TRANSFORMERS

Non-Ideal

Lecture By:
Dr. Walid A. M. Ghoneim,
Associate Professor in Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering and Control Department
College of Engineering and Technology
Arab Academy for Science, Technology and Maritime Transport

6 A Non-ideal Transformer:
To develop an equivalent circuit for a non-ideal transformer.
Every Non-Ideal (Practical) device contains an Ideal one.

Winding Resistances:
Each winding has some resistance.
Represented as a lumped R in series with each winding.
As shown in Figure, R1 and R2 are the winding resistances of
the primary and the secondary, respectively.

6 A Nonideal Transformer:
The inclusion of the winding resistances dictates that:
(a) The power input must be greater than the power output:
S1 > SL and P1 > PL
(b) The terminal voltage V is not equal to the induced emf E:
V1 > E1 and E2 > V2
(c) The efficiency of a non-ideal transformer is less than 100%:
Eff. = PL / P1 %

6 A Non-ideal Transformer:
Leakage Fluxes:
Not all of the flux created by a winding confines itself to the
magnetic core on which the winding is wound.
Part of the flux, known as the leakage flux, does complete its
path through air.
Therefore, when both windings in a transformer carry currents,
each creates its own leakage flux as illustrated in Figure.

6 A Non-ideal Transformer:
Leakage Fluxes:
The primary leakage flux set up by the primary does not
link the secondary: l1
Likewise, the secondary leakage flux restricts itself to the
secondary and does not link the primary: l2
The common flux that circulates in the core and links both
windings is termed the mutual flux: m
1 = l1 + m

also

2 = l2 + m

Although a leakage flux is a small fraction of the total flux, it

does affect the performance of a transformer.
1 >> l1

also

2 >> l2

6 A Non-ideal Transformer:
We can model a winding as if it consists of two windings:
One winding is responsible to create the leakage flux through air.
The other encircles the core.

Such hypothetical winding arrangements are shown in the

figure for a two-winding transformer.
The two windings enveloping the core now satisfy the
conditions of an idealized transformer.

6 A Non-ideal Transformer:
The leakage flux associated with either winding causes a voltage
drop across it, therefore, we can represent the voltage drop due
to the leakage flux by a leakage reactance.
If X1 and X2, are the leakage reactances of the primary and
secondary windings, a real transformer can then be represented
in terms of an idealized transformer with winding
resistances and leakage reactances as shown in Figure.
This is an EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT .

6 A Non-ideal Transformer:
The EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT Solution:
Usually starts from the Load
Then the secondary Circuit.
Then the Ideal Transformer
Finally the Primary Circuit

6 A Non-ideal Transformer:
Finite Permeability:
The core of a non-ideal transformer has finite permeability and
core loss ( Inf. And IR 0 )
Therefore, even when the secondary is left open (no-load
condition) the primary winding draws some current, known as
the excitation current I, from the source:
I2 = 0 but I1 0,

I1 = I

The excitation current, I, is the sum of two currents: the coreloss current Ic and the magnetizing current Im.
I = Ic + Im

6 A Non-ideal Transformer:
How to represent Finite Permeability:
The core-loss component of the excitation current accounts for
the magnetic loss (the hysteresis loss and the eddy-current
loss) in the core of a transformer.
If E1 is the induced emf on the primary side and Rc is the
equivalent core-loss resistance, then the core-loss current, Ic is:
Ic = E1 / Rc

The magnetizing component of the excitation current Im is

responsible to set up the mutual flux in the core.
Since a current-carrying coil forms an inductor, then it can be
represented by a magnetizing reactance Xm. Thus:
Im = E1 / jXm

6 A Non-ideal Transformer:

The EXACT EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT:

We can now modify the equivalent circuit to include the core
loss resistance and the magnetizing reactance.
Such a circuit is shown in Figure:

6 A Non-ideal Transformer:
The EXACT EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT Referred to Primary:
Voltage Referring:
E2 = a . E2 = E1
Current Referring:
I2 = I2 / a = Ip

Impedance Referring:
Let ZL be the load impedance on the secondary side, then,
ZL = V2 / I2 = (V1/a) / (a.I1)
= (V1/I1) / a2
= ZL / a2
(9)
Thus, ZL = a2 . ZL
(10)

where ZL = V1 / I1 is the load impedance as referred to the

primary side.

