Achieving Excellence 2004 e PDF

Achieving
Excellence
in Professional Practice
A GUIDE TO
AND
PRECEPTORSHIP
MENTORING
Achieving
Excellence
in Professional Practice
A GUIDE TO
AND
PRECEPTORSHIP
MENTORING
October 2004
All rights reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transcribed, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher.
Canadian Nurses Association
50 Driveway
Ottawa ON K2P 1E2
Tel: (613) 237-2133 or 1-800-361-8404
Fax: (613) 237-3520
Web site: www.cna-aiic.ca
ISBN 1-55119-932-7
COVER PHOTO: COMSTOCK IMAGES / GETTY IMAGES
October 2004
Acknowledgements
We would like to acknowledge the following nurses who participated in the working groups
that developed the initial drafts of the competencies for preceptorship and mentoring:
The Preceptorship Working Group:

Karen Carruthers RN BScN, Frances Fothergill-Bourbonnais RN PhD, Vonnie McIntosh RN,
Nancy Watters, RN BScN MScN IBCLC
The Mentoring Working Group:

Marta Crawford RN MN, Linda Ferguson RN MN PhD(c), Francis Loos RN MN CNCC (C),
Carol Mitchell RN MSN, Janet Murphy Goodridge RN MN IBCLC, Sandra MacDonald
Rencz RN MEd, Katherine Stansfield RN MN
In addition, we thank the many nurses, nursing students and preceptors from across the
country who refined the competencies through their thoughtful and timely participation in
the validation process. CNAs member associations, as well as associate and affiliate groups,
provided invaluable assistance in the distribution of the validation tools. Competency development and validation was made possible by funding from the Canadian Nursing Advisory
Council (CNAC), and we thank them for this support.
Suzanne Massie of Assessment Strategies Inc. provided expert advice on competency
development. Florence Myrick, Associate Professor, University of Alberta School of
Nursing, provided expert advice on Canadian approaches to mentoring and preceptoring.
We also acknowledge the valuable work of our project coordinator, Nancy E. Watters, in
collaboration with the project leader, Joni Boyd, Senior Nursing Policy Consultant at the
Canadian Nurses Association.
October, 2004
Achieving Excellence in Professional Practice A Guide to Preceptorship and Mentoring
Table of Contents
Part I Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Part II Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Role Models and Professional Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Who Is Involved in Role Modelling Programs? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Part III Preceptorship and Mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
What They Are and What Nurses Need to Know About Them . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Preceptorship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Definition and Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Considerations for Successful Preceptorship Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Rewards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Examples of Preceptorship Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Definition and Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Considerations for Successful Mentoring Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Rewards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Examples of Mentoring Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Coaching and Other Models for Integrating Work and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Part IV Developing Programs for Preceptorship and Mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Steps for Developing a Successful Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Step 1: Assess Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Step 2: Identify the Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Step 3: Create the Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
iii
Step 4: Organize the Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Step 5: Implement the Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Step 6: Evaluate the Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Table 1: Potential Roles and Responsibilities of Role Model and Participant . . . . . . . . . . 34
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Part V Competencies for Preceptors and Mentors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Why Develop Competencies? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
The Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Preceptor Competencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Collaboration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Personal Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Facilitation of Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Professional Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Knowledge of the Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Mentor Competencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Personal Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Modelling Excellence in Professional Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Fostering an Effective Mentor/Mentee Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Fostering Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Table 2: Comparison of Preceptorship and Mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Part VI Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Part VII Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Appendixes
Appendix A: Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Appendix B: Orientation Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Appendix C: Resolving Conflicts Productively . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Appendix D: Competency Rating Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Appendix E: Questions for Evaluating a Role Modelling Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
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Canadian Nurses Association October 2004
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Part I:
Introduction
Introduction
Dear Colleagues,
The Canadian Nurses Association (CNA) is committed to enhancing the profession of
nursing in the interest of the public. One of our current priorities in support of this mission
is to promote the quality of practice environments to help nurses achieve excellence in
their professional practice.
The Guide to Preceptorship and Mentoring is an important tool for improving performance
and job satisfaction through role modelling programs for nurses. Role modelling programs
can help create a sense of achievement for both the role model (preceptor or mentor) and
the learner (preceptee or mentee). By building on our existing human health resources
experienced, competent nurses employers in the profession can foster healthier work environments and promote the successful transition and growth of new or developing nurses.
This guide is one step in CNAs Preceptorship and Mentoring Project, which also focused
on the development of competencies for preceptors and mentors in nursing. The results of
this unique and exciting work, including the final competency lists, are presented in Part V
of the guide.
This work has been received enthusiastically by all involved. We have discovered that
while much of the nursing community is in agreement on what preceptorship means to
them, there is a varied approach to the process of mentoring, which is emerging in a variety
of models across Canada in education, direct care, administrative and research work environments. Both preceptorship and mentoring hold much promise for making important differences in the quality of work life and practice quality for nurses.
The Guide to Preceptorship and Mentoring is also part of the series Achieving Excellence in
Professional Practice, as is the 2002 CNA document A Guide to Developing and Revising
Standards. These publications will be made available through the CNA website, at
www.cna-aiic.ca, and will serve as the foundation for further work in this area. I am
certain that the theoretical overview and the competencies developed through this
important project will continue to evolve within the dynamic world of nursing.
Yours sincerely,
Lucille Auffrey, RN, MN

Executive Director
Part II:
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Overview
Overview
Purpose
The purpose of this guide is to assist nurses and other health professionals to develop and
revise programs that use preceptors and mentors to enhance the quality of nurses work environments and the quality of nursing practice.
This guide was written by the Canadian Nurses Association (CNA), whose mission is to advance
the quality of nursing in the interest of the public. In advancing the quality of nursing, CNA is fully
committed to shaping quality professional practice environments for nurses, so that they continue
to provide safe, ethical and competent care for Canadians. Having programs that support teaching
and learning through role modelling is a key part of a quality practice environment (CNA, 2001).
This guide is intended for individual nurses, health and educational institutions and professional groups. It can be a useful tool to achieve high quality programs that support
learning through preceptorship and mentoring, for example, in the following situations:
health care institutions wanting to:
improve the quality of practice environments
support novices in their direct practice at the unit or program levels
assist new professionals with socialization
provide resources nurses can use to further develop their competencies with respect to
any of the domains of practice (direct care, administration, education and research)
provincial or territorial registering bodies wanting to encourage continuing competence
nurse educators, educational institutions and students interested in teaching and learning through role models
administrators wishing to learn about role modelling programs for nurses
employers or educational facilities wishing to develop or improve a program
nurses and students in all settings wishing to develop a common understanding of the
concepts related to preceptorship and mentoring
Contents
This guide provides an overview of role modelling programs in nursing with a particular
focus on preceptorship and mentoring. It outlines considerations for setting up role modelling programs, including costs, benefits, roles and responsibilities. In addition, Part V of this
guide presents competencies1 for the roles of preceptor and mentor, which have recently been
developed through CNAs Preceptorship and Mentoring Project and could form the basis of
new programs. Some specific tools, guidelines, definitions and an extensive list of additional
references with relevant website contacts are also included.
Knowledge, skills and personal attributes required by preceptors and mentors.
Role Models and Professional Practice

Health professionals learn throughout their careers. They learn from written materials,
clients, educators, and they learn from each other.
When experienced nurses the cornerstone of the profession act as role models, we
know that they benefit as well as the novices they assist. Novices acquire and perfect the
competencies they require to practice safely and effectively in the settings in which they
work and become socialized into nursing (Wright, 2002). The experienced nurses gain
confidence, develop relationships, perfect teaching and communication skills and, in some
cases, prevent or reverse burnout (McGregor, 1999).
Nurses have a professional obligation to support their peers in developing and refining
competencies required for safe, ethical and effective practice. Nurses also have the responsibility
to support the development and socialization of colleagues who are new to the profession,
domain of practice,2 specialty or setting. These responsibilities are identified in CNA documents that are foundational to nursing practice such as the Code of Ethics for Registered
Nurses (CNA, 2002) and the Blueprint for the Canadian Registered Nurse Examination: June
2005-May 2009 (CNA, 2004).
During the last 50 years in Canada, professional education has moved from apprenticeship,
where learning occurred primarily within the workplace, to a learning model where student
competencies are primarily developed within the educational institutions and combined
with selective experiences in external practice settings (CNA, 1995). As a result, health
care institutions and nurses may have less experience and investment in the education of
students and other nurses than they did in the past.
In the past, health care institutions had education departments that were responsible for
continuing education for their professional staff. Now, responsibility for staff programs is
often decentralized to nursing units. Individuals, without previous experience in developing
and providing programs such as preceptorship and mentoring, now have the opportunity to
do so and require the tools to help them.
In the wake of the current health human resource crisis and financial strains, many health
care staff members are experiencing excessive workloads and find it difficult to provide useful
learning experiences for students and novice staff (Hynes-Gay & Swirsky, 2001). Nurses
sometimes feel that they have inadequate time to respond to their client needs, let alone role
model their practice to others. Yet, lack of role models and programs can lead to increased
stress and dissatisfaction among nurses who need them, translating to higher rates of
turnover in the health care setting (Messmer et al., 1995).
Nurses need to keep up with new technologies to maintain competence. Information
technology has also allowed for rapid dissemination of breakthroughs in health care and
treatment, increasing the pace of required learning. Immediate access to vast libraries of
information has led an educated public to become more active participants in treatment
and care. In turn, this has raised the standards of what is expected by the public.
2
For the purpose of this document, domains of nursing practice are direct care, education, administration and
research.
Role models have been used for a long time in professional education to enhance learning.
To be most effective, they must be part of an overall organizational strategy to create an
environment that is directed toward continuous learning. Continuous learning environments
enhance the quality of work life for health professionals, and they also improve outcomes
for clients.
Nurses can support nursing students, new graduates and nurses who are new to a particular role
by becoming role models. As role models, practising nurses become preceptors and/or mentors
to prepare nurses for new roles that may range from planning population-based programs to
acting as program managers, educators or researchers; or to providing direct care.
Who Is Involved in Role Modelling Programs?

