbudya MR. Tanzania

126, 129

Marion Reef, Australia 318

138. 140

Middleton Reef. Australia 318,

Maziwi Island MR. Tanzania

(MSCI 74

Markham

340

Maui.

106, 107

Middle Moranl Cay NR, Jamaica

Mayan Indians 119

5.

141

Middle Eastern Seas 65. 233-4

134. 136

388

159. 162

of

Micronesia

Matanzas Bay. Cuba

Maug

Mariana Trench 300, 351

106,

Mataiva. French Polynesia 387

Mekong

283. 284

Mexico
Miami. Florida 96

Miami Beach, Florida 96

IR. Djibouti

mass spawning events

Marotiri (Bass Islands). French

Manila Bay, Philippines 282.

Mexico. Gulf of see Gulf of

135

Marokau, French Polynesia 387

Manila. Philippines 282

248. 250

250

Manihi. French Polynesia 387

381,382.384

Oman

286

Maskali island, Djibouti 248,

Manifah. Saudi Arabia 252

Manihiki Atoll, Cook Islands

Metis Shoal, Tonga 377, 378

Mexico 113-16

MR

Masinloc and Oyon Bay

CaledoniaA'anuatu 334, 338.

Mariana Islands

Maro Reef, Hawaiian Islands

194

mangroves

Rodngues
Mascarene Ridge. Indian Ocean

Matenkupum 47

Marine Stewardship Council

381.383
Mangalore, India 21^

Meso-American Reef 117

middens 47

Marine

17

Australia 306, 321

Mauritius; Reunion;

mid-Cayman Rise

[MACl 74

195

manatee

Mermaid Reef NNR. Western

Mascarene Islands see

Mastigias spp. 357

Mane

Marianas 353

Reef, Western

Australia 306

massive coral 101

maricuUure 51-2,

122. 123

12

Marcus Island see Minami-

350.351-3

120
Man-o-V\/ar Cays, Nicaragua

Philippines

Massawa,

Torishima

Myanmar

Palau 354, 355

marbled grouper 386

167

AA

Man-o-War Cay B5.

Atoll.

Mermaid

Islands 142. 143

MuMR.

68,98-9, 316

390

285. 286

Menr

249-50

Maputo, Mozambique 190

Mare.

Guinea 326. 328

Malusay MuMR. Philippines

Merida, Mexico

Mary's Bay-East Point RpZ.

Maskali Sud

puffer 334

Marakei. Kiribati 365

Maluku see Moluccas.

Marutea. French Polynesia 387

Masirah Island,

Island,

Mergui Archipelago.
262. 264-5

Martinique 160. 163. 167

200. 205, 207

126. 129

267,

Merauke. Indonesia 274

285. 286

Cook Islands 381.

Sumatra

Islands,

272, 275

of

Martaban

Masaplot

Manuae, Society Islands 388

map

Mentawai

Cayman

238

mantis shrimps 37

Mapelo

223

Site.

ray 99. 238

Guinea 326, 327

3/i3

Malosmadulu

Malum

birostris

Manuel Antonio NP. Costa Rica

Tonga 378. 380

Island,

Mania
manta

Manuae

Malindi-Watamu

MNaR/UNESCO

Brazil 172,

173

Mateolap. Marshall Islands 361

Male

Lanka 218

Sri

Manoel Luis Reefs.

221-5

IRI.

Lanka 218.

187,

189

360-3
Martaban. Gulf see Gulf

Sri

Menai Bay CA, Tanzania

Martea, French Polynesia 387

Mannar,

Male, Maldives 223

Atoll,

of

219

Maldives 25, 53.61. 179.

Malindi

Mannar
Mannar Island,

Marquesas Keys. Florida 96

Marshall Islands 78-9, 348.

Micronesia 356

Mannar, Gulf see Gulf

339
Malaysia 266-71

Male

of

River Delta. Vietnam

Melanesia 323-4
Mellish Reefs. Australia 318,

319
Me/oi)es/acea spp. 174

Menai Bay. Tanzania 187

Breaker PA. Bermuda 100.

102
Milne Bay, Papua

New

Guinea

326. 327, 328, 329

Milwaukee Depth 153

Minami-Tonshima, Japan 294

Mindanao, Philippines 281. 283,
285

Mindanao Current 281

Mindoro, Philippines 281. 282.

283

415

416

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Mindoro

Republic 151, 152

Minerva Reefs, Fiji/Tonga 2AU.

377,378
mining

367

57. 328, 364,

Reef, Federated Stales of

f^icronesla 356

Island CA, Tanzania 187,

Mu Ko
138,

New

Montserrat 159, 162, 163

Guinea 328

122, 123, 124

Island,

moray

138, 139

eel 295

Mu KoSurin

Mui hopo hoponga Coastal

Mulaku

Atoll,

muro-am/
Mururoa

Morombe, Madagascar

Musandam

Mnazi Bay MP, Tanzania 187,

Moroni,

189

Mnemba

CA, Tanzania 187, 189

fvlnemba Island, Tanzania 187,

fvloa Island.

Queensland 313

Moala Group,

Fiji

168,

Moheli see Mwali, Comoros

Mollusca 37-8

fvlolokini

States of Micronesia 356, 358

Shoal MLCD, Hawaiian

Myanmar

262.

262. 265

Moluccas, Indonesia 273, 277-8

390

Mombasa MNP/MNaR, Kenya

182, 185

Island RNal, Puerto Rico

153, 154, 157

Mossman. Queensland

Monachus shauinstandi 395

Bay, Western

1 1

Monserrat, Lesser Antilles 159,

162

Guinea 326. 328

247, 261, 266, 275-7.

310,313
100, 102

62, 101
59, 121,

130. 149, 155, 158, 161, 168

168, 174,

Islands,

Western

Australia 305, 306, 307

Cristi,

Dominican

Republic 150, 151

Negapnon

Islands,

Comoros

Negros, Philippines 281, 283.

285

of

262, 263-5

Lancaster. French Polynesia

Indian

Nabq MRPA. Egypt

Island.

Nembrotha cnstata 37
Nemertea 35
Neogastropoda 37

of

Nereus Reef. New Caledonia

335. 336

of

Micronesia 356

Netherlands Antilles

Namonuito, Federated States

Soufriere, St. Vincent

of

29^

191,

195.208-9

Mozambique Current 191

Mozambique Gyre 194. 197
Mpunguti MNaR, Kenya 182,
185

Island PP.

Papua New

Guinea 326, 329

Nanuku Channel, Fiji 3^3, 344

Nanumea. Tuvalu, Polynesia
372

Naomebaravu-Malo

R.

Vanuatu

Council

Mtwara, Tanzania 187

262, 265

Thailand

159. 161-2,

167

New

Napolean wrasse

New
New

Britain,

Papua New Guinea

42. 49.

58

Caledonia 323. 334-7

Georgia,

Solomon Islands

330. 331

New Guinea 325

New Hanover (Lavongai), Papua
New Guinea 326. 327
New Ireland. Papua New
Guinea 326. 327

New

341

see Marine Stewardship

71, 158

169. 170-1

326. 327

Nansei Shoto Chain. Japan 292.

Nanuk

Leeward Islands

Windward Islands

Micronesia 356. 358

Namonk, Marshall Islands 361

Namu. Marshall Islands 360.
361

Mount Wilhelm, Papua New

British

Territory 227.

Nelson's Dockyard, Antigua 159

Vietnam 289

Namoluk. Federated States

164

Ocean

229

236. 239

Micronesia 356

163

Territory 227

Nelson Island SNR.

Nama. Federated States

Artificial

Mu Ko Ang Thong NP,

brevirostris 26

Neilson Reef see Recif

Mouchoir Passage 107

Mozambique 190, 191-3

Mozambique Channel 190,

Hawaiian

Negril MP. Jamaica 138. 140

197, 198. 199

Mwokil. Federated States

Island.

Islands 393

74

Papua New Guinea 326, 327

Nam Du

MSC

175

Monte Bello

73,

nalolo blenny 18^

Guinea 325

Montastrea cavernosa

t)artii

Mouchoir Bank 106

Mount

Montaslrea annularis

Necker

coral 38

Mussismilia

British Virgin

Islands 154. 157

Nabq. Eqypt 236. 238

283

Australia 305, 306

Montastrea

Necker Island BS.

TP, Djibouti 248, 250

mushroom

New

Guinea 326, 329

Ocean

Mount Pinalubo, Philippines

seal 395

Montana PA, Bermuda

Ndrolowa WMA, Papua

248

31

Reef MR. St, Lucia 167

Mount Pelee. Martinique

Republic 151

Solomon Islands

Island,

330, 331

Nelson Island. British Indian

Papua New

Island.

Nazareth Bank, Indian Ocean

Ndeno

Island, Djibouti 248,

Myanmar214,

387. 388

Moule-a-Chique

Mona Passage, Dominican

monsoons

Oman

Micronesia 356

Motupure

182, 184

Belize

Musha

Mwali,

Reef. French Polynesia

Motu One. French Polynesia

Monkey River Town,

Oman

151. 152

Navidad Bank, Dominican

206. 207

Muyua (WoodlarkI

mother-of-pearl 52

Molucca Sea 273

Monkey Mia

389

Peninsula,

Virgin Islands 154. 157

Islands 393, 396

Mombasa, Kenya

Islands,

Mosquito Island BS. British

Molokai, Hawaii 392, 393

Atoll

Navassa Island

Republic 106. 150-2

249-50

169, 171

Moses

169, 171

Monte

Musha

168,

Moscos Islands G5. Myanmar

Mochima NP, Venezuela

monk

Muscat.

