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TRANSISTORS
IN-SERVICE TRAINING
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CHAPTER
TO ssmrcomaucron nsvxcss
A.i1thor:. A/10 Robert J. Widlar
mamucwxon
1;
in
an
amplifier circuit.
it
INTRODUCTION
that
does
equipment
piece of modern electronicas; a selenium rectifier,
is difficult to find
such
of semiconductor device,
industrial,
not incorporate some kind
true o almost al.l commercial,
is
This
smaller,
transistor.
a
or
devices are generally
a crystal diode,
past.
ec ause these semiconductor
b
equipment
military
components used in the
and
cases, more reliable than
It
more
a.
efficient
and
in
some
but, until
years;
has been known for many
and insulaconductors
The existence of semiconductors
between
transition
useless
a
was
recently, they were considered
the early days of radio when
in
use
as
widespread
such
some substances tors. They first enjoyed
between a fine wire and rectifying properties. The
contact
the
that
discovered
exhibited
and silicon carbide pushed semiconductors
pyrite,
iron
alina
0
E
Therefore, vacuum tubesunderstood;
known.
and an
not
was
effect
this
well
reason for
a vacuum was
in
duction
con
and perfection of tubes.
into the background, because
be used in the design
could
approach
intelligent
systems during World liar
electronic
complex
need,
other
and
The influx of radar
but, because of the pressing
diodes;
and
semiconductor
silicon
spurred the development ofwas use d . This effort resulted in practical as the
an experimental approach
did not provide _a major breakthrough,
;' however,
"nderstood. The major
rectifiers
selenium
was still: not completely, a semiconductor
solids
in
phenomenon of conduction the development of the r ansistor ,
the same function
advance came in 19148 with ared that the transistor could perform
apps
far less
amplifying device.
the power and occupyingtheories
hundredth
on
one
using
as a vacuum tube, while
research, and workable
semiconductor
to
This added impetus
SP ace
were evolved.
the operation of semiconductors
it
II
it
to other
on transistors was applied exceeding
research
the
from
made with ratings
The knowledge gained
germanium diodes were
and
silicon
soon
Also, the silicon solar
devices, md
rectifiers.
selenium
and
into
oxide
those of the best copper could convert the energy o the sun directly the
which
for example,
amplifiers
cell was developedreason
Diode
.
ove
ab
efficiency
e
at frequencies
electricity with tunnelabl
made which could perform
were
diode
the
benefited from semidevices
varactor and
other
many
and
These
the range of transistors.
conductor research.
p osition in the
assumed an impor an
have
because some
can be seen that semiconductors
used with increasing frequency
electronics industry. might be able to replace a whole
electronics to
anyone connected with
semiconductori device
for
necessary
learn the
is therefore
as he was required to
components.
just
theory
semiconductor
become familiar with
tubes.
vacuum
theory of
is
the theory of semiconductors
in
fundamentals
phenomenon,
this
One of the most important solids.
But in o rd er to understand
in
'
and physics
'
conduction
chemistry
of
The
solids.
of
the mechanism
structure
the
to learn
in chapter two.
is also necessarysemiconductor
materials will be discussed
of a few important
ci
t t
It
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5
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r
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It
It
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be
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CONUGTION IN SEMCONDUTORS
'
somewhere.
Semiconductors are a class of materials having conductivities
of these
conductivity
The
between those of metalic conductors and insulators.
very
but
materials is several orders of magnitude greater than insulators
still
of conduction in metals
much less than metalic conductors. A simplified picture
can be moved under
which
attributes conduction to the existence of free electrons
assume that free
to
the influence of an electric field. It then seems reasonable
This is the case
electrons are also responsible for conduction in semiconductors.
can also
conduction
that
been shown
for some semiconductor materials, but it has electron,
of
properties
The
hole.
or
take place by what appears to be a.positive
either
be
can
carriers
semiconductors of concern at this point are that the current
carrier can be
holes or electrons and that the concentration and type of current
here, but
assumed
be
will
controlled during production of the material. This much
holes
of
existence
the
to help substantiate these statements a demonstration of
follows:
It
was found
It
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that there
electrons
were two
and
it
is used to measure
This is known as the Hall effect, and in practice
for
tape recorder heads;
submarines;
steady magnetic fields for the'detection of
direction
the
of current flow
and in circulators, gyrators, and isolators where
'
is altered by a magnetic field.
'
the current carriers in'a semiconductor are free electrons (Figure l.2a)
conduction is relatively easy to visualize. When a voltage is aplied across the
semiconductor, the electrons will move from negative to positive and into the
external circuit. lwhen an electron passes out of the semiconductor into the
external circuit at the positive terminal, another electron immediately flows
V-__
into the semiconductor at the negative terminal.
when
If
th
it
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it
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the semiconductor.
it
JUNCTION DIODES
It
can be seen.then,
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When P and N
carriers
it will
will
exactly, the applied voltage will ove the electrons from negative to positive,
across the junction, and into the P_region. Once the electrons flow into the P
@region, two things can happen: The electrons can move through this region and
into the external circuit via.the positive diode contact; or they can recombine
with the holes in the P region,
an electron does recombine with one of the
holes, another electron will be drawn out of the P region, at the positive
'
If
and flow into the external circuit; still another_electron will flow
into the diode at the negative terminal, to keep the overall number of holes
and electrons constant in the P and N type regions. In either,case,,a current
terminal,
,"
"
.
