Chapter 2: Mathematical Preliminaries

45

EXAMPLE 2.10

= {(a,

If R

b), (b, c), (c, a)} is a relation in {a. b. c}, find R*.

Solution
From Example 2.9,
R* = R+ u {(a, a), (b, b), (c, c)}

= {(a, b), (b, c), (c. a). (a, c), (b, a), (c, b), (a. a), (b, b), (c, c)}

EXAMPLE 2.11
What is the symmetric closure of relation R in a set S?

Solution
Symmetric closure of R

2.1.6

=R

u {(b, a) I aRb}.

FUNCTIONS

The concept of a function arises when we want to associate a unique value (or
result) with a given argument (or input).
A function or map f from a set X to a set Y is a rule which
associates to every element x in X a unique element in Y. which is denoted by
j(x). The element f(x) is called the image of .y under f The function is denoted
by f X ~ Y.

Definition 2.7

Functions can be defined either (i) by giving the images of all elements
of X, or (ii) by a computational rule which computes f(x) once x is given.
EXAMPLES (a)f: {l. 2. 3. 4} ~ {a, b, c} can be defined byf(1) = a,
f(2) = c, f(3) = a, f(4) = b.
(b) f: R ~ R can be defined by f(x) = .J + 2x + 1 for every x in R.
(R denotes the set of all real numbers.)

Definition 2.8 f: X

Y is said to be one-to-one (or injective) if different

elements in X have different images. i.e. f(Xl) =i= f(X2) when Xl =i= X2'

Note:

To prove that

f is one-to-one. we prove the following: Assume

f(.I:J = f(X2) and show that Xl = X2'

Definition 2.9 f: X ~ Y is onto (sUljective) if every element y in Y is the

image of some element x in X.
~ Y is said to be a one-to-one correspondence or
biJection if f is both one-to-one and onto.

Dpfmition 2.10 f: X

46

Theory of computer Science

EXAMI?LE 2.12
f : Z

Z given by fen) = 211 is one-to-one but not onto.

Solution
Suppose f(nl) = fen;). Then 2111 = 211;. So nl = 11;. Hence f is one-to-one. It
is not onto since no odd integer can be the image of any element in Z (as any
image is even).
The following theorem distinguishes a finite set from an infinite set.

Theorem 2.3

Let S be a finite set. Then f: S

S is one-to-one iff it is onto.

Note: The above result is not tme for infinite sets as Example 2.12 gives a
one-to-one function

f :Z

Z which is not onto.

EXAMPLE 2.13
Show that

f :R

~ R -

{1} given by lex) = (x + l)/(x - 1) is onto.

Solution
E R. Suppose y = lex) = (x + l)/(x - 1). Then y(x - 1) = x + 1, i.e.
yx - x = 1 + Y. SO. x = (l + y)/(y - 1). As (1 + y)/(y - 1) E R for all y -::;!:. 1,
y is the image of (l + y)/(y - 1) in R - {I}. Thus, f is onto.

Let y

The Pigeonhole Principle t

Suppose a postman distributes 51 letters in 50 mailboxes (pigeonholes). Then
it is evident that some mailbox will contain at least two letters. This is
enunciated as a mathematical principle called the pigeonhole principle.
If 11 objects are distributed over m places and n > m, then some place
receives at least two objects.

EXAMPLE 2.14
If we select 11 natural numbers between 1 to 380, show that there exist at least
two among these 11 numbers whose difference is at most 38.

Solution
Arrange the numbers 1. 2, 3, ... , 380 in 10 boxes, the first box containing
1. 2. 3..... 38. the second containing 39, 40, ... , 76, etc. There are 11
numbers to be selected. Take these numbers from the boxes. By the pigeonhole
principle, at least one box will contain two of these eleven numbers. These two
numbers differ by 38 or less.

- The pigeonhole principle is also called the Dirichlet drawer principle, named
after the French mathematician G. Lejeune Dirichlet (1805-1859).