Morrocoy NP, Venezuela

264-5

P,

Philippines 285, 286

Nautiloidea 38

247, 248. 250

Morowali NR, Indonesia 280

Moscos

343

Moalboal/Pescador

Mona

Comoros 198

Mortlock Islands, Federated

188

245, 246

Maldives 221, 224

fishing 48, 278, 283

MoroGulf, Philippines 285

194, 195

Kalimantan 268. 276

Natuna Sea, Indonesia 268

Nauru 364-7

Tonga 378, 380

R,

multispectral imagers 85-6

Site,

Australia 321

375. 376

Natuna Besar, Indonesia 268

Miyako Island, Japan 292

294

NP, Thailand 262,

Mulloidichthys martinicus 162

Moreton Bay Ramsar

381,383
Miyake Jima Island, Japan 292.

Samoa NP

Natuna Archipelago.

Mukha, Yemen

idol 291

Natal, Brazil 172

National Park of American

Similan NP, Thailand

Reserve

Morant Cays, Jamaica

Cook Islands

Nassau grouper 136

Petra NP, Thailand 262,

265

388, 389

Moorish

Miskito Indians 124

fvlitiaro

Tonga 378, 379, 380

Cook Islands 381.

Atoll.

382

262, 265

Moorea, Society Islands 385,

Miskito Cays RMar, Nicaragua

Mu Ko

Thila DS. Maldives 223.

Nassau. Bahamas 104

Nassau
Libong NHA, Thailand

265

Montipora spp 249, 259, 389

R,

Lanta NP. Thailand 262.

265

Mu Ko

140

Monuafe Island Park and Reef

189

Misima gold mine, Papua

Mu Ko

Nasimo
225

265

Montipora fotiosa 250

Misali Island, Tanzania 187, 188

f^isali

Montecristo WRef, Honduras

Montego Bay, Jamaica 138

Montego Bay MP, Jamaica

Ocean 21^

Thailand 262,

265

123, 124

Minicoy. Indian

Mmto

Mu Ko Chang NP,

Montecristi NP, Dominican

Strait, Philippines

285

Providence Island.

Bahamas

103. 104. 105

Nares Bank. Sprally Islands 288

New

Nanva Swamp, Trinidad 160

NASA (North American Space

Newcastle. Australia 318

Agency) 84-5

Zealand 380. 384

Ngaremeduu Bay CA. Palau

355. 357. 359

Index

Ngaruangel AtoU, Patau 354,

355

North Carolina PA. Bermuda

Comoros

Ngazidja,

Ngemelis Islands

197, 198

Palau

FJR,

Bkulachelid CA, Palau 359

R.

Palau 355, 359

Ngerukewid Islands WPres,

Palau 355. 359

North Equatorial Current 103,

North Male

Ngiwal State CA, Palau 359

North Malosmadulu

Atoll,

Federated Stales of

Micronesia 354, 355, 358

Nha Trang, Vietnam

Nias. Sumatra 267

288, 289

Nichinan (Miyazaki) MP, Japan

Nihoa Island, Hawaiian Islands

393

395

Nine Degree Channel. Indian

Ocean 214

Bermuda

Australia 304, 305, 306. 307

New

Guinea

326. 327

Nzwani. Comoros 198, 199

Ofu.

Antigua and Barbuda 159.

monsoons

275. 276. 277, 293

63.

393. 396

Nosy Be, Madagascar

195. 196

North Island. Mauritius 206. 207

Noumea. New Caledonia

343

335,

337

369,377.392
reefs at risk 65

Okinawa Senseki QNP, Japan

see also individual regions/

countries

Okino Tori Shima Reef. Japan

MuMR.

Philippines 285.

286

Site,

Bahama Channel 103. 104

Man Bay. Cayman Islands
McBean Lagoon

NalNP, Colombia

131. 133

nudibranch 37

North Caicos, Turks and Caicos

Nuguria

Atoll.

Oman

One and a Half Degree Channel.

Papua

Guinea 326. 328

New

54

Pagai Selalan. Sumatra 267

Pagai Ultra. Sumatra 267

Pagan

Island.

Mariana Islands

350. 352

Pago Bay. Guam 350

Maldives 224

One Tree

375, 376

Pakin

Atoll,

Federated States of

Micronesia 356, 359

Pakistan 216, 217

248. 250, 252

Gulf see Gulf of

362. 389

North Atlantic Gyre 103

Oman

PADI [Professional Association

Pago Pago, American Samoa

Old Providence

Micronesia 355

nuclear testing 307. 348, 360.

351,369,377.392

of Diving Inslruclorsj

Olango Islands Wildlife

Old

Pacific tectonic plate 300. 330,

Padang. Sumatra 267

292. 294

Olimarao. Federated Slates of

Nowruz blow-out 253

301

Okinawa MP, Japan 292. 296

142

Nosy Radama, Madagascar 195

mapping 78-9

plate tectonics 300, 330,351.

Old

Norfolk Island. Australia 318

Ocean 300-1

currents 300-1

Okinawa Kaigan QNP. Japan

Philippines 285. 286

195.

Vanuatu 339

Island.

Pachysens speciosa 196

human impacts

Sanctuary/Ramsar

194.

Paama

early reef

Nosy Manitsa. Madagascar

196

342.

Guinea 328

Nosy Boraha. Madagascar 195

195

Fiji

301

of reefs 67.

Okinawa, Japan 292. 294-5

Okiot

Nomuka Group. Tonga 378

Nomwin Atoll, Federated States

Site 107, 108

New

Okino Daito Jima, Japan 292

Madagascar

ownership,

Pacific

Papua

292. 296

Islands.

Nosy Antafana. Madagascar 196

North Astrolabe Reef.

179.253

Tedi mine.

292. 296

Philippines282, 283. 286

Mitsio,

342. 343

paaling 48, 283

292. 296

pollution 57. 114. 116, 127.

155.

Nizamudinnia spp. 247

North, Middle and East Caicos

oil

Ok

Northern Territory. Australia

CRER72.

Fiji

overfishing 57-9, 70

[Boninj Islands.

Japan 292. 294

261. 266,

Northern Mariana Islands

Caledonia 323. 335

American Samoa 375

Ogasawara

Ogasawara NP. Japan

northeast

New

Ovalau Island.

Oxycheiimus digrammus 353

Islands 142. 143

Nosy

Islands.

Odontodactylus scyllarus 36

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands

organizations (NGOs) 70. 73

138. 140

Oeno, Pitcairn Islands 389, 390

northwest monsoons 310. 313

Nonouti. Kiribati 365

Palm

Ouenghi Basin. Grande Terre

Ouvea.

13

Cemetery MP, Cayman

Niuatoputapu Group. Tonga 378

non-governmental

Island.

336
1

Octocorallia 32-3

Niuatoputapu. Tonga 378

Micronesia 356. 358

Orpheus

Otu Tolu Group 378

Ocho Rios PA, Jamaica

Australia 306

Queensland 314. 315

Niue378. 379. 380

Guam

350. 353

see also individual currents

Islands 142. 143

Northumberland

Niuafo'ou. Tonga 378

106. 107

Orote Peninsula ERA,

ocean currents 20-1. 300-1

308
149

Oroluk, Federated States of

Micronesia 356

Oaxaca, Mexico

100. 102

Northern Sierra Madre NatP.

Ningaloo Reef. Western

Ramsar

268.

273, 276-7

393

Pr.

350.351-3

306. 321

Islands

225

Qahu. Hawaiian Islands 392.

northeast trade winds 360

Ningaloo MP. Western Australia

Orimas Thila DS. Maldives 223.

Ostracoda 36

166

Nilandu Atolls. Maldives 223-4

Ophiuroidea 39

Osprey Reef. Australia 318. 319

Northeast Archipelago PRes,

Niihau, Hawaiian Islands 393,

Solomon

Orinoco River 166, 168

Current 392

North West Point-West Bay

214,217
Niger River 174-5

of

342,

North Pacific Equatorial

North West Cape. Western

292. 296

Nicobar Islands, India 179,212.

Atoll,

Australia 317

North Sound RpZ. Cayman

292. 296

digitalis

Fiji

224

North Shore Coral Reef

Nichman Kaigan QNP, Japan

Ontong Java

Orienle Transform Fault 141

Reefs.

Nuweiba. Egypt 236

Maldives 223

102

Nicaraguan Rise 130

Ninigo Atoll. Papua

Nukusemanu

nutrients 22. 24

Atoll,

343

Opislhobranch 37

North Rock PA, Bermuda 100,

Nicaragua 110, 122-4

Niphates

Maldives 223

Atoll,

Fiji

343. 344

organ-pipe corals 33

AloU. Tokelau.

Nusa Penida. Indonesia 44

North Nilandu AloU, Maldives

organizations

Ngulu

Nukunonu

Nusa Tenggara. Indonesia

Nggela, Solomon Islands 332-3

NGOs see non-governmental

New

Papua

Islands.

343, 344

North Keppel Island,

Fiji

Islands 330, 331.332

Polynesia 375

North Keeling Island, Western

Oni-i-Lau.

Onotoa. Kiribati 365

Guinea326. 328. 331

Current 183

Queensland 315

Micronesia 356

Nukufetau. Tuvalu. Polynesia

Nukumanu

North Equatorial Counter

Reef 314. 315

Oneata Passage.