If role modelling programs through preceptorship and mentoring enhance job satisfaction,
quality of care, recruitment and retention of staff, then they create a win-win situation for all
involved. Implementing and maintaining these programs successfully depends on collaboration at many levels between individuals, institutions, organizations and governments.
Some of their responsibilities are outlined below:
Individual Nurses
The Code of Ethics for Registered Nurses (CNA, 2002) states that nurses share their nursing
knowledge with other members of the health team for the benefit of clients. To the best of
their abilities, nurses should provide mentorship and guidance for the professional development of students of nursing and other nurses (p. 16).
Individual nurses are also responsible for acquiring the competencies they require to become
good preceptors and mentors. There may be some competencies that are best learned from
non-nurse professionals. In these cases, a nurse might invite a non-nurse to fulfill the preceptor or mentor role. Where programs do not exist, nurses may need to advocate for the
resources necessary to develop and implement these programs.
Work Units and Departments

An organizations work units and departments are responsible for providing resources to ensure
that preceptorship and mentoring programs are available and offered to the nurses who work
in their setting. They are responsible for carrying out these programs and identifying the competencies nurses require in a particular setting.
Organizations Who Hire Nurses

Organizations are responsible for developing or offering programs for preceptorship and
mentoring of nurses who work within their institution.
Professional Associations
Professional associations are responsible for advocating for funding adequate for the
development and ongoing maintenance of preceptorship and mentoring of nurses. They
are also responsible for setting and enforcing competencies for the profession.
Provincial, Territorial and Federal Governments

Governments are responsible for providing adequate funding to support preceptorship and
mentoring programs.
References Part II
Canadian Nurses Association. (1995). Preceptorship resource guide: Teaching and learning
with clinical role models. Ottawa: Author.
Canadian Nurses Association. (2004). Blueprint for the Canadian registered nurse examination:
June 2005 - May 2009. Ottawa: Author.
Canadian Nurses Association. (2001). Position statement: Quality professional practice environments for registered nurses. Ottawa: Author.
Canadian Nurses Association. (2002). Code of ethics for registered nurses. Ottawa: Author.
Hynes-Gay, P., & Swirsky, H. (November/December, 2001). Mentorship in nursing.
Registered Nurse, 12-14.
McGregor, R. (1999). A precepted experience for senior students. Nurse Educator, 24(3), 13-16.
Messmer, P. R., Abelleria, A., & Erb, P. (1995). Code 50: An orientation matrix to track
orientation cost. Journal of Nursing Staff Development, 11(5), 261-64.
Wright, A. (2002). Precepting in 2002. The Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing,
33(3), 138-41.
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Part III:
Preceptorship and Mentoring
Preceptorship and Mentoring

What They Are and What Nurses Need to Know About Them
Preceptorship and mentoring are two ways of using role modelling to support the learning
and professional growth of nurses and to promote the overall quality of practice environments. While the international community sometimes equates mentoring and preceptorship
(Hynes-Gay & Swirsky, 2001; Watson, 2003), there is a growing consensus in Canada about
the differences between these approaches.
Many aspects of preceptorship and mentoring are similar. Both approaches depend upon
effective role modelling in one-to-one relationships, self-directed learning, providing a safe
environment for critical reflection and practice, the acts of advising, counselling, guiding,
advocating, recognizing strengths and providing constructive feedback (BC Academic Health
Council, 2002). However, preceptorships tend to focus on a formal process for assisting the
novice practitioner to acquire beginning practice competencies through direct supervision
over a limited period of time. Mentoring, which can be either informal or formal in structure, usually focuses on broader learnings, career development and personal and professional
growth through a consultative approach over a longer term.
Competencies for preceptors and mentors which further describe these roles have been developed
through CNAs Preceptorship and Mentoring Project and are presented in Part V of this guide.
This chapter provides a more detailed review of preceptorship and mentoring illustrated by
examples of these types of programs and references for further follow-up and information.
Preceptorship
Definition & Characteristics
The Websters New World College Dictionary defines a precept as a commandment, or
direction meant as a rule of action or conduct, and a preceptor as a teacher (Neufeldt
& Guralnik, 1998, p.1060).
While international definitions vary, Canadian nurses tend to refer to preceptorship as a
frequently employed teaching and learning method using nurses as clinical role models. It is
a formal, one-to-one relationship of pre-determined length, between an experienced nurse
(preceptor) and a novice (preceptee) designed to assist the novice in successfully adjusting to
and performing a new role (CNA, 1995, p. 3). Preceptorship usually involves acquiring a
basic level of knowledge, skills and personal attributes as well as being socialized into the
profession or domain of practice.
The novice may be a student or a practising nurse moving into a new role, domain or setting
(CNA, 1995). As such, she or he is acquiring new competencies required for safe, ethical
and effective practice based on commonly accepted standards. The new competencies may
be developed in relation to the new setting or domain of practice. For example, competencies could relate to an emergency room, community health, university teaching or research
setting; an administrative role; or providing direct care to particular types of clients, such as
patients with burns or hepatitis C.
13
Preceptorship experiences tend to be short term (1-2 months). The length is often predefined by
the educational institution or employer, who knows the characteristics of the typical participant,
the requirements of the client group and the typical setting in which the work takes place.
A preceptor must be a capable instructor who has achieved at least the novice-level competencies required by the participant. Some of the competencies a preceptor requires will be
dictated by the setting they work in and others by the nature of the preceptor role.3 For
example, it would be hard to imagine that a preceptor could be effective if they did not
demonstrate enthusiasm for the role.
Preceptees participate in both formative (ongoing) and summative (final) assessment and evaluation. Formal evaluation occurring in preceptorship programs can serve institutions by ensuring
that the novice has acquired the competencies required for safe, ethical and competent practice.
Most schools of nursing have programs that include preceptorship to help students gain clinical competence and prepare them for the transition to employment settings, especially in the
final stages of the program (e.g., consolidation or senior practicum experiences). Educational
programs for nurses who wish to acquire a degree in nursing, such as specialty and post-RN
programs, also use preceptorship to help students adjust to new roles. As well, it has become
common for staff developers in health service facilities and agencies to use preceptorship to
orient new employees or nurses who transfer to different units or areas of specialty.
Benefits
As organizations begin to compete for diminishing resources, they must explore and implement practices known to increase job satisfaction for nurses (Ryten, 1997). Specifically, preceptorship programs have been found to benefit preceptees, preceptors, health care institutions and the profession of nursing (Lockwood-Rayermann, 2003; Mahayosnand & Stigler,
1999; Neumann, et al., 2004; Wright, 2002).
For the participant, preceptorship has been found to facilitate successful entry into the nursing profession, help in developing judgment and skills and reduce the time taken to function
independently.
Preceptors benefit by having the satisfaction of seeing novices become more confident
(Neumann, et al., 2004; Wright, 2002). They also tend to be less susceptible to burnout
(McGregor, 1999). King and Bernick (2002) note that preceptors benefit from improved
self-esteem and increased self-awareness by being a role model.
For the institutions, preceptorship increases the quality of the professional practice environment (CNA, 2001) and saves more money than that expended for a traditional orientation
(Beeman, Jernigan & Hensley, 1999). A review of the literature by King and Bernick (2002)
found that for the institutions, preceptorship resulted in fewer resignations, decreased staff
turnover, increased staff satisfaction, enhanced knowledge and improved patient care.
The profession benefits by retaining practitioners with enhanced critical thinking (Myrick &
Yonge, 2002).
See Part V: Competencies for Preceptors and Mentors a list of competencies developed by CNA through the Preceptorship and
Mentoring Project.
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Some of the positive outcomes of preceptorship programs are summarized below:

Preceptee
enhanced job satisfaction
decreased stress
significant personal growth
increased confidence
attainment of new attitudes, knowledge and skills (competencies)
Institution
decreased cost of care
increased recruitment of new nurses
increased retention of those already in the workforce
improved outcomes for patients
increasing institutional loyalty
increased productivity
Profession
improved support for new graduates
competencies required for safe practice
programs to assist nurses to maintain competence and to acquire new competencies
increased number of nurses with leadership and teaching skills
improved retention of nurses
reduced need to recruit and educate nurses
Costs
There is a dearth of information in the literature about the costs of carrying out preceptorship
programs. The cost of preceptorship programs must take into consideration the following
factors (CNA, 1995):
time taken to plan, develop, carry out and evaluate the program
time and effort to develop policies and to prepare necessary administrative documents
time and resources required to publish written documents
support, consultation and orientation for role models and participants
preceptor recognition or remuneration
program coordination, evaluation and modification
possible travel costs for program coordinators
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When undertaking a cost-benefit analysis of programs, it is necessary to weigh the projected

cost of the program in relation to its goals. Increased direct costs may be acceptable if there
are signification positive outcomes (Neumann et al., 2004).
Considerations for Successful Preceptorship Programs

Many factors must be considered in developing preceptorship programs, including stress on
the preceptee, the preceptors workload, conflict and partnership.
Preceptorship experiences can cause significant stress for preceptees (Yonge, Myrick, &
Haase, 2002) and can lead to disillusionment about the nursing profession. It is important
to maintain open sharing of information between the preceptee and preceptor, as well as the
program coordinator and/or faculty advisor. Preceptors need to know how to recognize stress
in the preceptee, how to assist them in managing the stress or where to seek further help
such as counselling, when necessary.
Similarly, work overload can result in job dissatisfaction for some preceptors (LockwoodRayermann, 2004; Neumann et al., 2004). Overload may come from having too many
patients to care for while performing preceptor responsibilities, having too many preceptees,
or possibly, from not being given a choice in taking on these added responsibilities. These
are ethical issues which should be considered when undertaking preceptorship programs in
the nursing workplace.
It is important to recognize that conflict may arise between the preceptor and preceptee
(Mamchur & Myrick, 2003). Orientation programs should provide both the preceptor
and preceptee with some insight and approaches to how to recognize and resolve conflict.
The program coordinator and/or faculty advisor can facilitate this, when necessary. For a
brief outline of approaches to recognizing and resolving conflict, see Appendix C.
Ideally, preceptorship is a partnership between the preceptor, who is responsible for
teaching, evaluating and providing feedback, the preceptee and the program coordinator
and/or faculty advisor. In successful preceptor programs, the latter are prepared to provide
course orientation, evaluative support and information for and about the preceptors and
preceptees.
Rewards
Many institutions find that although there is much intrinsic motivation for preceptors it is
very important to also provide formal recognition and some reward (Greenberg et al., 2001;
Neumann et al., 2004; Stone & Rowles, 2002). The following examples illustrate how
organizations can reward preceptors.
Remuneration:
Role models can be compensated in a variety of tangible ways:
an education day with pay
a pay increase
vouchers for continuing education programs
16
a subscription to a nursing journal

celebratory events or meetings that include a meal
gift certificates for books
a decreased workload during the period of role modelling
Recognition:
Role models can be recognized in a number of ways:
names published in newsletters
a name pin identifying the nurse as a role model
recognition at celebratory events
a preferential scheduling following role modelling experience
certificates
a personal thank-you by letter and/or in person from a key nursing administrator
letters of recognition for their personnel file
It is important to include the role models themselves in the discussion of types of recognition,
because what constitutes a reward or recognition can vary with individual preferences.
Examples of Preceptorship Programs

In the subtitle of their publication on the subject, King and Bernick (2002) describe the
preceptor program offered by the Baycrest Centre for Geriatric Care as an innovative program
in which everyone wins! The program was created following a unit-based orientation, in
which a needs assessment indicated new employees had difficulty managing their workloads.
Preceptors for the program must have:
at least two years experience in the clinical area;
leadership skills;
a desire for professional growth;
the personal attributes of sincerity, warmth, caring and flexibility;
an understanding of the principles of adult learning; and
highly developed communication skills.
Selected preceptors attend an orientation workshop and, given the one-to-one nature of the
program, establish a learning plan with their preceptees. Other components of the program
include orientation checklists, bi-weekly reflective meetings, access to resources, preceptor
recognition and formative and summative evaluations.
Neumann et al. (2004) provide a detailed description of an agency-wide preceptor development program which includes levelled orientation sessions, cost considerations, approaches
to providing recognition and ongoing preceptor-support ideas such as an intranet preceptor
forum with multiple resources.
17
In British Columbia, there are a number of province-wide initiatives related to preceptorship.