6 A Non-ideal Transformer:
The EXACT EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT Referred to Primary:
Similarly, the values of the secondary circuit elements referred
to primary circuit are:
R2 = a2 . R2

and

X2 = a2 . X2

6 A Non-ideal Transformer:
The EXACT EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT Referred to Sec.:

6 A Non-ideal Transformer:
The Phasor Diagram
The load voltage is taken
as a reference because it is
known.

6 A Non-ideal Transformer:
The APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT Referred to
Primary:
In a well-designed transformer, the core losses are low, which
implies a high core loss resistance.
The high permeability of the core ensures high magnetizing
reactance.
So at Full-Load, Ip is very large compared to I, so we can
move the parallel branch representing the magnetic circuit to
the source side.

6 A Non-ideal Transformer:
From the Load Circuit:
I2 = SL / V2
V2 = a.V2
I2 = I2/a

or

I2 = V2 / ZL

The Primary and Secondary winding impedances are now

SERIES, thus:

Ze = Re + jXe
Re = R1 + R2 = R1 + a2 . R2
Xe = X1 + X2 = X1 + a2 . X2
V1 = V2 + Ip . Ze

The Magnetic Circuit:

I1 = Ip + I
Ic = V1 / Rc

I = Ic + Im
Im = V1 / jXm

The overall circuit: V1 = V2 + Ip . Ze

7 Voltage Regulation:
The primary voltage (V1) is adjusted so that it delivers the rated
load (I2) at the rated secondary terminal voltage (V2).
If the load is removed (I2 = 0), V2 changes because of the
change in the voltage drops across the winding resistances and
leakage reactances.
The Voltage Regulation (VR) is the percentage change in
the secondary winding voltage from no load to full load for the
same primary winding voltage.
VR% = (V2N.L V2F.L) / V2F.L

The voltage regulation is the figure-of-merit of a transformer.

The smaller the voltage regulation, the better the operation of
the transformer. In ideal transformer, VR = 0.
For approximate equivalent circuit referred to primary:
VR% = (V1 a.V2) / a.V2

8 Determination of Trans. Parameters:

The equivalent circuit parameters (Rc, Xm, Re, Xe) of a
transformer can be determined by performing two tests:
The open-circuit test.
The short-circuit test.

8 Determination of Trans. Parameters:

The Open-Circuit Test:
The secondary winding of the transformer is left open while the
primary is connected to the source voltage.
The figure shows the circuit in this case:

We need to measure the open-circuit voltage (Vo.c), the opencircuit current (Io.c) and the active power (Po.c).
Thus, we have to use a voltmeter, an ammeter and a wattmeter.
The next figure shows the connection diagram.

8 Determination of Trans. Parameters:

It is evident that the source supplies the excitation current

under no load. I1 = I only , since Ip = 0.
One component of the excitation current is responsible for the
core loss (ACTIVE), whereas the other is responsible to
establish the required flux in the magnetic core (REACTIVE).
The Wattmeter measures Active Power (Po.c), which the core
loss component only.

8 Determination of Trans. Parameters:

Calculations:
The Open Circuit Apparent Power is: So.c = Vo.c * Io.c = V . I
The Open Circuit Active Power: Po.c =W= Vo.c *Io.c*cos(o.c)
Hence, the open circuit power factor can be calculated from:
cos (o.c) = Po.c / So.c = W / (V . I)
The Real Component of I is Ic = I . cos(o.c)
The Imaginary Component of I is Im = I . sin(o.c)
The Core Loss Resistance
Rc = Vo.c / Ic
The magnetization inductance Xm = Vo.c / Im

8 Determination of Trans. Parameters:

The Short-Circuit Test:
The secondary winding of the transformer is shorted (ZL = 0)
while the primary is connected to a small voltage, enough to
operate the transformer at full load (I1 = IF.L). WARNING !!!
Since the applied voltage is a small fraction of the rated voltage,
both the core-loss and the magnetizing currents are so small
that they can be neglected.
The figure shows the approximated equivalent circuit of the
transformer in this case:

8 Determination of Trans. Parameters:

We need to measure the primary short-circuit voltage (Vs.c),
the short-circuit current (Is.c) and the active power (Ps.c).
Thus, we have to use a voltmeter, an ammeter and a wattmeter.
In this case, the wattmeter records the copper loss at
full load.
The next figure shows the connection diagram.

8 Determination of Trans. Parameters:

Calculations:
The Short Circuit Active Power:
Ps.c =W= I2s.c * Re = I2 * Re
Hence, the equivalent resistance can be calculated from:
Re = Ps.c / I2s.c = W / I2
The total equivalent impedance is:
|Ze| = Vs.c / Is.c = V / I
But, |Ze|2 = Re2 + Xe2
Thus, Xe = SQRT(|Ze|2 Re2)