372

100, 102

Australia 306, 307

Ngetik, Federated Stales of

French Polynesia

Nukulaelae. Tuvalu. Polynesia

113.281.300

Palau 355, 359

Ngerumekaol Grouper SpnA.

Hiva,

372

296

Bermuda

Ngermach ChannelNgeruangel

North Coast PA, Taiwan 292,

North East Breaker PA.

355, 359

Nuku
387

100, 102

Island. Great Barrier

Palaemonidae 36
Palancar Reef. Mexico
Palaster Reef

1 1

MNP, Antigua

and Barbuda 159. 166

Palau 68, 348, 354-7, 359

417

418

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Palawan. Philippines 283, 285.

Palawan Passage, Philippines

Palawan

UNESCO

Biosphere

Reserve, Philippines 285, 286

Parque Esladual Marinho do

2U

Palk Bay. Sri Lanka

2U,

Palm Beach,

123, 124

Queensland 312,

Islands,

313,317
Palmerston

Cook Islands

Atoll.

381,383
Palmerston Lagoon HR. Cook
Islands 383. 38^

Palmyra

Atoll.

USA/Kiribati 364.

Palolo

Deep Marine

Samoa

R.

palolo

worm

Pamban

Mannar

Island, Gulf of

Panama 93. 125-9

Panama Canal 57,

61. 126. 127.

City,

Panama

126

Pananjung Pangandaran NR,

Indonesia 268. 280

Gulf, Philippines

285

Pandora Passage, Great Barrier

Pangaimotu Reef

R,

Tonga 378,

Phyllangia

Pangani River. Tanzania 187

Pangavini MR. Tanzania 187,

Pedro Cays, Jamaica 138. 139

Pedum spondyloideum

38

Panglao Island-Balicasag Area

MR/TZ. Philippines 285, 286

Panguana mine, Papua New

Guinea 328

Peleng Island, Indonesia 273,

276

Bahamas

Papeete.

Society Islands

Tahiti.

Papua. Gulf

of,

see Gulf

of

Papua
47. 274. 301

308.313,323.325-9

Pigeon

Islets.

Pemba Channel, Tanzania

159,

186,

Pemba

Island. Tanzania 182.

Islands,

Penaeidea 36
penguins 321

UNESCO

Biosphere Reserve.

134, 137

outlying islands

394. 397 see also individual

islands/countries

Pinatubo mountain, Philippines

Polynesian voyages 301

Polyplacophora 37

Pomacanthidae

Pinctada margaritifera 52
of

Pomacentridae

28. 41.

porcelain crabs 36

Pontes spp.

Guinea 326. 329

113, 117, 175,250,

259, 386

Pontes arnaudi 389

390

Ocean

389-91
Bank, British Indian Ocean

Territory 226, 227

Pontes asteroides 150

Pontes heronensis 320

Pontes lichen

113,

Pontes lobata]]3.

327
126. 128, 129

Placencia, Belize 117, 118

Pontes panamensis

Plantagenet Bank 101

Pontes pontes

Piatax orbicularis 352

150. 168

platform reefs 17

Pontes sverdrupi 113

protected areas 329

Penrhyn, Cook Islands 381. 382

Platte Island. Seychelles 200.

Porolithon 29

see also Torres

Pentecote Island, Vanuatu 339

Papuan Barrier

New

Strait

Reef.

Papua

Guinea 326, 327

Percy Islands. Queensland 314.

315

Papuans 323

Perle. Mauritius 206. 207

Paracel Islands. South China

Peros Banhos, British Indian

Sea 287, 288

Ocean

Territory 226. 227

202

Port Antonio. Jamaica 138

Platyhelminthes 35

Port Dickson, Malaysia 266, 267

Playa del Carmen, Mexico 114.

Port Hedland. Western

115

Australia 306

Piectorhinchus orientalis 41

Port Honduras. Belize 118

Piectropomus leopardus 304

Port Honduras MR, Belize 118.

Parcel del Abrolhos. Brazil 172

Perth. Australia 306, 307

Pleistocene extinctions 259

Parcel Manoel Luis SMP. Brazil

Peru Coastal Current 133

Plexaura flexuosa 135

Peru Oceanic Current 133

Plexaura homomalla 135

175

13

125, 128, 130,

Pennatulacea 33

biodiversity

42

Great Barrier

Reef 313-14. 315

WMA. Papua New

Pitcairn Islands. Pacific

41

Pomacanthus arcuatus 155

Pomacanthus sexstriatus 348

Pompey Complex.

pink anemonefish 287

Pitt

Polychaeta 35. 49

US minor

Pitcairn, Pitcairn Islands 389.

Taiwan 293. 294

PoloTayabas MuMR,

Polynesia 369, 370

Federated States of

Pinar del Rio Province, Cuba

Pirung

see also

pollution

Polycladida 35

Pikelot,

Indonesia 273. 280

187

Lanka 218

Philippines 285. 286

Guadeloupe

Pinjam/Tanjung Mantop GR.

Darussalam 270

Cuba

328-9

Lucia

Micronesia 356

Pelong Rocks. Brunei

Peninsula de Guanahacabibes

Papua New Guinea

St,

160. 167

Pmgelap. Federated States

100, 102

Penaeus spp 136

388

oil

283

104. 105

Pen-Hu [Pescadores]

PanuiJrus argus 119, 136

Pigeon Island ETC.

Sri

Polillo Islands. Philippines 282.

pollution 24. 28. 57. 69,

134. 136

186. 187. 188

PanulJrus spp, 35

175

Micronesia 355

163

Rouge LtCA, Martinique

160. 167

283

amencana

162

Pemba, Mozambique 190

189

Pointe

Vietnam 288.

Physaiia spp. 32

Hawaiian Islands 393, 396

Kuendu SpR. New

Polhena Reef.

Phyaeophyta 30

Bermuda

Pangani, Tanzania 187

Island.

pearl culture 52, 53, 386,389

Atoll.

lEtang Sale FiR, Reunion 209

Pointe

Caledonia 335. 337

Pearl Cays, Nicaragua 122. 123

Hermes

Kiribati 363.

Phuket. Thailand 261-3. 262

Pelinaion and Rita Zovetto PA,

380

Penh. Cambodia 288

289

worms 35

Micronesia 354, 356, 358, 359

Pointe de Bretagne-Pointe de

Phoenix Islands.

Phu Quoc

Caledonia 335.

Pohnpei, Federated States of

phosphate mining 364. 367

13

Pelican Cays Land and Sea NP,

Reef 311

Phnom

New

337

364, 365

Pelee. mountain, Martinique

Panay, Philippines 281, 285

Poe SpR,

282-6

348, 351

Pedro Bank. Jamaica 138. 139

Panama

Panay

Pavona spp.

Pearl and

128

70.

New

Guinea 326

Phillipines tectonic plate 300.

peanut

2U, 215

249. 386, 389

Pocklington Reef. Papua

Philippines Trench 281

350. 353

Pocdlopora effusus 110

Pocillopora spp. 113, 128, 132.

334, 335

Passage Patteson, Vanuatu 339

peacock mantis shrimp 36

49

Caledonia

Passe de Longogon SFiR,

peacock grouper 369

Palu, Indonesia 273

New

PhllippmesSO,

Guam

Philippines

Pocillopora elegans 128

Petrie Reef,

Philippine Sea 282, 285

NA.

MuMR,

285, 286

Pocillopora damicornis 128. 250

stoplight 99

Pavona clavus 128

375, 376

Bahamas

bump-headed 345

Pati Point

glaciations 93

Poblacion

pharmaceuticals 54

parrotfish 42, 155

Pati-Pati GR, Indonesia 273. 280

Paioia siciUensis 49

Islands 154. 157

Phangnga, Thailand 262

Mayotte 198. 199

39A. 396, 397

Peter Island BS, British Virgin

159, 166

Parque Submarmo La Caleta

Plexaura spp. 168

Pliocene/Pleistocene

104. 105

152

Florida 96

Taiwan

Petite-Terre NR, Guadeloupe

Site,

NP, Dominican Republic 151,

218

Islands,

Peterson Cay NP.

Parque NacionalJeanette

Honduras

Palk Strait, India/Sn Lanka

Ramsar

175

Site, Brazil

Kawas, NP/Ramsar

PalJnura 35, 36

Palm

of Paria

Parcel Manoel Luis,

285

Pescadores Islands see Pen-Hu

Parepare. Indonesia 273

Pana, Gulf see Gulf

288

120
Port Launay

201,204

MNP. Seychelles

Index

Puerto Morelos. Mexico

Port Louis. Mauritius 206

Port Louis FiR. Mauritius

Port Morant. Jamaica 138

Port Moresby. Papua

New

Guinea 326. 327

River

NP

V^/orld

Heritage

black-spotted 228

Port-of-Spain. Trinidad 160

map 334

Portland Bight PA, Jamaica

Pukapuka

UO

Pukapuka, Cook Islands 382

Pukapuka, French Polynesia

319

Panama

Portobelo NP,

126,

387

Portugese man-o'-war 32

Portugueses Islands 190, 192

Prachuab Kirikhan, Thailand

387
Pulap, Federated States of

Praslm, Seychelles 200, 201

Preparis North and South

Andaman Sea 262

President Coolidge and Million

Dollar Point R.Vanuatu 341

Bay-Mam Channel MP.

