NOTE: EQUATIONAL RELATIONSHIPS

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

momentary rest
x=0

exerts force
same direction
with
acceleration

x=-A

exerts restoring
force due to
compression

accelarating

deccelarating
momentary
rest
repetition of
cycle

CASE 2: Vertical Mount

Forces at Equilibrium
ENERGY IN SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR
Energies:
1. Potential Energy of Springs
2. Total Mechanical Energy is constant as long
as there is no friction
@ x = -A / +A
@x=0
@ intermediate points

Periodic:
a. An object vibrates or oscillates
back and forth
over the same path
at the same amount of time
Terms:
Equilibrium Position:
a. natural length of the spring
b. exerts no restoring force on
mass m
Restoring Force:
a.
force exerted by the spring that
acts to return m in equilibrium

Energy =

position
b. Always opposite the displacement due to FA
c. due to force applied that causes compression or
stretching
Displacement:
distance from the equilibrium point at any moment
Amplitude:
greatest distance from the equilibrium position
Cycle:
One complete to and fro motion
CASE 1: Horizontal Mount
Forces
1. Restoring Force
2. Applied Force
- Force and acceleration vary

per position

Positio
n

Force

Velocity

x=-A

exerts restoring
force due to
compression

accelarating

x=0

F=0

maximum

x=+A

exerts restoring
force due to
stretching

deccelarating

Energy =

Velocity (At any position)

PERIOD AND SINUSOIDAL NATURE OF SHM

Frequency (F): No. of cycle per second
a. depends on spring stiffness constant and mass
b. independent of
amplitude
Perios (T): Time

INFLUENCE OF TIME (SEC TO COMPLETE 1

CYCLE)
1. Position

In terms of period,
2. Velocity
3. Accelaration

cycle

required
to
complete
once

SIMPLE PENDULUM
Displacement:
Restoring

Force:

PERIOD AND FREQUENCY OF

PENDULUM
DAMPED HARMONIC MOTION
Damping: decrease in amplitude over time due to air
resistance and internal friction
FORCED VIBRATIONS
Application of external force of different f which
causes mass and spring to vibrate with the same f.

Vibrating System: vibrates at its natural frequency

when set into motion (resonant frequency)

Relationship between VELOCITY and

FREQUENCY

A. Underdamped:
makes several
swings of low A
before x=0
B. Critically
damped: shortest
time to x=0
C. Overdamped:
long time before

b. Longitudinal Waves
Alternate compression and expansion
Parallel to the waves direction

Resonance
a. Amplitude highly depends on difference between f
and f0
b. Amplitude is at maximum when f = f0 (very very
large)
WAVE

MOTION
Mechanical

Waves:

Compressions: coils are close (crests)

Expansion: coils are apart (trough)
Example: Sound Wave
ENERGY TRANSPORTED BY WAVES
Energy:
Intensity: Perpendicular to Direction of Wave
b. Transverse and Longitudinal Waves
Area and Amplitude remains constant
Amplitude and Intensity do not decrease with distance
b. Spherical Wave
INTENSITY RELATED TO AMPLITUDE AND FREQUENCY
REFLECTION AND TRANSMISSION OF WAVES
Fixed End
(Inverted)

Pulse reaching end exerts

upward force. The end
exerts an equal but opposite
force

Free End

Returns just the way it was

Unequal Section Part Reflected, Part

Trasmitted

changes.

Frequency is
constant so only
wavelength and velocity

Waves:

move with
recognisable velocity

Particle:

oscillates about an
equilibrium point
a.
Wave
Pulse/Crest
When
the rope reaches
its peak it is pulled down by an adjacent section of
the rope
When it reaches the bottom its pulled upward
Source: Disturbance and Cohesive Forces between
rope sections
b. Continuous/Periodic Wave
Source: Vibration/Oscillation
Amplitude: maximum height of the crest or depth of
a trough
Wavelength: distance between two identical
successive points on the wave
Frequency: no. of crests that passes a given point
per unit time
Period: time elapsed between two successive crest
passing by the same point
in space
Wave Velocity

TYPES OF WAVES
a. Transverse Waves
Particles of the rope vibrate up and down
Perpendicular to the direction of the wave

Angle of Incidence = Angle of reflection

REFRACTION
When a wave strikes a boundary some of the energy is
reflected and some is transmitted or absorbed.
- occurs when wave travelling crosses a boundary into a
medium in which it has different speed

- direction of incident wave is not the same with the

INTERFERENCE: PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION

Interference: two waves pass through the same region of
space at the same
time
Resultant
displacement of the
region
where they overlap
is the
sum of their
separate
displacements:
a. destructive interference
Outphase (trough meets crest)
b. constructive interference
Inphase (crest meets crest: trough meets trough)

transmitted wave

- To slower velocity:angle of refraction < angle of incidence

- To faster velocity: angle of refraction > angle of incidence
DIFFRACTION
When waves
encounter an
obstacle, they
bend around it
and pass into
the region behind
- depends on the wavelength and the size of the obstacle
Only if the wavelength is smaller than the size of the object
will there be a significant shadow region

STANDING WAVES

result when
applied force
that causes

resonant/natural
applied to

frequencies are
cords
produces large

amplitude waves
that

does not seem to

travel
could occur

at more than
one frequency

SOUND WAVE
-longitudinal wave with a speed of v=343m/s
Terms:
Loudness: related to the intensity in the sound wave
Pitch: highness
or lowness of sound
determined by
the frequency
Ultrasonic:
frequency > 20,000Hz
infrasonic: frequency < 20Hz
Compression: Pressure is higher than normal

Nodes: points of destructive interference where the cord

remains still at all times
Antinodes: points of constructive interference where the cord
oscillates with maximum amplitude
Points remain fixed at a particular frequency.

Expansion: Pressure is lower than

normal
SOUND LEVEL
INTERFERENCE
Destructive: occurs at any point whose
distance from one speaker is greater than its distance from
the other
speaker by
1/2
wavelength

When a source of sound is moving

towards observer

Constructive: occurs at any point whose distance from one

speaker to another is equal

pitch higher than when at rest

short wavelength
higher f
higher p
stationary

normal pitch at all surroundings

When a source is moving farther from an

observer

pitch lower than when at rest

long wavelength
lower f
lower p

Source emits the same frequency, only perceived frequency

changes

Principle of superposition:
fundamental and first two overtones add together to form a
waveform
DOPPLER EFFECT

phenomenon which is called "beating" or producing beats.

The beat frequency is equal to the absolute value of the
difference in frequency of the two waves.

BEATS
When two sound waves of different frequency approach your
ear, the alternating constructive and destructive interference
causes the sound to be alternatively soft and loud - a