These include an information website, workshops on program development and a continuing
education course entitled From Practitioner to Practice. (See the BC Academic Health
Council website: www.bcahc.ca for practical resources and ideas).
Other preceptorship materials such as learning style guides, tracking sheets, evaluation
forms and preceptor performance tools are available from established programs. For
examples, refer to the Peterborough Regional Health Centres Guided Learning Programs:
Preceptors Handbook (Hill, 2003) or Internet resources such as the Maricopa Community
College District Nursing Programs Preceptor Packet (2002) or the BC Academic Health
Councils Preceptor & Mentor Initiative for Health Sciences in BC (2002).
Mentoring
Definition & Characteristics
The word mentor originates from Greek mythology, but in modern English, it refers to one
who is experienced and wise in ones profession, endowed with characteristics that cultivate
learning for the novice in a similar professional role (Hynes-Gay & Swirsky, 2001, p. 12).
The generally accepted view is that the mentor is older, more senior and experienced than
the more junior mentee, sometimes called a protg.4 The relationship is long-term, with the
goal of fostering the learning, growth and advancement of the mentee (Andrews & Wallis,
1999; Donner,Wheeler & Waddell, 1997).
The concept of mentoring, while traditionally associated with business or law, has become
more prevalent in nursing since the 1980s, especially in response to growing job dissatisfaction
and challenges to recruitment and retention. However, the definition of mentoring is not precise (Andrews & Wallis, 1999; Hynes-Gay & Swirsky, 2001; Kilcher & Sketris, 2003).
According to the CNA definition, mentoring involves a voluntary, mutually beneficial and usually long-term professional relationship. In this relationship, one person is an experienced and
knowledgeable leader (mentor) who supports the maturation of a less-experienced person with
leadership potential (mentee) (CNA, 1995). Mentoring provides a supportive environment and
positively influences professional outcomes. It can lead to an ongoing relationship and can occur
in all domains of nursing practice (administration, education, research or direct care).
The mentee often wishes to become more effective in a role, setting, clinical focus or domain
of practice. Examples of mentees include: a new manager who wishes to develop knowledge
and skills to manage effectively in a complex health care environment, a new educator working
in a university setting or a new researcher who wishes to learn how to apply for funding and
carry out research projects. The mentee is often motivated by a personal requirement for mastery within a complex environment.
Mentors may be experts and leaders within their field; however, an expert is not synonymous
with a mentor. Federwisch (1997) distinguishes between the expert and the mentor suggesting, an expert gives a definitive solution to a problem while a mentor guides people along
4
18
Both the terms protg and mentee are commonly used to identify the person in a relationship with the mentor. This guide employs the
term mentee, except where specific reference is made to programs or texts using protg.
(p. 3). Others report that participants in mentoring programs prefer a newer practitioner as a
mentor, one who can remember their own student experiences easily (Andrews & Wallis,
1999). It is a learning partnership positively influenced and better defined by the specific
personal characteristics and professional qualities of the mentor.
The time period for mentoring is usually longer and often less precisely defined than for preceptorship (Andrews & Wallis, 1997; Hynes-Gay & Swirsky, 2001). People may be engaged
in several mentoring experiences over their lives or even at one time. The length of the relationship can range from months to years and is usually determined by the time required for
the mentee to achieve their objectives, but in some cases, by changes to the relationship
between the mentor and mentee. The relationship differs from preceptorship as it is less
instructional, focuses less on supervision and assessment of performance and more on positively influencing through role modelling and guidance.
Informal mentoring relationships are based on mutual identification or attraction, are
unstructured and focus on the protg or mentee achieving long-term career goals. In contrast, formal mentoring relationships are more structured in purpose and duration and usually
involve organizational support (Kilcher & Sketris, 2003). Typically, this would be a situation
where a nurse is socialized and develops competencies in a new setting by being matched with
a more experienced colleague for support. Alternative approaches to mentoring include peer
mentoring, mentoring groups or multiple mentors (Kilcher & Sketris, 2003; RNAO, 2003).
Benefits
CNA considers mentoring an essential component within a quality professional practice
environment (CNA, 2001). A range of benefits for the mentor, mentee and institution have
been identified as follows (Greene & Puetzer, 2002; Kilcher & Sketris, 2003):
Mentor
enhanced self-fulfillment
increased job satisfaction and feeling of value
increased learning, personal growth and leadership skills
motivation for new ideas
potential for career advancement
Mentee
increased competence
increased confidence and sense of security
decreased stress
increased job satisfaction
expanded networks
leadership development
insight in times of uncertainty
19
Institution
improved quality of care
increased ability to recruit
decreased attrition
increased commitment to the organization
development of partnerships and leaders
Costs
Little information exists about the costs of mentoring programs; however, standard costs
vary from little to no cost for informal mentoring, to the costs of funding provided in fellowship award programs, the cost of orientation education programs and staff time for
monitoring or ongoing support. There may also be staff time costs where nurses take time
away from the work setting to pursue their goals.
Considerations for Successful Mentoring Programs

An appropriate, nurturing environment for mentoring largely depends upon the personal
characteristics of the mentor such as approachability and effective interpersonal and teaching
skills (Andrews & Wallis, 1999). Brown (1999) suggests that an appropriate environment
can be maintained by taking time for regular meetings to anticipate and propose solutions
for potential problems. Both parties are encouraged to take risks, to discover the potential in
each other, to avoid over-dependence and to recognize when to end the mentoring (Greene
& Puetzer, 2002).
Roles and Responsibilities of Mentors5
Greene and Puetzer (2002) describe three mentor roles: (1) role model who assists by example, (2) socializer who helps to integrate the mentee in the social culture, and (3) educator
who assesses learning needs and plans experiences for the mentee. Mentors in the CNAs
2002 hepatitis C mentoring program found they had the following responsibilities:
act as professional role model and colleague
confidently model competent practices
collaborate with and advocate for the mentee
commit to self-learning and learning of others
be sympathetic, supportive and respectful
have a consistent approach and clear expectations
facilitate the mentees introduction into the organization
See Part V: Competencies for Preceptors and Mentors a list of competencies developed by CNA through the Preceptorship and
Mentoring Project.
20
collaborate in the assessment of learning needs and review learning goals for feasibility
communicate with the coordinator to clarify expectations where necessary
provide encouragement and guidance to the mentee
In the same CNA project, mentees described their responsibilities as follows:
participate actively in the program (become an active learner and colleague)
co-assess specific learning needs and co-determine learning goals
adhere to the institutions policies and mission
adhere to provincial or territorial standards of practice and the Code of Ethics for
Registered Nurses (CNA, 2002)
Rewards
The rewards for the mentor are intrinsic to the partnership and in the satisfaction of seeing
the mentee progress. More formal mentoring programs often involve recognition at the institutional level. As is the case for preceptors, recognition can be in the form of educational
days, time off or lighter workloads during the mentoring period. Some mentors are recognized with extra pay or with other rewards to show appreciation (See discussion of rewards
and recognition for preceptorship pp. 16-17).
Examples of Mentoring Programs

The following examples illustrate the wide range of mentoring programs emerging for nurses
in Canada:
A mentoring program focused specifically on advanced research skills is offered by the
Canadian Health Services Research Foundation Career Reorientation Award (2002).
Successful candidates, who may be nurses, work with an experienced research mentor over a
12-month period to develop a successful health research proposal.
The Advanced Clinical/Practice Fellowships program of the RNAO (2003) uses a structured
12-week mentoring experience to foster advanced clinical practice in specialty areas or leadership development, as directed by the applicant. Both primary and other mentors assist the
fellow to develop a proposal and learning plan. The mentor maintains support throughout,
and even beyond, the funded period. For example, nursing fellows have focused on acquiring
expertise in using telehealth technology for rural or remote health care settings, developing
an evidence-based diabetes education program, facilitating community re-entry following
geriatric rehabilitation or enhancing community support for families with preterm infants.
A mentoring program designed specifically for new graduates in a staff nurse role was initiated
in Saskatchewan in 2003 (Regina QuAppelle Health Region, 2004). Protgs are matched
with experienced RN mentors from another work setting to work on professional growth
within an area of clinical expertise, to work towards specialty achievement or to grow into a
non-clinical role. The overall aim of this mentoring initiative is to improve the recruitment,
support and retention of clinical nursing staff. Both mentors and protgs participate in an
orientation workshop and receive ongoing support over a 12-month period.
21
The Calgary Health Region Mentorship Program (2002) focuses on career development for
professional staff through voluntary, reciprocal mentoring relationships. The program offers
mentor/mentee matching, formal orientation and ongoing support. Mentors provide support, challenge and vision in assisting protgs to advance their expertise and leadership
skills, as well as improve work life satisfaction for both parties.
Coaching and Other Models for Integrating Work and Learning