Cayman Islands 142. 143

Preston

Prickly Pear Island BS, British

Virgin Islands 154, 157

190, 191, 193

Queensland 31

1,

313

see also individual countries/

Pulau Hujung MP, Malaysia

regions

Providence Island, Seychelles

Pulau Jahat MP, Malaysia 270

200, 202, 204

Pulau Kaca MP, Malaysia 267,

Providence-Cerf Bank,
Seychelles 200, 204

270

Providencia, Colombia 130, 131

Providenciales. Turks and

Prune IPalml Island WR,

St.

Vincent 160, 167

spp. 113,386
stetiata 128

Pseudoptexaura spp. 135

Pseudopterogorgia spp. 168
Pterois voUtans 289

Puako Bay FMA, Hawaiian

Islands 393, 396

Pulau Kapas MP, Malaysia 267,

270

Pueblo Nuevo, Mexico 112

Puerto de Sagua, Cuba 134, 136
Puerto Escondido reefs, Cuba

Philippines 283

UNESCO

Biosphere Reserve,
Philippines 286

CoNP/Ramsar

Western Australia 306,

321
of

Micronesia 356

Micronesia 356

131

Punta Frances/Punta Pederales

PNM, Cuba

134, 137

Punta Galeta, Panama 126, 127

Punta Gorda, Mexico 114, 115

Punta Isopo WRef, Honduras

268, 280

123, 124

Punta Majagua, Mexico 114, 115

267, 280

266

Punta Mocambo, Mexico 114,

115

Punta Nizuc, Mexico 115

Punta Patino Ramsar

267, 271

Semama

GR, Indonesia

268, 280

Panama

Site,

126, 129

Punta Ycacos, Belize 117, 118

Pulau Semblian Islands,

Punto Chileno, Mexico 112, 113

Pulau Sembilang MP. Malaysia

Pulau Kuraman MP, Malaysia

Pulau Labas MP, Malaysia 271

Pulau Lang Tengah MP.
Malaysia 267. 271

Pulau Langkawi Islands.

Malaysia 266

271

Pulau Lima MP, Malaysia 267,

271

267, 271

Pulau Mentinggi MP, Malaysia

267, 271

Pulau Moyo HP/RP, Indonesia

268, 280

Pulau Sibu Hujung MP,

Pulau Sibu MP, Malaysia 267,

Pulau Sipadan, Malaysia 269

Pulau Sipadan BS, Malaysia

Pulau

Qeshm

Island, Iran 252,

255

queen angelfish 12^

queen conch

58. 101-2. 105,

136

271

Sri

Buat MP. Malaysia

267. 271

Pulau Susa Dara MP, Malaysia

267, 271

Pulau Talang Islands, Malaysia

266

Pulau Tengah FoR, Malaysia

267

Pulau Tengah MP, Malaysia

267, 271

Queensland, Australia 308.

311-15

Queensland Department

268, 271

Malaysia 267.

Q
Qatar 252, 25^

Malaysia 267, 271

268,271

Lembu MP.

Pulau Sepoi MP, Malaysia

271

Pulau Mensirip MP, Malaysia

134, 136

Puerto Galera, Mindoro,

Malaysia 268, 271

267. 271

273, 280

Pulau

Pulu Keeling

Malaysia 266. 267

Pulau Kasa GR/RP, Indonesia

Caicosia7, 108

Malaysia 268, 271

Pulau

267, 270

Pulu Keeling. Western Australia

Punta Betin, Colombia 130,

267. 271

Pulau Segantang MP, Malaysia

267, 270

Pulo Anna, Palau 354. 355

Puluwat, Federated States of

266

Pulau Satar Islands, Malaysia

Malaysia

RP, Indonesia 267,

Pulusuk, Federated States

271

Pulau Sangiang NR, Indonesia

Hanmau MP,

Weh

280

Site,

Pulau Sangalaki RP, Indonesia

270

Pulau

271

Pulau Rusukan Kecil MP,

280

271

306. 307

268, 280

Pulau Rusukan Besar MP.

Pulau Chebeh MP, Malaysia

Pulau Goal MP, Malaysia 267,

Queensland 31

Puerto Galera

Pulau Bunaken NR. Indonesia

267, 270

protected areas, marine 69-72,

Darussalam 270

Pulau Redang MP. Malaysia

280

Pulau EkorTebu MP, Malaysia

Princess Charlotte Bay,

Psammocora
Psammocora

Pulau Besar RP, Indonesia 273,

Malaysia

Malaysia 271

Pulau

Pulau Redang Islands. Malaysia

270

Pulau Dua NR, Indonesia 268,

Prince of Wales Island,

Indonesia

Pulau Redang FoR. Malaysia

270

Pulau Besar MP, Malaysia 267,

267, 270

Islands 154, 157

Primeiro Archipelago,

Mozambique

Pulau Aur MP, Malaysia 267,

273, 280

Prickly Pear P, British Virgin

Pombo NR/RP,

273, 280

Pulau Rawa MP, Malaysia 267,

Indonesia 267, 280

MPWR,

267,271

Pulau Tulai MP, Malaysia 267,

271

Pulau Rambut NR, Indonesia

Micronesia 356

266

Pulau Tokong Bahara MP,

Pulau Pinang MP, Malaysia 267,

Pulau Punyit, Brunei

Pulau Anak Krakatau NR,

261

Pulau Perhentian Kecil MP,

Pulau

Pukaruha, French Polynesia

129

271

Pulau Tioman Islands, Malaysia

Pulau Tioman

Malaysia 267, 271

382

Portlock Reefs, Australia 311.

Channels.

Pulau Perhentian Besar MP,

Cook Islands

Malaysia 268,

P,

271

Pulau Tinggi MP, Malaysia 267,

267,271
Pulau Penyu [Turtle Islands]

Malaysia 267, 271

Atoll,

Pulau Tiga FoR, Malaysia 267

Pulau Tiga

271

MP, Malaysia 268, 269, 271

pufferfish

Pulau Tenggol MP, Malaysia

267, 271

Pulau Payar MP, Malaysia 267,

Pulau Pemanggil MP, Malaysia

Port-au-Prince. Haiti U9. 151

138, 139.

Site,

Philippines 286

Puerto Rico Trench 153, 158

Vanuatu 341

Pulau Nyireh MP, Malaysia 267,

271

Puerto Rico 63, 153-6, 157

Port Sudan 242. 2/i3

Vila.

14,

Puerto Princesa Subterranean

206. 209

Port

115, 116

of

Environment and Heritage

317
Quintana Roo State, Mexico

115

Quirimbass Archipelago,

Mozambique

190, 191, 192,

193

Quitasueho Bank. Colombia

131, 132

Quseir, Egypt 236

lA,

419

420

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

early

mapping 78-9

Reunion 178,207,209

Egypt 237-9

Rurutu Island, French Polynesia

Reunion hot spot 205, 212, 216,

Israel 238, 239

221,226

rabbitfish. two-lined 351

Jordan 238, 239

Reunlon-Rodrigues chain 180

Rabigh. Saudi Arabia 240, lUl

northern 235-7

Rhizophora mangle

Saudi Arabia 240-1, 242, 245

Rhizophora mucronata 243

southern 244-6

Rhodophyta

Sudan 243

Rhopalaea 40

Yemen

Ria Lagartos ETC, Mexico

racoon butterfly

Radama

fish

234

Archipelago,

Madagascar

195, 196

Radio Mast-Sand Bluff RpZ,

Cayman
Ragay

Islands 142, 143

282

Gulf, Philippines

Ragged Cay WRef, Honduras

123, 124

red-footed booby 212, 228

Redonda

Island,

Reef 311, 313

Reef

at

393

Reef

Anse de Pilons MR,

Rakahanga, Cook Islands 381

382

Ramu

Rachette Point MR, St Lucia

Rangiroa

French

Atoll,

Polynesia 369, 385, 387

Rangoon seeYangon
Ranguana Cay, Belize

Rapa, French Polynesia 386,

390

mapping

boat-based 81-2, 86-8

remote sensing 82-8

stick charts 78-9,

reef monitoring 64-5

Rarotonga Island, Cook Islands

reef protection

global areas 72-3

integrating

Turtle Reserve,

248

Ras

al Khafji,

Ras

el Bir, Djibouti

Saudi Arabia 252

248

Maldives 223

Refugio de Vida Silvestre/Punta

Ramsar

Isopo

Ratak Cham, Marshall Islands

123, 124

Site,

Honduras

Bretagne FIR, Reunion 209

aerial photography 85

Recif Lancaster [Neilson Reef),

ground-truthmg83,

Polynesia 390

Recif des Francais,

Brazil 175

New

Caledonia 334, 335

Recife de Guaratibas, Brazil 172

red crabs 307

236

24, 178,

Rennell,

Point, Belize 118

Solomon Islands

330,

331,333
Biosphere du

Biosphere Reserve,
179,233-4,

Atoll,

Madagascar
resolution, of

195, 196

maps 82

Anne MNP, Seychelles

Atoll,

Atoll,

US

Virgin Islands 153,

154, 156

Denis 206

St. Eustatius,

Netherlands

Antilles 158-9, 161

Atoll

NW^R, American

375, 376

St.

Eustasia BS, British Virgin

Islands 154, 157

New

Rota, Mariana Islands 350, 351,

353

St.

Eustatius MP, Netherlands

Antilles 160, 161, 167

St.