Similarly,
the holes will also contribute to current flow. Under the
influence of the applied voltage, the holes will move across the junction into
the N region. After crossing the junction, again two things can happen; the
holes can move through the N region and recombine with electrons ag the negative
terminal of the diode, or they can recombine with electrons within the N region.
In either case, when a hole recombines with an electron, another(hole will be
created at the positive terminal by the removal of an electron to the external
circuit; and another electron.will flow in at the negative terminal again to
p.keep the overall number of holes and electrons constant. This action establishes
'
It
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will
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or conducting bias.
If
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electrons. If the electrons did flow out the positive terminal, they
rcould not be re Pla ed by electrons from the P region because there are no free
electrons present.i Therefore, no appreciable amount of electrons can flow
out the positive terminal without greatly reducing the nuber of electrons
=the
similar situation exists for the holes. The holes are moved away frvm the
junction, an toward the negative terminal, under the influence of the applied
potential. But again, the holes cannot recombine with electrons at the negative
terminal to any appreciable extent. This would greatly reduce the number of
.A
holes because the holes cannot be replaced from the N region. ,Therefore, no
current can be maintained through the diode by hole flow.
,
i
1
To summarize
s
4
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It
can replace
The junction diode is used quite frequently in practice.
filament
requires
no
diode
This
vacuum tubes in a wide variety of circuits.
The
diodes.
vacuum
equivalent
than
is much smaller
sica1-1w ,
_1><> wer and Phy
it
desired; the
electrical characteristics of these diodes leaves little to be 0.5
to 1.0 volt
is
approximately
voltage drop across a typical junction diode
high
drop.across
200
volt
to
50
7at rated current. This is much less than the
This"means"that
diodes.
gas
vacuum rectifiers and the 5 to 5O_volt drop across
_
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Semiconductor diodes are made with a wide range of voltage and current
ratings. Diodes are available with current capacities ranging from 10 ma to
1500 amperes, and inverse voltage ratings of 10 to 1000 volts.
5
3
it
is
These diodes do have a small reverse current, but in mst circuits
silicon
current
low
for
microampere
of
a
a
fraction
magnitude;
negligible
diodes and a few milliamperes for high current germanium power rectifiers.
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When a forward bias is applied to the emitter junction, holes will flow
across the junction from the emitter to the base; and electrons will flow
from the base to emitter, as would be expected from the discussion of junction
diodes. Here the similarity to diodes ends. After the holes flow across the
yet been brought
emitter junction, there is a force acting on them that has
forth. This force is the mutual repulsion that the holes have for each other
because of their like charge.1 When the holes are spilled across the emitter
junction, they bunch up on the base side of the junction. Mutual repulsion
will cause these holes to diffuse into the base. Because of the extreme
thinness of the base, most of the holes will_diffuse to the collector'
junction before they can recombine with electrons in the base or reach the
base terminal. Once the holes reach the collector junction-they are swept
away into the collector by the negative collector voltage. fhen these
holes flow into the collector, they will flow through the collector to the
negative terminal. Thus, the forward bias on the emitter has resulted in
nt
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1
collector current.
It
to be shown that the base current will be very much less than,
____lllllllithe_collector current. Base current is caused by electrons flowing into the
base from the external circuit for any of the following three reasons:
remains
l.
To
2.
region.
3.
To
To
terminal.
This is where the ratio of conductivities between the emitter and base
will be remembered that there is-a far greater
regions becomes important.
number of holes available for conduction in the emitter than there is electrons
It
in
the*base:~Therefore;swhen~theemitterjunctionisserwardbiased,sa greater~~
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of holes will flow across this junction into the base than will
electrons into the emitter. Moreover, the holes in the base are not likely
to recombine with electrons in appreciable nbery both because o'the extreme
thinness of the base through which they must travel, and because of the small
nnber of free electron carriers in the base. Finally, the number of holes,
reaching the base and recombining with electrons, will be small because the
holes will diffuse the short distance to the collector juction before traveling
the comparatively long distance to the base contact.. In this manner, small
currents in the base can control large currents in the collector circuit.i The
ratio of the collector current to the emitter current is known as the beta (6)
current gain of the transistor.' In typical units it will range from 10 to 100.
number
The
will be
and
its
observd. In particular,
>
Figure 1.10
illustrates the
amplifier. While a
transistor elements
PNP
The
'
As
is
l.
Current gain
50.'
2. Voltage gain
75.
3.
Power
input --0.025
mw.
O
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Power
output
5.
Power
gain
6.
Maximum
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or
36 db.
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However, transistors do have many limitations that have not yet been
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