Coaching
Coaching as a term has developed several meanings in the nursing profession. It most often
describes an approach or strategy to develop skills and knowledge through positive, timely
feedback. Coaching is an activity carried out as a part of the larger roles of educator, manager, preceptor or mentor (Fuimano, 2004; Kelly, 2002; Kilcher & Sketris, 2003; Lachman,
2000). Recently, coaching or coach is also being used to describe as a unique role designated to individuals hired to support the development and growth of employees on either a
one-to-one or a group basis (Hope-Smeltzer, 2002; Nelson et al., 2004; Nigro, 2003).
Coaching as a role
The concept of coaching as a discrete role or job, while common in the business sector to
enhance profitability, is being adapted for health care organizations (American Academy of
Ambulatory Care Nursing, 2001; Donner & Wheeler, 2002). Coaching can refer to the promotion of skills development within either superior-subordinate (Hope-Smeltzer, 2002) or
peer relationships (Broscious, 2001; Nelson et al., 2004).
Coaching can be accomplished in a group setting or one-to-one. The duration of coaching is
usually until the desired competency is mastered or until the contract between the coach and
participant is terminated. Coaches may or may not be in the same profession as the participant.
Coaching is used to assist participants to enhance a wide variety of professional and personal
performance issues. Executive coaches promote leadership performance and productivity
(American Academy of Ambulatory Care Nursing, 2001; Hope-Smeltzer, 2003). Personal
lifestyle coaches may help their clients achieve work life balance or spiritual development. Career
coaches focus on career planning to promote career resilience and job satisfaction (Donner &
Wheeler, 2002). In direct care settings, the role of clinical practice or unit coach has recently
been described to enhance quality of care and work satisfaction (Nelson et al., 2004).
In much of this literature, the role of coach is hard to distinguish from that of mentor
(Grandinetti, 2000; Nigro, 2003). In this context, coaching is usually a formal paid job, structured around performance and the bottom line, while mentoring is based on a more informal
open-ended relationship. Although this is not always the case, coaching bears a strong commercial connotation. There is wide range of services, such as cognitive coaching, advertised for
sale, especially by entrepreneurs in the United States. Not all aspects of this business model for
the coaching role are applicable to the not-for-profit health care service sector.
Donner & Wheeler define coaching as a powerful, collaborative relationship between a
coach and a willing individual, which can enable, through a process of discovery, goal setting
and strategic actions, the realization of extraordinary results (Personal communication
March 26, 2004).
22
In one setting, the role of unit coach was to recognize the potential and target the growth
of individuals, through careful attention to actual performance [] by prompting nursing
staff to reflect upon their actions (Nelson et al., 2004). This pilot role was eventually incorporated into the role of the unit preceptor in this setting. The activities listed by these
authors for the unit coach appear to be very similar to those performed by clinical instructors working with groups of nursing students during clinical practicum courses.
In another example, at St. Josephs Health Care London, an experienced staff member, called
a clinical practice coach, works in a formal one-to-one relationship within the work setting,
to advance the learners (student, new staff or peer) quality of the practice (St. Josephs
Health Care London, 2002).
No doubt, coaching as a role is an exciting new avenue for professional growth and development in the nursing workplace. However, as yet, this role is not well defined or clearly distinguished from other overlapping roles such as manager, teacher, preceptor or mentor.
Coaching as a Strategy
This resource uses the more traditional definition of coaching to describe an approach,
strategy or activity carried out within a broader role to enhance learning (e.g., teacher, manager, preceptor, mentor). Coaching involves timely feedback on performance, to enhance
skills and qualities for success (Fuimano, 2004; Kilcher & Sketris, 2003; Nelson et al.,
2004). For example, a preceptor may use coaching while a preceptee is undertaking a new
technical skill, reinforcing what the preceptee is doing well and providing tips along the way;
a mentor might coach a mentee in developing a new skill such as chairing a meeting; nurses
themselves use coaching when helping clients learn new skills such as bathing a newborn or
self-administering insulin.
Other Models
Both preceptorship and mentoring focus on learning and growth within the work or practice
setting. Other types of programs that integrate practical work experience and academic education are becoming more prevalent within nursing, although mostly outside of Canada.
They can be found under many titles including learnership, externship, internship, apprenticeship and cooperative programs. Kerka (1999) reports that programs integrating work and
learning were offered in the United States as early as 1906.
Internship
The word intern is built on the root inter that means between, among or together
(Neufeldt & Guralnik, 1998) and confers a more neutral and preferable connotation than
the term orientation. A formal program for new graduates, internships help the transition
to paid work and to specific positions within the health care setting.
Internship programs usually require a time investment of several months to a year, depending on the setting in which interns work and the level of the participant. Interns are usually
paid employees. In some institutions, continued employment is contingent upon successful
completion of the internship experience, which might include classroom or one-to-one
teaching, support groups, individualized clinical experience, preceptorship or mentoring
(Blanzola, Lindeman & King, 2004).
23
Internship programs are common in the United States (See Part VII: Further Reading). Many
have written materials which can be accessed. Internship programs are not common in Canada,
but have emerged in some settings, for example at St. Michaels Hospital in Toronto (2003).
Learnerships
Learnerships are common outside of Canada and are considered by some to be an exciting
trend. The development of learnership is motivated, in part, by the nursing shortage.
Learnerships tend to be work-based education and skills development programs in which learners
find out why and how things should be done (Geyer, 2002). In typical learnerships, educational
and health care institutions work together. Educational institutions provide classroom-based
education and practice occurs under normal working conditions. This is similar to education
that occurred in Canada in hospital-based programs, the last of which closed in 1998.
Cooperative Program
The term cooperative program can have many meanings. For the purpose of this document, it
refers to an education program offering students alternating periods of work and study.
While cooperative programs have existed in North America since the early 1990s, they have recently been developed for nurses. Most cooperative programs alternate paid work and study and are
designed to enhance the development of the professional. They involve three main stakeholders:
the employer, the student and the educational institution (Simon & Houze, 1999).
Students apply for these credit programs, and if they meet the specified criteria, the employer
interviews them. Once accepted into the programs, students are expected to fulfill requirements
of employment, and they usually receive employment benefits such as a salary, vacation, sick
leave, retirement plans and life insurance.
The employer has the advantage of assessing students potential as long-term employees. The
students have real-life experiences in their chosen profession with potential employers. Upon
graduation, many return to work for the employer. The educational institution benefits by
being able to offer students this experience in a realistic setting to enhance their learning
(Simon & Houze, 1999).
The University of Alabama and Regional Medical Center (2002) has a cooperative program
for nurses. In this program, senior students work full time at the hospital during their summers and spring terms. Their earned wage increases as they gain experience. At first, students
work as nursing assistants, and later they work with nurse preceptors. Students are credited
for both the work as well as the class sessions. Placements are organized according to the best
fit for the employer as well as the participant.
References Part III

Andrews, M., & Wallis, M. (1999). Mentorship in nursing: A literature review. Journal of
Advanced Nursing, 29(1), 201-7.
American Academy of Ambulatory Care Nursing. (July 2001). Executive coaching:
Professional self-care for nursing leaders. Nursing Economics. Retrieved from
http://AAACN.inurse.com
24
BC Academic Health Council. (2002). Preceptor & mentor initiative for health sciences in BC.
Retrieved on April 28, 2004 from www.bcahc.ca/pm
Beeman, K., Jernigan, A., & Hensley, P. (1999). Employing new grads: A plan for success.
Nursing Economics, 17(2), 91-95.
Blanzola, C., Lindeman, R., & King, M. (2004). Nurse internship pathway to clinical
comfort, confidence and competency. Journal for Nurses in Staff Development, 20(1), 27-37.
Broscious, S.K., & Saunders, D.J. (2001). Clinical strategies: Peer coaching. Nurse Educator,
26(5), 212-14.
Brown, H. (1999). Mentoring new faculty. Nurse Educator, 24(1), 48-51.
Calgary Health Region. (March, 2002). Proposal for mentorship program submitted by
mentorship task group. Unpublished document.
Canadian Health Services Research Foundation. (2002). Career reorientation award. Call for
applications. www.chsrf.ca
Canadian Nurses Association. (1995). Preceptorship resource guide: Teaching and learning with
clinical role models. Ottawa: Author.
Canadian Nurses Association. (2001). Position statement: Quality professional practice environments for registered nurses. Ottawa: Author.
Canadian Nurses Association. (2002). Code of ethics for registered nurses. Ottawa: Author.
Donner, G. & Wheeler, M.M. (2002). Coaching. Retrieved December 8, 2003 from
http://www.donner-wheeler.com/coaching
Donner, G., Wheeler, M. M., & Waddell, J. (1997). The nurse manager as career coach.
Journal of Nursing Administration, 27(12), 14-18.
Federwisch, A.(1997). The keys to finding a mentor. Retrieved January 29, 2002 from
http://www.nurseweek.com/features/97-11/mentor2.html
Fuimano, J. (2004). Mentors forum: Add coaching to your leadership repertoire. Nursing
Management. 35(1), 16-17.
Geyer, N. (July, 2002). Learnerships: A new trend in nursing training. Nursing Update
26(6), 36-37.
Grandinetti, D. (2000). Could a coach get you motivated about medicine? Medical
Economics. 77 (1). Retrieved February 18, 2002 from http://www.findarticles.com/cf_0/
m3229/01_77/59330869/print.html
Greenberg, M., Colombraro, G., DeBlasio, J., & Rich, E. (2001). Rewarding preceptors:
A cost-effective model. Nurse Educator, 26(3), 114-16.
Greene, M. T., & Puetzer, M. (2002). The value of mentoring: A strategic approach to
retention and recruitment. Journal of Nursing Care Quality, 17(1), 63-70.
Hill, B. (2003). Guided learning programs: Preceptors handbook. Peterborough, ON:
Peterborough Regional Health Centre.
25
Hope-Smeltzer, C. H. (2002). The benefits of executive coaching. Journal of Nursing