Georges

St.

John,

US

Cay, Belize 118

Virgin Islands 154.

155

Australia 306, 307

Rotuma Island, Fiji 343, 344

Round Rock Island BS, Virgin
Islands 154, 157

Australia 306,321

River and Delta, Tanzania

Bahamas

John's, Antigua 159

John's Island see Zabargad,

Egypt
St, Kitts

and Nevis

159, 162, 167

St.

Leu

St.

Lucia, Lesser Antilles 160,

FiR,

Reunion 209

St.

Lucia Marine Reserve, South

Africa 193

186, 187, 188

Cay,

St.

St.

163-4, 167, 170

Rowley Shoals MP, Western

Rum

159, 166

Brandon see lie du Nord.

Mauritius

St

American Samoa

Island,

Barthelemey NR,

Guadeloupe

Marshall

374-6

Rufiji

Barthelemey

Guadeloupe 159

St, Croix,

Islands 361, 362

201,

204

Marshall

Australia 306, 309

la

Anne, Seychelles 201

St.

St,

Rowley Shoals, Western

reptiles 43

Reserve de

St.

St,

Rottnest Island, Western

Mananara Nord, UNESCO

red algae 28

Red Sea

86-8

sensors 83-4

Rendezvous

SMP,

88

multispectral imagers 85-6

satellite

Recife, Brazil 172

Recife de Fora

limitations

Saikai NP, Japan 292, 296

Reefs MR,

Guinea 326,328

from manned spacecraft 84-5

French Polynesia 390

Safaga, Egypt 236, 238

St.

Rossel Island, Papua

Rawaki, Kiribati 365

Recif President Thiers, French

Artificial

242

Roseau, Dominica 159

active sensors 86

86,

saddleback butterflyfish 183

Sahul Shelf, Indonesia 274

Lucia 160, 167

Samoa

remote sensing 82-8

360, 361

Ravine Trois Bassins-Pomte de

Islands,

Islands 330, 331

Rose

Indonesia 273,

274, 280
Haiti 149, 151

Island, Egypt 239,

Rodney Bay

Rose

Atoll,

277

Sabuda Tataruga OR, Indonesia

Rochelois Bank,

Rongenk

ffeefe a( ff/5* 64, 65, 93, 179,

Rasfari DS, Maldives 223, 225

269-71,288
Sabalana

Islands 361, 362

259, 301
Atoll,

Islands 154

Rongelap

ReefCheck 64-5, 73

Rasdu

Sabah, Malaysia 266, 268,

British Virgin

205, 206, 207

84, 89

Antilles

71, 161, 162, 167

FiR,

Roncador Reef, Solomon

reef rock 53

Ras Hadarba, Sudan 242

NP, Egypt 236,

Rampart

Mauritius 206, 209

St,

68-72

ReefBase

Mohammed

Antilles 159, 162

Saba MP, Netherlands

Rodrigues Island, Indian Ocean

measures 67-8

traditional

161

Saba Bank, Netherlands

Site,

315

consumers 73-4

Ras Fartak, Yemen 248

239

Biosphere

Rockhampton, Queensland

measures 76

legal controls
role of

342, 343

Palau 355

enhancement 75

fisheries

RasalHadd, Oman
Hadd

UNESCO

Rio Platano

Rocky

Ras Abu Soma, Egypt 236, 238

al

Fiji

Rock IChelbachebl

348

FiS, Philippines 285,

286
Saba, Netherlands Antilles 159,

Ringgold Islands,

121, 123

background 78-80

historical

Raroia, French Polynesia 387

Oman

Saavedra

Rincon de Guanabo reefs, Cuba

robber crab 228

Raraka, French Polynesia 387

248, 250

Saadani, Tanzania 187

Roatan, Bay Islands, Honduras

scale and resolution 82

381,383,384

248, 250

Rimatara Island, French

Road Town,

global 89-90
1

Saad ed Dm, northern Somalia

worms 35

Riviere du

330, 331

reef

15

Honduras 123

Reef Islands, Vanuatu 338, 339

326, 327

ribbon reefs 310, 313

ReserveA'Vorld Heritage

reef crest 24, 26

Reef Islands, Solomon Islands

71

Papua New Guinea

River,

294, 295

134, 136

Reef between Grand Caille and

reef flat 25-6

Ramsar Convention

Ras

St.

160, 167

Cham, Marshall Islands

360, 361

Ras

St,

Lucia 160, 167

Raivavae, French Polynesia 390

29-30

28,

River, Tanzania 187

Ryukyu Islands, Japan 292, 293,

Polynesia 390

Malgretoute MR,

at

Islands 331

Ruvu

68

Riau Archipelago, Sumatra 267,

ribbon

Lucia 160, 167

Raita Bank, Hawaiian Islands

272, 275

Lesser Antilles

19, 161

Raine Island, Great Barrier

Ralik

245, 246

Red Sea Islands PA, Egypt 239

390
Russel Islands, Solomon

St Luke's Island,
St.

103, 104

Myanmar 262

Maarten, Netherlands

Antilles 159, 161, 162, 163

Index

Martin Island, Guadeloupe

St.

Martin NR. Guadeloupe 159,

St.

166
Martin's Island IJinjiradwipl,

St.

Bangladesh 2U, 217

262
Matthias Group, Papua

St.

New

Guinea 326. 327

Paul Subterranean River

St.

island,

Ecuador

St. Pierre,

sandfish 379

Schyphozoa 32

Sandy Bay, Honduras 123

Scilly

Sandy Island MP, Anguilla

159,

Sanganeb

Atoll,

Sanganeb

Atoll

Sudan 242, 243

MNP, Sudan

Shanghai, China 292

IManuaell TRes, French

Shark Bay, Western Australia

305, 306, 307

Polynesia 388, 391

MPMorld

Shark Bay

scleratininan corals 19-22,

34-5

Site.

306. 321

shark feeding 105

Santa Cruz, Ecuador 131, 133

Scorpaenopsis diabotis 220

Shark Reef, Great Barrier Reef

Santa Cruz Islands, Solomon

Scott Reef, Northern Australia

scuba diving see diving

sea

339

318
shark/shark

308, 309

fin

fishing 49, 56,

396

59, 246,

shark5 26, 58, 98-9, 391

anemones 33

Pierre FiR, Reunion 209

St.