Administration, 32(10), 501-02.
Hope-Smeltzer, C. H. (2003). Coaching: A method for developing effective leadership.
Retrieved February 27, 2003 from http://nsweb.nursingspectrum.com/cfforms/
GuestLecture/coaching.cfm
Hynes-Gay, P., & Swirsky, H. (November/December, 2001). Mentorship in nursing.
Registered Nurse, 12-14.
Kelly, C. (2002). Mentoring: Partnering for personal and professional development.
ACCESS, Association of Registered Nurses of Newfoundland and Labrador, 22(4), 7.
Kerka, S. (1999). New directions for cooperative education. (ERIC Digest No. 209). Available
from the ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education, Center on
Education and Training for Employment, Ohio State University, College of Education,
1900 Kenny Road, Columbus, OH.
Kilcher, A. & Sketris, I. (May, 2003). Mentoring resource book: A guide for faculty, researchers
and decision makers. Halifax and Ottawa: College of Pharmacy, Dalhousie University.
King, B., & Bernick, L. (2002). Baycrest Centre for Geriatric Care: An innovative program in
which everyone wins! Toronto: Baycrest Centre for Geriatric Care.
Lachman, V.D. (2000). Maximize performance through an ongoing dialogue with employees.
Coaching techniques. Nursing Management, 31(1), 14-16.
Lockwood-Rayermann, S. (2003). Preceptor leadership style and the nursing practicum.
Journal of Professional Nursing, 19(1), 32-37.
Mahayosnand, P., & Stigler, M. (1999). The need for mentoring in public health. American
Journal of Public Health, 89(8), 1262.
Mamchur, C., & Myrick, F. (2003). Preceptorship and interpersonal conflict: A multidisciplinary study. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 43(2), 188-96.
Maricopa Community College District Nursing Program. (2002). Preceptor packet. Retrieved
December 10, 2003 from http://www.gc.maricopa.edu/nursing/aux1/preceptor.pdf
McGregor, R. J. (1999). A precepted experience for senior nursing students. Nurse Educator,
24(3),13-16.
Myrick, F., & Yonge, O. (2002). Preceptor behaviours integral to the promotion of student
critical thinking. Journal for Nurses in Staff Development, 18(3), 127-33.
Nelson, J., Apenhorst, D., Carter, L., Mahlum, E., & Schneider, J. (2004). Coaching for
competence. Medsurg Nursing 13(1), 32-35.
Neufeldt, V., & Guralnik, D.B. (Eds.). (1998). Websters new world college dictionary (3rd
ed.). New York: MacMillan.
Neumann, J., Brady-Schluttner, K., McKay, A., Roslien, J., Twedell, D., James, K. (2004).
Centralizing a registered nurse preceptor program at the institutional level. Journal for Nurses
in Staff Development, 20(1), 17-24.
26
Nigro, Nicholas. (2003). The everything coaching and mentoring book: How to increase productivity, foster talent, and encourage success. Avon: Adams Media Corporation.
Registered Nurses Association of Ontario (August, 2003). 12 weeks to a healthier career &
workplace. Advanced Clinical/Practice Fellowships. www.rnao.org/acpf
Regina QuAppelle Health Region. (2004). Overview of mentoring program for new graduates.
Unpublished document.
Ryten, E. (1997). A statistical picture of the past, present and future of registered nurses in
Canada. Ottawa: Canadian Nurses Association.
Simon, R., & Houze, R. N. (1999). The employer Us challenge: Developing a quality co-op
program. Retrieved March 13, 2003 from http://coop.www.ecn.purdue.edu/Coop/
Publications/employers_challenge
St. Michaels Hospital. Graduate nursing internship program. Retrieved on October 16, 2003
from http://www.stmichaelshospital.com/content/careers/nursing_internship.asp
St. Josephs Health Care London. Clinical practice coaches for clinical development: A reference
manual. London, ON: Author.
Stone, C. L., & Rowles, C. J. (2002). What rewards do clinical preceptors in nursing think
are important? Journal for Nurses in Staff Development, 18(3), 162-66.
University of Alabama. (2002). UA, DCH collaborate to launch cooperative education
programs for student nurses. Retrieved March 13, 2003 from http://uanews.ua.edu/oct02/
nursing102502.htm
Watson, S. (2003). Mentor preparation: Reasons for undertaking the course and expectations of the candidates. Nurse Education Today, 24(1), 30-40.
Wright, A. (2002). Preceptoring in 2002. The Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing,
33(3), 138-41.
Yonge, O., Myrick, F., & Haase, M. (2002). Student nurse stress in the preceptorship
experience. Nurse Educator, 27(2), 84-88.
27
Part IV:
PHOTO: BRAND X PICTURES / GETTY IMAGES
Developing Programs
for Preceptorship and Mentoring
Developing Programs for Preceptorship

and Mentoring
Steps for Developing a Successful Program
Role modelling as preceptor, mentor or other programs involving role models are most effective when they are part of an overall institutional strategy to create a learning environment.
More than one organization, or part of an organization, may contribute to the development
and delivery of a program. Although research has not conclusively identified key ingredients,
experienced institutions have identified the major activities that contribute to the quality
of the program (CNA, 1995). Here we have adapted these activities into six steps for
developing a successful program:
1. Assess needs
2. Identify the philosophy
3. Create the plan
4. Organize
5. Implement
6. Evaluate
General issues applicable to all participating organizations or departments are identified
in the following sections.
Step 1: Assess Needs

The educational organization(s) or department performs a needs assessment before developing the program. The assessment does the following:
1. Demonstrates consultation with pertinent groups and individuals (including
administrators, regulatory bodies and practicing nurses)
2. Demonstrates that the sponsoring organization and department has resources
(human, physical, clinical and technological) to ensure successful completion and
evaluation of the program
3. Provides an explicit statement of purpose identifying areas of competency acquisition, the level of practitioner for whom the program is planned and the roles for
which participants are being prepared
4. Identifies competencies6 required to practise within the specific domain7 of nursing
and practice setting
Competencies are the specific knowledge, skills, judgment and personal attributes required for a person to practise safely and ethically
in a designated role and setting (CNA, 2002a).
For the purpose of this document, domains of nursing practice include direct care, education, administration and research.
31
5. Describes the characteristics of the participants that will affect their learning needs
and styles (e.g., age, culture, societal roles, position)
6. Describes competencies required by the role models (see Part V)
7 . Identifies participant and instructional staff competencies in using intended technology
Step 2: Identify the Philosophy

The program philosophy provides the necessary base for developing and implementing the
program. Organizations must identify the philosophy in writing to reduce the possibility of
misunderstandings that may arise from lack of clarity about the program or its participants.
The organizations must ensure the following:
1 . The philosophy identifies the relevant criteria and the relationships among the
criteria including beliefs about the client, the nurse (adult learner), health, the
setting and education.
2. The philosophy is clearly written and explained to participants, faculty and personnel
in all organization involved with the program.
3. The philosophy being developed is congruent with the philosophy of the sponsoring organization(s), Code of Ethics for Registered Nurses (CNA, 2002b),
provincial/territorial governments and relevant specialty standards of practice.
4. The philosophy is shared with and supported by senior administrators in all participating organizations.
Step 3: Create the Plan

The organizations or departments involved in the program provide a plan based on the
needs assessment and philosophy and that meets these requirements:
1. Describes the roles and responsibilities of central participants (see Table 1)
2. Contains clearly written measurable program goals that are congruent with the
philosophy and identified needs
3. Describes what will be accomplished, by when and with what resources (material,
human and physical), as well as how it will be accomplished
Step 4: Organize the Program

The sponsoring organization shall provide an administrative structure and the resources for
effective development. The sponsoring organization must perform the following tasks:
1. Provide for administrative structure to support the program.
2. Describe the relationships between the participating organization or departments
and the lines of authority and responsibility within the organization.
3. Specify policies for selection, admission, progression, appeal and successful completion of the program.
32
4. Validate and prioritize competencies required and that will be gained by participants
for each setting or domain of practice in which the program will be operating.
5. Address the issues of role model and participant liabilities.
6. Ensure adequate selection of and preparation of role models8 (see Appendix B for
suggested orientation topics).
7. Ensure adequate remuneration or reward for role models.
Step 5: Implement the Program

The sponsoring organization shall implement and maintain the following components of
the program:
1. Ensure adequate staffing levels and work load for role models.
2. Maintain retrievable, complete and secure records according to acceptable standards;
allow access to records for those who are authorized to view them; protect records
against loss or unauthorized use and ensure resources and space for their storage.
3. Provide human, physical, clinical, research and technical resources needed to
achieve the program goals.
4. Establish written contracts with organizations used for any clinical experiences.
5. Ensure careful allocation of role models to participants.
6. Provide for sufficient guidance, supervision and direction.
7. Ensure feedback is used to enhance the program.
8. Provide online technical support services for programs delivered by distance methods.
Step 6: Evaluate the Program

The sponsoring agency shall provide a plan for and carry out regular evaluation of the program. The plan shall include these details:
1. The methods by which the performance of participants will be assessed, during and
at the end of the program in terms of stated learning outcomes or competencies
2. The criteria and methods by which mentors and preceptors will be evaluated
3. Logical strategy and criteria for formative and summative evaluation of the program
related to the goals, which should include feedback from all stakeholders
4. The methods and schedule for using evaluation data in the ongoing development
and revision of the program
8
While expertise may be important in certain situations, an expert nurse may not always make the best mentor. An expert nurse may
make decisions rapidly, without going through the steps of problem solving in a way that can be followed by the novice. An experienced,
competent nurse, not yet an expert, may be more helpful to the novice because that nurse will remember and/or use all the steps
required for decision-making by a beginning nurse (Benner, 1984). It is important to consider the qualities of the individual nurse in
selecting mentors, as well as the specific competency requirements of participants.
33
Table 1. Potential Roles and Responsibilities of Role Model and Participant

Role Model
Participant
Relationships
Develops a partnership with the participant
Develops a partnership with the role model
Competency
assessment
Assists the participant to identify the gap

between acquired and desired competencies
Identifies the gap between acquired and

desired competencies
Goal setting
Assists participant to set goals that are

specific, measurable, achievable, realistic
and time-sensitive with respect to
competency acquisition
Sets goals for competency acquisition
Experiences
Works with participants to craft experiences

leading to effective goal achievement
Works with role model to craft experiences

leading to effective goal achievement
Actively participates in experiences that
enable goals to be achieved
Client care
Assists the participant to determine which

client care responsibilities can be carried out
safely in relation to competencies already
held by the participant
Achieves goals through client care, in

consultation with role model
Identifies and communicates where
expectations exceed acquired competencies
Provides support when competencies cannot

be carried out safely
Feedback
Provides effective formative (ongoing) and

summative (final) feedback as required
regarding progress towards goals
Works with participants to adjust goals based
on feedback
34
Provides effective feedback to role model

on all aspects of the program
Works with role model to adjust goals based
on feedback
Motivation
Effectively motivates participant to continue to

acquire competencies at an increasing skill level
Evaluates personal and organization factors

that influence motivation levels and enhances
the positive factors where possible
Program evaluation
Provides regular and effective feedback to

ensure continuous improvement to role
modelling program
Provides regular feedback to ensure

continuous improvement to role modelling
program
Socialization
Provides experiences to assist participant to

be socialized into the profession
Participates fully in experiences aimed at

socialization in the profession
References Part IV
Benner, P. (1984). From novice to expert: Excellence and power in clinical nursing practice.
Menlo Park, CA: Addison-Wesley.
Canadian Nurses Association. (1995). Preceptorship resource guide: Teaching and learning with
clinical role models. Ottawa: Author.
Canadian Nurses Association. (2002a). Achieving excellence in professional practice: A guide to
developing and revising standards. Ottawa: Author.
Canadian Nurses Association. (2002b). Code of ethics for registered nurses. Ottawa: Author.
35
Part V:
Competencies for Preceptors and Mentors
Competencies for Preceptors and Mentors

Overview
This guide is one component of CNAs Preceptorship and Mentoring Project. Overall, the
projects aim is to support the development of role modelling programs with a focus on preceptorship and mentoring, to enhance the quality of workplaces for nurses in all domains of
practice. The other key step for this project was developing and validating sets of competencies for preceptors and mentors. This chapter presents the results of this work, including the
lists of competencies.
Why Develop Competencies?

Competencies are the knowledge, skills, judgment and personal attributes required for a person to
practise safely and ethically in a designated role and setting. Competencies in nursing are developed at the entry level, at the specialty level and at the advanced practice level (CNA, 2002, p.15).
The relationship between competencies, standards of practice and clinical guidelines are
described in CNAs Achieving Excellence in Professional Practice: A Guide to Developing and
Revising Standards (2002). Standards are based on the mission and values of the organization
or professional group. Competencies are derived from standards to describe the practice in a
specific role or setting. Clinical guidelines are systematically developed statements, based
on a review of evidence from research, that assist the practitioner to make appropriate decisions about care (p. 18).
There were a number of reasons for developing competencies for preceptorship and mentoring:
to enhance recognition for the importance of the mentoring role within the profession
to promote professional development for individual nurses by enhancing leadership
to provide a mechanism for identifying potential nurse mentors
to provide a mechanism for promoting continuing competency among nurses
to enhance role satisfaction for preceptors, preceptees, mentors and mentees
to enhance the quality of work environments for nurses and ultimately, the quality of care
The Process
The competencies for preceptorship and mentoring were developed over several months
with the input of expert working groups for each area. The process for developing these
competencies was similar to that used for the Canadian Registered Nurse Examination and
national nursing specialty exams. In this process, a group meets, agrees upon the definition for the concept of competency and quality criteria. Once statements are produced,
the group refines and critiques them. To validate the competencies, CNA sent surveys to
professional associations, national nursing groups and members of the nursing community
who expressed an interest in participating in the validation process for preceptor competencies
and/or the development and validation of mentor competencies. Survey participants were
39
required to be registered nurses with experience in a preceptorship or mentoring program,

depending on the survey they responded to. Nurses from across the country and across
domains of practice took part in the process, which yielded the following results:
Preceptor Competencies
The final list of competencies for preceptors is divided into five major categories:
Collaboration
Personal Attributes
Facilitation of Learning
Professional Practice
Knowledge of the Setting
Mentor Competencies
The final list of competencies for mentors is divided into four major categories:
Personal Attributes
Modelling Excellence in Professional Practice
Fostering an Effective Mentor/Mentee Relationship
Fostering Growth
Although there are some similarities between the frameworks for mentor and preceptor competencies (for example, the inclusion of categories for personal attributes and professional
practice), the individual competencies and other categories differ significantly.
The process of developing these competencies revealed the extent to which nurses value the role
of preceptorship and mentoring programs in advancing the profession and supporting nurses in
providing quality care. Committed to producing quality work, members of the expert working
groups who drafted the initial competency lists continued to provide consultation on the project.
Both validation tools were received with enthusiasm. Nurses responded from across the
country and from all domains of practice education, administration, research and direct
care. Many respondents provided additional insights and expressed appreciation for the
quality and importance of this work.
The data collected indicated that the mentoring role for nurses is not as well understood as
that of preceptor a conclusion supported by the literature used in this study. While preceptorships have long been used in nursing, mentoring is more recently being adapted for
nursing from the corporate setting. In particular, the concepts of risk-taking, creativity and
innovation core aspects of the mentoring process are not as familiar within nursing.
The following final lists of competencies for preceptors and mentors were developed by
CNA through the Preceptorship and Mentoring Project. For a comparison of preceptor and
mentor competencies see Table 2.
40
Preceptor Competencies 9
A. Collaboration
1. Collaborates with the preceptee at all stages of preceptorship
2. Establishes and maintains collaborative partnership with faculty advisor/manager
and other partners, as appropriate (e.g., peers, colleagues, other health care professionals, clients)
3. Networks with other preceptors to share best practices, when possible
4. Assists preceptee to interpret the preceptees role to individuals, families, communities and populations, as appropriate to the setting
B. Personal Attributes
1. Demonstrates enthusiasm and interest in preceptoring
2. Displays a genuine interest in the preceptees learning needs and growth
3. Fosters a positive learning environment
4. Adapts to change
5. Demonstrates effective communication skills with clients and colleagues
6. Demonstrates effective conflict-resolution skills
7. Demonstrates readiness and openness to learning along with the preceptee
8. Displays respect for the diversity of the preceptee (e.g., educational background,
race, culture)
9. Integrates the preceptee into the social culture of the agency
10. Possesses self-confidence and patience
11. Recognizes personal limitations and consults with others, as appropriate
C. Facilitation of Learning10
1. Assesses the preceptees clinical learning needs in collaboration with preceptee and
with faculty advisor/program coordinator, when applicable:
a. Reviews the core competencies according to the domain (i.e., practice, education,
administration), standards of practice, setting (e.g., hospital unit, clinical specialty,
community, educational setting), course or program objectives and level of practice
b. Discusses the expected learning outcomes based on the identified core competencies
10
CNA proposes this set of preceptor competencies as an ideal to be worked towards and as a guide for preceptor selection and orientation.
It is recognized that many excellent nurse preceptors may not demonstrate 100 per cent of these competencies.
This core component of the preceptor role is distinct as an addition to the professional working role of the nurse. Education in how to
effectively facilitate learning using the principles of adult learning would be a key focus of a preceptor orientation program.
41
c. Reviews past experience of the preceptee with respect to knowledge and skills to
obtain an understanding of strengths, areas for growth and specific learning
needs in the practice setting
d. Identifies the potential learning opportunities/assignments available in the practice setting that will match the identified areas for growth and learning needs
e. Assists the preceptee to develop individualized learning outcomes, for the practice role, according to available guidelines:
i. specific
ii. measurable and observable
iii. achievable within the time and resources available during preceptorship
iv. relevant and individualized to the preceptee and the setting
v. timelines are clearly identified (e.g., daily, weekly, other).
2. Plans clinical learning activities in collaboration with preceptee and with faculty
advisor/program coordinator, when applicable:
a. Assists preceptee to seek out a range of learning activities to address each learning
outcome and to make optimal use of preceptees time (e.g., clinical practice
assignments, structured educational activities, reading, written or computer
exercises, committee attendance, selected observational experiences, simulated
skills practice, nursing rounds)
b. When possible, chooses the clinical assignments/learning activities based on
identified learning outcomes and preceptee learning style
c. When possible, sequences clinical assignments/learning activities during the
preceptorship from simple to complex levels of challenge to promote increasing independence, for example:
i. physical condition (stable to unstable)
ii. single and multiple therapies
iii. psychosocial factors (e.g., family dynamics, language, culture, gender,
financial status)
iv. workload
3. Implements clinical learning activities in the practice setting in collaboration with
preceptee and with faculty advisor/program coordinator, when applicable:
a. Arranges appropriate clinical learning opportunities and strategies
b. Assists preceptee to obtain available resources in preparation for the learning activity
c. When possible, reviews the activities the preceptee intends to carry out and
addresses any areas for improvement or adjustment prior to actually carrying
out the practice activity
d. Discusses with the preceptee potential complications or unexpected events and
possible appropriate responses (e.g., troubleshooting), as relevant
e. Clarifies the role of the preceptor and preceptee for the planned activity
42
f. Provides ongoing constructive feedback (e.g., coaching, encouragement, support,

reinforcement)
g. Intervenes immediately to prevent unsafe and unethical actions
h. Adjusts level of supervision to foster autonomous functioning
4. Evaluates the clinical learning outcomes in collaboration with preceptee and faculty
advisor/program coordinator:
a. Provides ongoing constructive feedback using structured evaluation tools, when
available (e.g., formative evaluation usually occurs daily and weekly)
i. Asks probing questions to gain an understanding of what the preceptee has
learnt from the activity (e.g., How do you think you did? What went well?
What could you have done differently?)
ii. Describes the preceptors assessment of the activity
iii. Discusses any discrepancies between the assessment of the preceptor and the
preceptee
b. Participates with the preceptee in completing structured evaluation tools emphasizing the importance of self-evaluation for the preceptee, to identify progress
towards learning outcomes and potential next steps (e.g., summative evaluation
occurs at mid-point and end of preceptorship)
c. Provides reinforcement and a supportive learning environment by focusing on
the preceptees strengths, achievements and progress toward meeting objectives
throughout the evaluation process
d. Provides concrete feedback about areas for improvement or failure to meet
agency, professional or personal objectives
e. Takes appropriate action if progress towards the learning outcomes is not
satisfactory (e.g., consults the faculty advisor/program coordinator, following
established protocol)
f. Asks open questions to preceptee to gain an understanding of the effectiveness of
the preceptors interventions to facilitate clinical learning
D. Professional Practice
1. Practices autonomously and consistently in accordance with the relevant nursing
standards established by the appropriate provincial or territorial regulatory body and
the Code of Ethics for Registered Nurses
2. Works towards meeting the current national/international standards of the nursing
specialties and best practices
3. Assists the preceptee to acquire the knowledge, skills and judgment to practice in
accordance with the relevant provincial or territorial nursing standards and the
Code of Ethics for Registered Nurses
4. Clarifies the roles, rights and responsibilities related to preceptorship with the
appropriate authority (e.g., agency, educational institution)
43
E. Knowledge of the Setting