Raphael, Mauritius 207

Santa Marta, Colombia 130, 131

sea cucumbers 39-40, 58, 76

Caribbean reef 75

St,

Thomas, US

Santo Domingo, Dominican

sea fans 101

grey reef 234

Republic 150, 151

154
St.

Vincent, Lesser Antilles 160,

Vincent and the Grenadines

160, 164-5, 167

Saipan, Mariana Islands 348,

350,351,353
Sakiyama-wan NCA, Japan

Saline I'Hermitage [lagoonl FiR,

Reunion 209
Saline I'Hermitage (reef) FiR,

Salomon

Atoll, British Indian

Territory IChagos

Ocean

Archipelago! 20, 226, 227,

Salt Fish Tail Reef

Salt Island BS, Virgin Islands

Water Point-Beach Point

Cayman

Islands 142, 143

Salway, Gulf see Gulf

Samana

Salwah

of

Samana

Cay,

Bahamas

105

Samar, Philippines 281, 285

Sea, Philippines 285
301, 373-6

Ecuador

131, 133

331

San Esteban NP, Venezuela

168, 169, 171

San Jose, Costa Rica 126

San Jose MuMR, Philippines

54

Satawal, Federated States of

Satawan, Federated States

satellites

San Salvador, Bahamas

104, 105

103,

seaweeds 52

166

Shoalwater and Corio Bays

of

83-4

Saudi Arabia 234, 236, 248

Arabian Gulf coast 241, 252,

Ramsar

Segundo Archipelago,

Mozambique

Saumarez

Reef, Australia 318,

Samoa

373, 374,

shore crab 192

Semha, Yemen

shrimp farming 51-2,

247, 248

shrimp

Sepia sp. 38

shrimpfish 203

Sepik River, Papua

New

Guinea

Shuqra. Yemen 248. 249

Sian Ka'an BRINI. Mexico 116

Sept Freres Island, Djibouti 248,

Sian Ka'an

UNESCO

Reserve. Mexico

249-50

Seram Sea

120. 263

fishing 136. 253

Semporna, Malaysia 268, 269

Biosphere
16

Sian Ka'an World Heritage Site,

Mexico

273, 274

Seringapatam Reef, Northern

WMA, Papua New

Australia 315,

seine-net fishing 189

Seram, Indonesia 274

319
Savai'i Island,

Site,

321

190, 193

325, 326, 327

Siberul,

16

Sumatra 267

Sibuyan Sea, Philippines 282,

Australia 308. 309

Serrana Bank, Colombia 131,

285

SiderastreaUl. 175

132

Serranidae 40

Siderastrea radians 135

Saya de Malha Bank 206

Serranilla Bank, Colombia 131

Siderastrea siderea 125,

Saziley P, Mayotte 198, 199

Set Net Cays. Nicaragua 122,

Sawu

Sea, Indonesia 273

scale, of

maps 82

Seychelles 61, 178, 180,200-4

Scarborough Reef, Philippines

Seychelles Bank 200

283, 288

Scarus vetula 42

30,

168
Siderastrea stellata 174

123

scallop 38

SchizocuUna 175

San Pedro, Belize 118

Shikoku Island, Japan 292, 294

sedimentation 22, 24, 57

Scaridae 42

286

San Juan, Puerto Rico

Shidvar WRef, Arabian Gulf 252

166

Shoal Bay MP, Anguilla 159,

Guinea 326, 329

Solomon Islands

Cay East MP, Anguilla 159,

shipwreck sites 359

Sawataetae

Cristobal,

Site

255

seaweed farming 189

Marianas 353

Save River, Mozambigue 190

Cristobal,

Sheedvar Island Ramsar

Seal Island and Prickly Pear

Shipstern PrivR, Belize 118

San Bias Archipelago, Panama

San

shell trade 52

Islands 154, 157

seasnake 43

FiPr,

San Andres, Colombia 130-2

San

sheet coral 196

Virgin

Northern

Sasanhaya

375

125-8

Sheba Ridge, Arabian Sea 247

Shimobishi MP, Japan 296

Red Sea coast 236, 240-2, 245

Republic 151, 152

Shaft al Arab, Arabian Gulf 251

seagrasses 30

seals 44, 395

255

Bay, Dominican

Sharm Obhur, Saudi Arabia 242

Sarmi, Irian Jaya 274 277

Micronesia 356

157

Sheikh PCo. Egypt

sealions 44

Micronesia 355

166

Samar
Samoa

163, 247

Japan 292, 296

MNP,

Antigua and Barbuda 159,

RpZ,

135,

Sala Misaki IKagoshimal MP,

228

Salt

171

el

seabirds43-4, 316, 364, 395

The Seal Dogs BS,

Sargassum piatycarpum
Sarpassum spp. 52, 121,

Sharm

sea wasps 32

seahorses 58

269-71,288

Sheikh, Egypt 236,

239

sea urchins 39, 58

120

el

238

sea temperatures 20, 59, 61-2

172, 174

350, 352

22

Sharm

Sao Pedro e Sao Paulo, Brazil

Sarigan Island, Mariana Islands

Reunion 209

whale 99

sea squirts 40

Sarcophyton 33

Japan 292, 296

lemon 26

sea levels 26, 139,384

sea pens 33

Sarawak, Malaysia 266, 268,

Sakurajima IKagoshimal MP,

sea kraits 43

Sanya, China 290

Sapodilla Cayes MR, Belize 118,

292,

296

salinity

Santo Domingo NP, Dominican

Republic 151, 152

164-5,167
St.

Heritage

Western Australia 305.

St.

Virgin Islands

288,

Scolymia wellsi 1 74

242, 243

Santa Maria Island, Vanuatu

Seychelles 202

Shan HuJiaoNR, China

291

Scleractinia 19-22,34-5

Islands 330, 331,332

NP, Philippines 285, 286

New

Schouten Islands, Papua

Guinea 325, 326

166

Matthew's Island, Myanmar

St,

San Salvador
131

159

Sierra

Nevada de Santa Marta

NatNP, Colombia

Shabelle River, Somalia 182,

131, 133

Siganus lineatus 351

Sikaiana Atoll IStewart Islands!,

185

Shadeganan Marshes,

Iran

Solomon Islands
Silhouette

252

schooling bannertish 205

Shadwan

schoolmasters 127, 137

Shalao, China 290

Island,

Red Sea 236

MNP,

201,204
Sinulana 33

330, 331

Seychelles

421

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Silavatturai Reef.

Sn Lanka

218,

219

South Africa 190, 193

Dominican

Silver Bank.

106, 107

Republic 106. 150-2

silver gull

282, 285

WMA. Papua

NevK Guinea 326. 329

South Equatorial Current 133.

173,

Simeulue. Sumatra 267

Islands 142, 143

Sea 270, 283, 285, 287, 288,

290
squat lobsters 36

staghorn coral 93, 95, 128, 140,

South Jamaica Shelf 138

Starbuck, Kiribati 366

South Keeling Island, Western

starfish 39.

Singapore 267. 269, 270. 271

Singapore Strait 270
Sinub Island

Maldives 223

Sinnath NP, Thailand 262. 265

Sistema Arrecifal Veracruzano

NMP. Mexico

Pit

Maldives

224

PA,

Bermuda

100,

41, 120,

264

Bengal 212

South Sound RpZ, Cayman

118. 120

schoolmaster 127. 137

snapping shrimps 36
Society Islands 385, 388

Yemen

248, 249

33

100. 102

Australia 321

Solitary islands. Australia 318.

320-1

biodiversity

21-2

MR. Australia

321

Solomon Islands

326. 330-3

SolomonSea325.

326. 331

Somali Current 183. 185. 234

Somalia

southern 182, 185

Sombrero

Island, Anguilla 158,

159

Sombrero

276. 277

Island

MR/TZ,

Philippines 282, 286

sonar remote sensing 86

Songo Songo Archipelago,

Tanzania 186. 187. 188
Sonsorol. Patau 354, 355
Sorol, Federated States of

Micronesia 355
Soufrlere, Mount. St- Vincent

164

St.

and Nevis 159. 167

307. 379

Monserrat 162
Soufriere Marine
St.

Southern Islands MNA.

Singapore 267, 271

Management

Soufriere MR.

St.

Lucia 160, 167

Soufriere/Scotts Head MR,

Dominica 159, 166

343. 345

Suwarrow

storms

see also

55. 63-4.

Strait of

Malacca

57. 266. 267.

381.382

Suwarrow

Atoll

NP. Cook

Islands 382. 384

Swain Reefs. Great Barner Reef

313-14.315

Straits of Florida 96. 104

Straits of Tiran.

Red Sea 236

Red Sea 236.

Swains

American Samoa

Atoll,

374-6

Swan

Islands.

Honduras

Strombus gigas

119. 136

Sweetings Cay. Bahamas 104,

105

Suakin, Sudan 242, 243

242, 243

sweetlips 41

Synaraea 386

Synngodlum flliforme 06
Systeme pour I'observation de
1

Reina IMA, Cuba 134, 137

la

Terre ISPOTl 83-4

Subarchipielago de los

Subarchipielago de Sabana-

Sudan

IMA. Cuba 134. 137

242. 243

T
Taba, Egypt 238

Sudest Island. Papua

New

Guinea 325. 326, 327

Taba Coast PCo, Egypt 236, 239

Tabar Islands, Papua

Suez Canal 237-8

Tabiteuea. Kiribati 365

Suez

Tablas

lEl

Suweisl. Egypt 236

Strait. Philippines

Space Shuttle 84-5

Sulawesi, Indonesia 273, 276-7

Tabuaeran.

Spansoma

99

Sulawesi Sea 268, 273, 281, 285

23, 49, 68,

Sullivan Island,

vlrlde

spawning events
98-9.316
Speakers Bank,

Myanmar 262

Sulu Archipelago. Philippines

British Indian

Territory 226, 227

spear fishing 48

273.281.283.285
Sulu Sea, Philippines 268. 281.
283, 285

Sumatra

Spermonde Archipelago.

Sumba. Indonesia 273

Sumbawa. Indonesia 268. 277
Sumilon Island MP. Philippines

179, 267,272. 275

286

spiny lobster 105, 136, 155,

396

Sumilon National Fish

Sanctuary

28, 31-2, 135, 149

SPOT see Systeme pour

I'observation de

la

Terre

S.

Philippines 285,

286

Sumilon Reefs. Philippines 283.

284

282

Kiribati 363. 364,

366
Tafua Rainforest Reserve ETC,

Samoa

374, 375, 376

Tahanea, French Polynesia

387
Tahiti,

spectral libraries 88

Sphyraena barracuda 1 75

New

Guinea 326, 327

taboos 67. 67-8, 332

sponges

121,

123

Su/asu(a212, 228

Ocean

342. 343

Fiji

Cook Islands

Atoll.

southwest monsoon 261

spinner dolphins 316

Lucia 71. 163-4

Fiji

Stomatopoda 37

Suez, Gulf, see Gulf of Suez

Indonesia 273, 276, 279

Soufriere Hills Volcano.

Islands, Thailand 261

Suva.

Suva Barner Reef.

Camaguey

Southeast Peninsula NP.

southeast trade winds 300-1.

northern 248, 250

Sunn

Canarreos IMA, Cuba 134. 137

southeast monsoons 266. 275.

Kills

Sural Thani, Thailand 261, 262

Stolonifera 33

la

see also individual countries/

regions

Solo Delta. Java 268. 272

348

Subarchipielago de Jardines de

reefs at risk 65

Solitary Islands

Solomon Islands

Suakin Archipelago, Red Sea

Southeast Asia 179. 259-60

Juventud NP.

Surikozaki MP, Japan 292, 296

Atoll,

Stylastenna 32

South West Solitary Island NR.

la

Stewart Islands see Sikaiana

237

South West Breaker Area PA.

Bermuda

55

de

134, 137

surgeonfish 40, 42-3

Straits of Gubal.

South Water Cay MR. Belize

lane 136

272

Islands 142, 143

blue-lined 27

soft corals

Pr.

100. 102

Isla

Stetson Bank, Gulf of Mexico 99

cyclones; hurricanes

South Shore Coral Reef

Indonesia 275

216

Sur

stoplight parrotfish 99

Environment Programme

Bermuda

Socotra,

Atoll,

ISPREPI 380

102

Area.

South Nilandu

Strait,

Cuba

stick charts 78-9.