1. Is knowledgeable of the basic content of the agencys:
a. mission and philosophy
b. systems of care (e.g., family-centered, team nursing, primary nursing, buddy systems)
c. policies and procedures
d. physical environment
e. interdisciplinary roles and functions
f. forms, documentation and reporting mechanisms
g. learning resources
2. Demonstrates the role of the nurse within the multidisciplinary team (e.g., pharmacist, social worker, psychologist, occupational therapist, unregulated health
workers, physician)
3. Reviews the guidelines of the educational institution for preceptee and preceptor
(e.g., expectations of the preceptorship, what the preceptee can do prior to and
during preceptorship)
Mentor Competencies11
A. Personal Attributes
1. Demonstrates effective communication skills
2. Displays respect, patience and good listening skills
3. Demonstrates trustworthiness in working relationships
4. Demonstrates a positive attitude, enthusiasm, optimism and energy about the work
environment, nursing and mentoring
5. Expresses belief in the value and potential of others
6. Is open and accepting of the diversity of others
7. Demonstrates confidence
8. Reflects on own attitudes, values and beliefs
9. Displays visionary qualities (e.g., forward thinking and creative problem-solving)
10. Displays willingness to take risks (i.e., to develop and/or apply innovative ideas).
B. Modelling Excellence in Professional Practice

1. Displays commitment to nurses and to the nursing profession
2. Displays commitment to the goals of the organization or the team
11
44
CNA proposes this set of mentor competencies as an ideal to be worked towards and as a guide for mentor selection and orientation. It is recognized that there is a variety of informal and formal arrangements emerging for mentoring in nursing. The applicability
of these competencies for mentoring will vary according to the program and the setting.
3. Demonstrates strong knowledge, judgment, skill and caring in their domain of

practice
4. Is credible and respected by colleagues, the organization and the community
5. Demonstrates critical thinking by challenging ideas, knowledge and practice, as
appropriate
6. Actively expands knowledge base using research evidence and remains current with
latest thinking and best practices in area of expertise
7. Uses an ethical framework to guide professional practice and interpersonal
relationships
8. Uses socio-political knowledge of the organization to work effectively within or
beyond the system
9. Conveys ability to see the big picture (historical, political or systems context)
10. Uses a strong and diverse network to collaborate with others in the work setting
and the broader system (i.e., health care system and wider community, where
relevant)
11. Demonstrates effective negotiation and conflict-resolution skills
C. Fostering an Effective Mentor/Mentee Relationship

1. Establishes trust and maintains confidentiality
2. Makes time for the mentoring relationship and is approachable and welcoming
3 . Demonstrates respect for the mentee as an individual and belief in the mentees
potential
4. Demonstrates caring for the well-being of the mentee
5. Nurtures the mentee by providing support, encouragement and a safe relationship
6. Provides honest feedback and gentle confrontation; becomes a critical friend
7. Engages mutually in the mentoring relationship (i.e., is willing to share of self and
is open to personal change)
8. Reflects on own interactions to challenge, stimulate and support the mentee
9. Collaborates and negotiates in setting the purpose, goals, process, boundaries and
evaluation of the mentoring relationship
10. Plans for appropriate closure or transition of the relationship
11. Celebrates achievements and successes with the mentee
12. Respects mentees right to make decisions, but recognizes when it is ethically necessary to intervene to prevent harm
13. Demonstrates an understanding and respect for the power differential between the
mentor and mentee
45
D. Fostering Growth12
1. Coaches the mentee towards goal achievement
a. Encourages the mentee to identify own strengths, gaps and growth potential
b. Supports the mentee in the selection of appropriate and realistic goals
c. Guides the mentee to identify options/activities to meet goals
d. Encourages the mentee to identify realistic timelines for goal achievement
reflecting work and life balance
e. Guides the mentee to select an optimum level of challenge within their role,
setting or domain of practice (e.g., range of goals, incremental levels of difficulty
or complexity)
f. Guides the mentee to identify, clarify, define and manage barriers, problems and issues
2. Facilitates the mentees access to a wide variety of resources and opportunities to
meet goals (e.g., journals, space, activities, people, literature, agencies, interest
groups, committees, funding)
3. Encourages independence and autonomy
a. Encourages the mentee to reflect on own growth or achievements and future actions
b. Questions, probes and guides the mentee to explore new perspectives and insights
c. Knows when to provide direction and when to challenge the mentee
d. Encourages learning from mistakes and/or disappointments
e. Guides the mentee to avoid pitfalls and manage crises
f. Guides the mentee to develop own leadership in practice
g. Chooses an appropriate balance when contributing own experiences (i.e., good
story-telling and metaphors), as relevant
h. Guides the mentee to develop effective negotiation and conflict-resolution skills
4. Encourages the mentee in a process of visioning through free thinking, creativity and
innovation, as relevant to the setting
a. Challenges the mentee by offering new ideas, knowledge and practices
b. Assists the mentee to enhance the quality of the professional practice environment and to initiate change, where relevant and possible
c. Assists mentee to identify an alternate view of the future that may not be seen
by mentee (i.e., looking at the big picture, seeing beyond the details)
d. Assists the mentee to identify patterns, themes and trends and to acquire new
perspectives
e. Encourages and supports the mentee in risk taking (i.e., in developing new
knowledge, skills and innovations for the workplace)
12
46
This core component of the mentoring process is distinct, as an addition to the usual professional working role of the nurse.
A development program for mentors that focuses on how to foster growth would be a helpful adjunct to this emerging role in nursing.
5. Facilitates the mentees integration within the organization and larger professional
community, as relevant to the setting
a. Shares professional networks with mentee
b. Helps the mentee navigate the system
c. Shares informal rules
d. Promotes the mentee by communicating their successes within the organization
and the profession
e. Shares ideas about opportunities for advancement
f. Encourages the mentee to engage in professional leadership activities such as
presentations, partnerships, specialty associations
g. Acts as a champion for the mentee
h. Solicits corporate (i.e., organizational) support for the mentee
47
Table 2: Comparison of Preceptorship and Mentoring13

Preceptorship
Mentoring
Definitions
While definitions
for these concepts
vary internationally,
the definitions
presented here are
commonly
accepted by most
nurses in Canada.
A frequently employed teaching and learning method

using nurses as clinical role models. It is a formal,
one-to-one relationship of pre-determined length
between an experienced nurse (preceptor) and a
novice (preceptee) designed to assist the novice in
successfully adjusting to a new role. The novice may
be a student or an already practising nurse moving
into a new role, domain or setting (CNA, 1995, p. 15).
A voluntary, mutually beneficial and long-term

relationship where an experienced and
knowledgeable leader (mentor) supports the
maturation of a less-experienced nurse with
leadership potential (mentee) (CNA, 1995 p. 15).
Purpose
Acquire new competencies
Foster professional and personal growth and

effectiveness
Develop competencies in relation to a new

setting, client or domain of practice
Fulfil a requirement of senior nursing education
program or new employees
A mentor is someone who guides another individual

in the development and examination of their own
ideas, learning & personal and professional
development an advisor, coach, counsellor
(BC Academic Health Council, 2002).
Acquire particular competencies for a new setting

or new role
Become socialized into the profession
Develop network and career
Type of
relationship
1:1, professional
1:1, but can also be in small group
Formal, structured
Informal and unstructured; can be more formalized
Direct instruction and supervision through a

shared workload for learning
Guiding, advising rather than supervising

Reciprocal relationship directed by needs of mentee
Based on requirements of education program or

employer
Short-term (weeks)
Medium to long-term (months-years)
Pre-defined by educational institution or

employment setting
Determined by the average amount of time required

in relation to the objectives
Level of recognition
for the role model
Usually recognized at the unit level; sometimes

recognized at the institutional level
Recognition may be informal/personal or, in formal mentoring programs, this may occur at the institutional level
Characteristics of
role model
A preceptor has mastered at least novice-level

(beginner) competencies required by the
participant.
A mentor is often recognized as expert in the field,

at least as highly proficient professionals.
Time frame
Preceptors and preceptees are sometimes peers

from the same work setting.
Mentors are usually older and more senior than the

mentee.
Mentors and mentees may or may not be from the
same work setting.
Participant
characteristics
Participant is novice to the profession (senior

nursing student or new graduate) or to the domain
of practice or setting.
Participant is not a novice to the profession but may

be a novice in relation to a role or set of skills.
Assessment and
evaluation
Formal assessment and evaluation
Informal; may be more formalized within structured