South Pacific Regional

115, 116

Red Sea 242

snails 37

snapper

Atoll,

Sunda

350.351.352

Stephanocoenia michetinit
Maldives

Atoll,

South Malosmadulu

Sipuncula 35

Snake

South Male

Shelf. Indonesia 266,

Supply Reef, Mariana Islands

180.302

Stenopodidea 36

223

Sumatra 267

Siyal Islands,

South Keppel Island,

Sunda

Supertyphoon Paka 351

Stenella tongiroslns 316

Queensland 315

WMA, Papua New

Guinea 326.329
Sipora,

165

Australia 306. 307

Islands. Indonesia 268.

273

Sundarbans, Bangladesh 214,

238

237-9

218,

219-20

South Honshu Ridge 294

Sinai Peninsula 55. 233. 236.

Sunda

268. 270. 272. 276

Netherlands Antilles 163

Sinai. Egypt

Sunda Barrier Reef. Indonesia

268. 276

Sn Lanka 179,212,214,

191.300,310.385

South Hole Sound RpZ, Cayman

Simpson Bay Lagoon.

Islands

142, 143

Spratly Islands, South China

South China Sea 259, 268, 270,

358

Simbine Coast

Cayman

Spoil Bay RpZ,

South Caicos, Turks and Caicos

Society Islands 385. 388.

389
Taiaro Atoll. French Polynesia

387

IWA RobmsonI
SNR. French Polynesia 387,

Taiaro Atoll

391
Taira Cays, Nicaragua 122, 123

Taiwan 292, 294, 295-6

Taiwan

Strait

292

Take Bone Rate. Indonesia 277

Index

Take Bone Rate NP, Indonesia

Ten Degree Channel. Indian

Ocean 216. 217

273, 280

Takidunguchi MP, Japan 292,

296

New

Takuu Islands, Papua

Tenassenm Mountains.
Myanmar 264

Guinea 326. 329

Talibon FishR. Philippines 285.

Guam 350

Taman

Terna Reef. Cook Islands 381,

Tonga Trench 377

Laut Banda RP.

Thailand217. 261-3, 264. 265.

Tambobo MuMR,

Philippines

Thailand. Gulf, see Gulf of

Thalassia testudinum 106, 121,

12

Tana River 183

122

Thatassodendron 30

Tandayag MuMR, Philippines

Thaiassoma lutescens 330

Theienota ananas 40
Thiele.

Tanjung Amelango OR.

Thiladhunmathi

Tanjung Blimbing, Kalimantan

268. 276

Tanjung Datu, Kalimantan 268.

Maldives

Tanjung Pamenkan,

268, 276

Tanna

Island.

Vanuatu 340

Tarawa.

Kiribati 364.

Territory 227

Tarpon Hole PA. Bermuda

100,

Three Brothers and Resurgent

Ocean

Territory 227. 229

Queensland

Island.

Tarutao NP. Thailand 262. 265

Tatakoto French Polynesia 387

American Samoa 375

New

Caledonia 335

Tikopia Island,

Solomons

331

Mariana Islands 350,

Tayabas Bay, Philippines 282

Tiran Island, Egypt 236. 237

Tayrona NalNP, Colombia 131.

Tiran-Senafir NP, Egypt 236,

Red Sea

236, 237

239

Tebada. Colombia 131. 132

Tobacco Reef, Belize 118

Telestacea 33

Tobago

Teluk Kelumpang/Selat

Tobago Cays,

Sebuku NR.

Indonesia 268, 280

Teluk Kupang RP, Indonesia

273. 280

Indonesia 274. 280

Teluk

Maumere

RP. Indonesia

273. 280

Tematagi, French Polynesia 387

Tambelan Archipelago.
Kalimantan 268. 276

Temoe. French Polynesia 387

160. 165. 166-7, 167

St-

Vincent and

the Grenadines 160

Tobago Cays WR,

St.

Queensland 312.

Palau 354. 355

Toddu

Atoll.

Maldives 223

trade winds 300-1. 307, 360,

commons" 67

trawling 278,317

294

South

Islets

MP, Malaysia 268, 269, 271

Turtle Islands

and Reefs.

Great Barrier Reef 318

WS. Philippines

285, 286
turtles 43, 354,

Tridacna gigas 38, 52, 345, 357,

395

fishing for 49, 58

flatback316

Tridacna tevoroa 345

Great Barrier Reef 316

Tridacnidae 38, 52

green 105, 122, 141,209.316.

Trimmatom nanus 226

Trimmatom offucius 226

395

Trinidad.

Sri

Cuba

hawksbill43. 105. 188.319

Lanka 218, 219

loggerhead

166-7

316

turtleshell 53
Tutuila.

Trobriand Islands, Papua

54.

protection of 68

134. 135

New

Guinea 326. 327

American Samoa 375.

376
Tuvalu. Polynesia 371. 372

trochus 52. 58. 354. 357, 358-9

Two

Trochus Sanctuaries, Federated

Typhoon Linda 289

Mile Reef, South Africa 193

Slates of Micronesia 356

Tromelin seelle Tromelin

Storm Mitch 98

Trou d'Eau Douce FiR.

Mauritius 206. 209

trumpet emperor 319

trumpet

fish

136

Polynesia 385. 387

Tubastrea

sp.

U
Ujae. Marshall Islands 360. 361

Ujung Kulon NP/Krakatan

National Reserve/V\/orld

Heritage Site 267, 280

Tuamotu Archipelago. French

Tokara Islands, Japan 292,

Site.

Turtle Islands IPalau Penyu]

traditional medicine 54

Tofua Island. Tonga 378

277

Tongaland Ramsar
Africa 190, 193

379

tsunamis 329

Togian Islands, Indonesia 273,

Turneffe Islands, Belize 118,

119

Tofua Arc, Tonga 378

Tofua Trough 377

maps 87-8

Turtle Beaches/Coral Reefs of

Trachinotus btochii 43

Tropical

Vincent

and the Grenadines 160. 167

Tobi.

Teluk Laut Cendrawasih NP,

Townsville.

Trinidad and Tobago 160. 165.

351,353

satellite habitat

Turks Island Passage 107

Tnncomalee.

285, 286
Tinian,

335,

379

Tiran. Straits.

Laut/Selat

Turks Bank, Caribbean 106. 107

Turks and Caicos Islands.

337

Tregosse

Tigris River 251

Taunton PA, Bermuda 100, 102

133

Tortola. British Virgin Islands

"tragedy of the

311

Tinaogan MuMR, Philippines

102

Turbinaria 121, 163

Turiamo Bay, Venezuela 168

318

Islands 330. 331

365

P.

Malaysia 267, 271

Tupai. Society Islands 388

326

SpMR, New Caledonia

Thousand Islands see

TimorSea274, 276, 302. 308

Tinakula, Solomon Islands 330.

Tanzania 186-9

287

Atoll

protected areas 107. 108

Vietnam 289

Island,

Tikehau, French Polynesia 387

268, 276

Tanjung Setan. Kalimantan 276

Tunku Abdul Rahman

Caribbean 95, 106-8

Tiga.

Tanjung Selatan. Kalimantan

Torres Strait. Australia 302.

Tournante de Marine Faune

Thursday

276
Tanjung Sambar. Kalimantan

288. 292

Tho Chau

Islands 5NR, British Indian

276
Tanjung Putih, Kalimantan 268,

350

tourism46. 54-5. 70-1.73-4

Ocean

Tanjung Pengujan. Kalimantan

Guam

Thio River. Grande Terre 336-7

Three Brothers, British Indian

Kalimantan 276

Bay,

Tung Sha

154, 156

Kepulauan Seribu. Java

276

Ta'u,

Atoll.

Tumon

Torres Islands. Vanuatu 339

317

221.223

Indonesia 273. 280

194, 195.

Tung-Sha. South China Sea 287,

289. 290

Torres Strait Islanders 304, 316,

Gerhard 85

Tanga. Tanzania 187

Madagascar

196

Tulum. Mexico 115

380

304.308.310.311,313.317,

Tanahmerah, Indonesia 274

285. 286

Tonga 378.

Ton Shima Reef. Japan 292

Thailand

285. 286

Tampico, Mexico

Island.

FiS. Philippines 285.

286
Tulear.

Tongatapu

Tonkin Gulf. China/Vietnam 288,

267. 288

Tujuh Belas Pulau NR.

Indonesia 268. 280

378

388

anemones 33

Tulapos

Tongatapu Group. Tonga 377.

Tetiaroa, Society Islands

Indonesia IIU. 280

Bay. Sulawesi 273, 277

Tonga 300, 369, 377-80

382

tube

Tubuai. French Polynesia 390

Teraina. Kiribati 363

tern 73, 183

286
Talofofo Bay.

Cebu. Philippines

284

Tommi

124

Papua New

City.

Philippines

Site,

285

Tokelau 373. 375. 376

Toledo

Site/World Heritage

Site/Ramsar

292. 296

TeonostalWRef. Honduras 123,

Guinea326. 328. 331

Talele Islands PP.

Tokashiki lOkmawa] MP, Japan

175

Tubbataha Reefs. Philippines

283

Tubbataha Reefs NP/Ramsar

Ulithi,

Federated States

of

Micronesia 355. 358

Ulveah iLopevi) Island. Vanuatu

338. 339

Umatac,

Umm

Guam

350

al-Qamari Islands PA,

423

424

WORLD ATLAS OF CORAL REEFS

Vieques Passage, Puerto Rico

Biosphere Programme 71

Unguja see Zanzibar

Unilever 74
Union,

St,

Vincent and the

St.