mentoring programs
13
48
This table is a composite of ideas based on recent literature, current examples of preceptorship and mentoring programs in Canada and the
CNA experience in developing competencies for preceptors and mentors.
References Part V
BC Academic Health Council. (2002). Preceptor & mentor initiative for health sciences in BC.
Retrieved on April 28, 2004 from www.bcahc.ca/pm
Canadian Nurses Association. (2002). Achieving excellence in professional practice: A guide to
developing and revising standards. Ottawa: Author.
Canadian Nurses Association. (March, 2004). CNA Preceptorship and mentoring project:
Report to office of nursing policy. Unpublished document. Ottawa: Author.
49
Part VI:
Conclusion
Conclusion
Preceptorship and mentoring programs are exciting avenues for stimulating professional
growth, career development, staff morale and quality of care within nursing workplaces.
As health care organizations compete to attract and retain a high-caliber nursing workforce,
they will need to focus on providing quality practice environments.
The goal of CNAs Preceptorship and Mentoring Project is to foster the development of
carefully planned and well-supported programs for new and experienced staff nurses in all
domains of practice. This guide includes an overview and description of preceptorship and
mentoring and suggests approaches for creating and improving programs. The extensive
reference lists and examples of existing programs in Canada should provide practical support
for agencies and individual nurses to start or fine-tune their own programs. Through a stepby-step process involving expert working groups and validation surveys, CNA developed the
lists of competencies for mentors and preceptors published in the guide, offering a unique
contribution to the advancement of this work.
CNA encourages staff nurses, educators, managers and decision-makers at all levels to use
this guide as a foundation for building preceptorship and mentoring programs to help
nurses define and achieve their goals. The benefits of these programs improved quality
of care, a sense of accomplishment, job satisfaction demonstrate the value of preceptorship
and mentoring in helping nurses take that vital step from maintaining competence to
achieving excellence.
53
Part VII:
Further Reading
Further Reading
Association of Law Schools and Legal Employers. (n.d.). Working with a mentor: 50 practical
suggestions for success. Washington: Author.
Atkins, S., & Williams, A. (1995). Registered nurses experiences of mentoring undergraduate nursing students. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 21(5), 1006-15.
Baldwin, C., & Chandler, G. E. (2002). Improving faculty publication output: The role of a
writing coach. Journal of Professional Nursing, 18(1), 8-15.
Brehaut, C.J., Turick L. J.,& Wade, K.E. (1998). A pilot study to compare the effectiveness
of preceptored and nonpreceptored models of clinical education in promoting baccalaureate
students competence in public health nursing. Journal of Nursing Education, 37(8), 376-80.
Brown, C.L. (2001). A theory of the process of creating power in relationships. Nursing
Administration Quarterly, 26(2), 15-33.
Busen, N., & Engebretson, J. (1999). Mentoring in advanced practice nursing: The use
of metaphor in concept exploration. The Internet Journal of Advanced Nursing Practice
2(2), Available: http://www.ispub.com/ostia/index.php?xmlFilePath=journals/ijanp/
vol2n2/mentoring.xml
Byrne, M.W., & Keefe, M.R. (2002). Building research competence in nursing through
mentoring. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 34(4), 391-96.
Canadian Nurses Association. (1998). Position statement: Educational support for competent
nursing practice. Ottawa: Author.
Canadian Nurses Association. (2001). Guidelines for continuing nursing education programs.
Ottawa: Author.
Caraway, M. (2000). NursingNet (Online). Available: http://www.nursingnet.org
Childrens & Womens Health Centre of British Columbia. (1999). Great preceptors need
great support. Vancouver: Author.
Childrens Hospital of Orange County. CHOC nursing RN internship program. Retrieved
March 13, 2003 from http://www.chochospital.org/nursing/nursing_internship.cfm
Crawford, M.J., Dresen, S.E., & Tschikota, S.E. (2000). From getting to know you to
soloing: The preceptor-student relationship. NT Research, 5(1), 5-20. Duke University
Hospital. Nursing internship program. Retrieved March 13, 2003 from http://internships.
dukehospital.org/nurse_intern/web.nsf/internships
Fawcett, D.L. (2002). Mentoring What it is and how to make it work. AORN Journal,
75(5), 950-54.
Freilburger, O.A. (2002). Clinical issues: Preceptor programs increasing student self-confidence and competency. Nurse Educator, 27(2), 58-60.
Frey, L. (May/June, 2002). Twelve weeks to a healthier career. Registered Nurse Journal, 12-15.
57
Giglio, L., Diamante, T., & Urban, J. (1998). Coaching a leader: Leveraging change at the
top. Journal of Management Development, 17(2), 93-105.
Gillan, J. (2000). Arena mentor arithmetic. Nursing Times, 9(21), 23.
Glass, N., & Walter, R. (2000). An experience of peer mentoring with student nurses:
Enhancement of personal and professional growth. Journal of Nursing Education, 39(4), 155-60.
Grealish, L. (2000). The skills of a coach are an essential element in clinical learning. Journal
of Nursing Education, 39(5), 231-3.
Gurney, D. (2002). Developing a successful 16-week transition ED nursing program: One
busy community hospitals experience. Journal of Emergency Nursing, 28(6), 505-14.
Haley-Andrews, S. (2001). Role play: Mentoring, membership in professional organizations,
and the pursuit of excellence in nursing. Journal of the Society of Pediatric Nurses, 6(3), 147.
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Appendixes
Appendix A: Definitions
Buddy System
An unprofessional term referring to a relationship between an experienced nurse and a
novice, in which the senior buddy is a resource person the newcomer can go to for advice or
information on an episodic basis. The term buddy is best relegated to other venues.
Coaching
Coaching, an idea derived from the world of sports, is most often used to describe an
approach or strategy to foster development (especially skills learning) through positive,
timely feedback. Coaching is an activity frequently carried out as part of the larger roles of
educator, manager, preceptor or mentor.
Competencies
Competencies include, but are not limited to, knowledge, skills attitudes, values and
judgments, as well as applied values and judgments required to practise nursing within
a particular context, setting or role.
Cooperative Education or Work Study Programs

An education program offering students periods of work and study. This is not one-to-one
teaching/learning, and students are usually paid during the work periods.
Externship
A period of concentrated practice for students who generally receive pay at ancillary rates
not necessarily one-to-one teaching/learning. Also referred to as an internship.
Internship Program
A formal program for graduates of educational programs, usually with paid positions, to
help in the transition to work. While not necessarily one-to-one teaching/learning, the
programs provide familiarity for recent graduate or experienced nurses new to the area of
specialization.
Mentoring
A voluntary, mutually beneficial and long-term relationship where an experienced and
knowledgeable leader (mentor) supports the maturation of a less experienced nurse with
leadership potential (mentee).
Online Mentoring
Use of Internet technology (chat, e-mail, etc.) to carry out aspects of mentoring. Advantages
of online mentoring include efficiency of communication, open correspondence and access
to more geographically isolated regions.
63
Preceptorship
A frequently employed teaching and learning method using nurses as clinical role models. It
is a formal, one-to-one relationship of pre-determined length, between an experienced nurse
(preceptor) and a novice (preceptee) designed to assist the novice in successfully adjusting to
a new role. The novice may be a student or an already practising nurse moving into a new
role, domain or setting.
Role Modelling
A teaching strategy used in many situations, not necessarily a one-to-one relationship, in
which the novice observes the practice of the master. This is an essential element of preceptorship and mentoring.
Transition Program
An in-depth program to assist the experienced nurse to acquire the competencies she or he
required for subspecialty practice.
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Appendix B : Orientation Topics

Many organizations have programs that assist preceptors and mentors to work effectively
with participants within the work setting. Gillan (2000) has identified the need for standardized preparation courses to ensure that both participants get off to a good start. Some institutions have formal ongoing programs and have included sessions on the following topics:
1. The organization and its culture
2. All about the preceptorship and mentoring program
3. Principles of adult learning
4. Competency assessment
5. Goal setting
6. Identifying and working with people of various learning styles
7. Identifying, choosing, and practicing teaching strategies and clinical situations in
relation to learning styles
8. Providing effective feedback
9. Motivating the participant
10. Conflict resolution
11. Use of program tools including assessment, learning objectives and evaluation
documents
65
Appendix C : Resolving Conflicts Productively

When peoples lives, jobs, pride, self-concept, ego, personality and understanding of purpose
are involved, conflict is inevitable.
Causes of Conflict
Poor communication
Dissatisfaction with management style
Weak leadership
Lack of openness or willingness to share
Positive Outcomes of Conflict

Leads to clarification of important issues
Results in solutions
Involves those for whom the issues are important
Releases anxiety and stress
Builds cooperation
Shares resolutions
Leads to understanding
Win-Win Approaches to Conflict Resolution

Address the problem, not the individual
Express feelings in a non-blaming way
Take ownership of role in the problem
Listen to the other person and see the issue from their perspective
Identify underlying need
Do not solve other persons problem
Encourage different view
Have honest discussion
Focus on what can be done
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Appendix D: Competency Rating Scale

DESCRIPTION
OF COMPETENCY
INITIALS
RATING
3
Role Model
Participant
ADDITIONAL
COMMENTS
Knowledge or topic area 1
Skills or topic area 2
Attitudes or topic area 3
Values or topic area 4
Explanations
1. The description of competencies means describing the knowledge, skills or personal
attributes required for practice in a specific setting, specialty or domain. For example,
conduct a catheterization (skill), describe admission procedure (knowledge), demonstrate willingness to be sensitive to culture (value) and describe the importance of
life-long learning (attitude).
2. A rating of 1 is expert, 2 is acceptable and 3 is beginning or safe.
3. The initials column can be used where other practitioners are involved in competency assessment or if used in a cooperative program, it can be assessment from a
teacher and then a co-worker.
67
Appendix E: Questions for Evaluating a Role-Modelling Experience

1. Did the experience meet your personal learning objectives?
2. How did you meet your personal learning objectives?
3. How was the process helpful?
4. What have you learned?
5. What can you do better? Why?
6. What hindered your learning? How could you have overcome this factor?
7. Describe how you plan to use this newly learned information?
8. What have you learned that will benefit your practice, clients and/or community?
68

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The Preceptorship Working Group:

The Mentoring Working Group:

Achieving Excellence in Professional Practice A Guide to Preceptorship and Mentoring

Achieving Excellence in Professional Practice A Guide to Preceptorship and Mentoring

Step 4: Organize the Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Canadian Nurses Association October 2004

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Lucille Auffrey, RN, MN

Achieving Excellence in Professional Practice A Guide to Preceptorship and Mentoring

Knowledge, skills and personal attributes required by preceptors and mentors.

Achieving Excellence in Professional Practice A Guide to Preceptorship and Mentoring

Role Models and Professional Practice

Canadian Nurses Association October 2004

Who Is Involved in Role Modelling Programs?

Work Units and Departments

Organizations Who Hire Nurses

Achieving Excellence in Professional Practice A Guide to Preceptorship and Mentoring

Provincial, Territorial and Federal Governments

Canadian Nurses Association October 2004

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Preceptorship and Mentoring

Preceptorship and Mentoring

Achieving Excellence in Professional Practice A Guide to Preceptorship and Mentoring

Canadian Nurses Association October 2004

Some of the positive outcomes of preceptorship programs are summarized below:

Achieving Excellence in Professional Practice A Guide to Preceptorship and Mentoring

When undertaking a cost-benefit analysis of programs, it is necessary to weigh the projected

Considerations for Successful Preceptorship Programs

Canadian Nurses Association October 2004

a subscription to a nursing journal

Examples of Preceptorship Programs

Achieving Excellence in Professional Practice A Guide to Preceptorship and Mentoring

In British Columbia, there are a number of province-wide initiatives related to preceptorship.

Canadian Nurses Association October 2004

Achieving Excellence in Professional Practice A Guide to Preceptorship and Mentoring

Considerations for Successful Mentoring Programs

Canadian Nurses Association October 2004

Examples of Mentoring Programs

Achieving Excellence in Professional Practice A Guide to Preceptorship and Mentoring

Coaching and Other Models for Integrating Work and Learning

Canadian Nurses Association October 2004

Achieving Excellence in Professional Practice A Guide to Preceptorship and Mentoring

References Part III

Canadian Nurses Association October 2004

Hope-Smeltzer, C. H. (2002). The benefits of executive coaching. Journal of Nursing

Canadian Nurses Association October 2004

Achieving Excellence in Professional Practice A Guide to Preceptorship and Mentoring

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Developing Programs for Preceptorship

Step 1: Assess Needs

Achieving Excellence in Professional Practice A Guide to Preceptorship and Mentoring

Step 2: Identify the Philosophy

Step 3: Create the Plan

Step 4: Organize the Program

Canadian Nurses Association October 2004

Step 5: Implement the Program

Step 6: Evaluate the Program

Achieving Excellence in Professional Practice A Guide to Preceptorship and Mentoring

Table 1. Potential Roles and Responsibilities of Role Model and Participant

Develops a partnership with the participant