252

Guam

353

University of the South Pacific,

Samoa

373. 375

155-7

Virgin Islands

NP

Virgin Islands

Trough 153

Mariana Islands

164,239

69, 71,

Bermuda

Islands,

Island.

Solomon Islands

330,331
Uturoa. Society Islands 386.

388

Atoll,

343, 344

Northern

Australia 308

Vangunu

Solomon

330,

Vankalai Reef,

Sn Lanka

218,

Vanua Balavu

Island.

Fiji 3*13,

Vanua Lava

Island,

Vanuatu

339

Vanua Levu,

Fiji

342-5

Vanua Levu Barrier Reef.

Fiji

Atoll.

Polynesia 394, 397

Bahamas

Walker's Cay,

Vanuatu 338-41

Vatoa Island.
Ira

Fiji

343. 344

Cfiannel,

Fiji

342, 343

Vava'u Group, Tonga 377, 378,

369.371,372

Wandur [Mahatma Gandhil

MNP, India 216. 217
War in the Pacific NHP. Guam

Waturu

Veracruz, Mexico 112, 114, 115

West

Veracruz reefs, Mexico

West Bay Cemetery-Victoria

Vero Beach, Florida 96, 97

Victoria, Seychelles 201

Islands 142, 143

West Caicos Marine NP. Turks

Victory Bank, British Indian

Ocean Territory 227

Viemandu Channel, Maldives

224
Vientiane 288

Zagros Mountains, Iran 251

107

World Resources

Institute

71

65

and Caicos

St,

Vincent and

West Fayu, Federated States

Micronesia 355

of

Delta,

Mozambique

190

Zamboanga

Peninsula,

Wotje. Marshalllslands361

Zanclus cornutus 291

wrasse 330

Zanzibar, Tanzania 186-9

bandcheck 353

Zanzibar Channel, Tanzania 187

Zealandia Banks, Mariana

cleaner 41. 42. 199

42. 49,

Wreck
Wreck

Islands 350, 352

Zhongsha Qundao see

Reefs. Australia 318, 319
of the

Rhone MP,

Virgin

Macclesfield Bank. South

China Sea
Zoantharia 33, 184
zooxanthellae 31. 33. 35, 39, 59

15
112, 115.

116.118
Xing Da Area PA,

Bermuda

100,

107. 108

the Grenadines 160, 167

Zambezi

Philippines 285

102

West Cay WR.

(Okinawa) MP, Japan

292, 296

Micronesia 355

Xincun Bay. China 290

142, 143

John's Island).

Zamami

XcalakNMP. Mexico

West Caicos, Turks and Caicos

[St,

Egypt 239. 242

Woleai, Federated States of

Xcalak. Mexico

House RpZ, Cayman Islands

Caledonia

Wizard Reef. Seychelles 202

Africa 147, 173, 174-5

House-Sand Cay
Apartments MP, Cayman

Victoria

365

Kiribati 363,

182. 185

Weipa. Queensland 308. 31

14

Zabargad

381.383

Maldives 221,

Atoll.

New

Antilles,

Islands 154. 157

169

Watamu MNP, Kenya

IR,

335, 337

58

311,313

Venezuela 147, 168-70, 171

56

humphead (Napolean)

223-4

380

Yves Merlet

165

Washington-Slagbaai. Bonaire

223-4, 225

Windspint

Windward Islands see

World's End Reefs. Grenadines

Sulawesi

Warrior Reefs. Australia 310,

Vataru Kandu DS. Maldives

Yucatan Current 114

World Heritage Convention

105

350, 353

342. 343

Vatu

Say. Oahu. Hawaiian

Yucatan Channel. Mexico 115

Yucatan Peninsula. Mexico 118

Winslow Reef,

Islands 393

and

Wilkes Exploring Expedition 79

Winslow Reef. Cook Islands

Islands

Wallls and Futuna. Polynesia

344

New

FMA. Hawaiian Islands 393.

MLCD, Hawaiian

Island. St. Vincent

the Grenadines 160

Territory 226, 227

Netherlands

Head

Wallacea see Nusa Tenggara;

219

292. 296

Young

396

Wake

331

296

Yoshino-Kumano NP, Japan

Windward Islands
Windward Passage 151

Waimea

Solomon Islands

Yoronto (Kagoshimaj MP, Japan

150

Guinea 325

393. 396

Islands 331. 333

Vanlkolo.

filefish

Wilhelm, Mount, Papua

Watkiki

Island,

Ocean

Yongala HShip, Australia 321

Yorke Islands, Queensland 31

damsel 374

Wight Bank. British Indian

393

Gulf.

Gulfof Aden 248, 249

Queensland 312. 313. 315

Fiji

yellow band disease 140

Yemen

Whitsunday Islands.

Japan

342, 343

Red Sea 245, 246

whitespotted

100, 102

Waikjki Island-Diamond

Van Diemen

Mexico

Fiji

yellowspot emperor 41, 251

white-belly

Waikiki. Oahu. Hawaiian Islands

Site.

white band disease 62. 93. 98.

Vostok, Kiribati 366

Vuata Vatoa

361,362

yellow goatfish 162

whales44, 316. 395

Volcano Islands see Kanzan

Utnk AtoU. Marshall Islands

of El Vizcaino

whale shark 99

342-5

Indonesia 274

Strait.

Yasawa Group.

140. 155

Fiji

Vixen PA.

urchins see sea urchins

Yapen

Site 311

whelk 105

Levu,

of

Micronesia 68, 355. 358, 359

Queensland

World Heritage

Myanmar 262

Yap Island, Federated States

112

154, 157

Visayan Sea, Philippines 281,

Viti

of

Whale Sanctuary

Virgin Islands 153, 154,

Yangon,

180,

countries/regions

World Heritage

281,283

Uracas see Farallon de Pajaros,

Utupua

'

Visayas Islands, Philippines

upwellings 20, 130

240-1.242

Wet Tropics

Lucia 160, 167

285

Suva 344

user fees

Reef MR,

Islands 154, 156

United Arab Emirates 248. 251.

Upolu,

Artificial

Virgin Gorda, British Virgin

Grenadines 160

University of

Beach

Yalong Bay, China 291

Yanbu Al Bahr, Saudi Arabia

regions

181-2. see also individual

Vietnam 288, 289-90, 291

Vigie

10-12, see

Western Indian Ocean

154

and the

aiso individual countries/

154, 155

World Conservation
Monitoring Centre 89-90

UNESCO Man

Western Caribbean

Vieques. Puerto Rico 63. 153.

Saudi Arabia 2i 1.242

UNEP

Y
Yaeyama
294

Islands.

Japan 292,

its

detailed descriptive texts

experts, this full-color

for

and images by leading

volume

everyone interested

in

will

these

be a

vital

critical

environments.

The World Atlas of Coral Reefs contains 85

new/ly researched

resource

full-page.

and drawn color maps: more than

200 color photographs

illustrating reefs

and reef ani-

mals: and 85 images of coral reefs from space, taken

by

NASA

astronauts from the space shuttle

including those

flights.

2000 and 2001. The authors provide

in

a wealth of information on the geography biodiversity

and human uses

of coral reefs

as well as details about

the threats to their existence.

Centre

in

Cambridge, UK, the United Nations

office

responsible for providing authoritative information on

the condition of global biodiversity the World Atlas will

be welcomed by

and

will

policy

all

serve as a

coral reef enthusiasts

and divers

critical tool for scientists,

makers, and planners

students.

at local, national,

and

International levels alike.

Jacket illustration False clown anennonefish fAmphipnon oceltans!. Great

Barrier Reef, Australia

Barbara Jellow

2001 Stuart Westmorland/Stone Jacket design by

f^\

^\

^^^^

l^M^

^y^

Marine and Coastal Programme, with a leading role

UNEP WCMC
-^^

mangrove

SPALDING. MA,

forests.

Reefs at Risk. He
Unit. University of

*r-

He

is

programme

lead author of the World

is

in

UNEP-WCMCs

officer of

research into coral reefs and

Mangrove Atlas and coauthor

of

also research associate at the Cambridge Coastal Research

Cambridge.

CORINNA RAVILIOUS
UNEP-WCMC.

Ph.D.. is senior

is

a geographic information

with primary responsibility for

systems technical

managing the Centre s

officer at

coral reef

and

ICLARM

...................

forest datasets.

She

is

coauthor of

Global Overview of Forest Conservation and

has prepared maps for many publications, including Global

Biodiversity.- Earth's

Living Resources in the 21st Century.

EDMUND

P.

GREEN. MA. PhD

Programme, overseeing

its

is

head

active projects

of

UNEP-WCMCs

Marine and Coastal

and developing others with a wide range

of international collaborators. His research interests include coral reef

coral diseases,

and the trade

in

coral reef organisms.

He

is

mapping,

lead author of

Remote

Sensing Handbook for Tropical Coastal Management and The Global Trade

Above

left:

in Coral.

Grand Cayman

from space The snatlow lagoon

is

surrounded by extensive and

important mangrove areas.

NASA
199^,
reefs,

photo SSTS062-84-70.

Above

right:

Map shows

mangroves, dive centers,

and protected areas.

Left;

Massive corals Montaslrea

and gorgonians
in

Winner,

Mary B. Ansari Best Reference

(or

sea fans)

the Caribbean,

V/ork Award, Geoscience Information Society

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS

Berkeley 94720

wvvw,ucpress,edu