Machine Design

Machine Design II
Prof. K.Gopinath & Prof. M.M.Mayuram
FATIGUE CONSIDERATION IN DESIGN

OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE
In this module we will be discussing on design aspects related to
fatigue failure, an important mode of failure in engineering components. Fatigue
failure results mainly due to variable loading or more precisely due to cyclic
variations in the applied loading or induced stresses So starting from the basic
concepts of variable (non-static) loading, we will be discussing in detail how it
leads to fatigue failure in components, what factors influence them, how to
account them and finally how to design parts or components to resist failure by
fatigue
WHAT IS FATIGUE?
Fatigue is a phenomenon associated with variable loading or more
precisely to cyclic stressing or straining of a material. Just as we human beings
get fatigue when a specific task is repeatedly performed, in a similar manner
metallic components subjected to variable loading get fatigue, which leads to
their premature failure under specific conditions.
WHAT IS FATIGUE LOADING?

Fatigue loading is primarily the type of loading which causes cyclic variations in
the applied
stress or strain on a component. Thus any variable loading is
basically a fatigue loading.
Indian Institute of Technology Madras
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Variable Loading
Variable loading results when the applied load or the induced stress on a
component is not constant but changes with time i.e load or stress varies with
time in some pattern. Most mechanical systems and devices consists moving or
rotating components. When they are subjected to external loadings, the induced
stresses are not constant even if the magnitude of the applied load remains
invariant.
In reality most mechanical components experience variable loading due to
-Change in the magnitude of applied load Example: punching or shearing
operations-Change in direction of load application Example: a connecting rod
-Change in point of load application Example: a rotating shaft
There are different types of fatigue/variable loading. The worst case of fatigue
loading is the case known as fully-reversible load. One cycle of this type of
loading occurs when a tensile stress of some value is applied to an unloaded part
and then released, then a compressive stress of the same value is applied and
released.
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A rotating shaft with a bending load applied to it is a good example of fully

reversible load. In order to visualize the fully-reversing nature of the load, picture
the shaft in a fixed position (not rotating) but subjected to an applied bending
load (as shown here). The outermost fibers on the shaft surface lying on the
convex side of the deflection (upper surface in the picture) will be loaded in
tension (upper green arrows), and the fibers on the opposite side will be loaded
in compression (lower green arrows). Now, rotate the shaft 180 in its bearings,
with the loads remaining the same. The shaft stress level is the same, but now
the fibers which were loaded in compression before you rotated it are now loaded
in tension, and vice-versa. Thus if the shaft is rotated let us say at 900
revolutions per minute then the shaft is cyclically stressed 900 times a minute.
To illustrate how damaging such type load is, take a paper clip, bend it out
straight, then pick a spot in the middle, and bend the clip 90 back and forth at
that spot (from straight to "L" shaped and back). When you bend it the other way,
you reverse the stresses (fully reversing fatigue). You can notice that the clip will
break in a few to about a maximum of 10 cycles.
When you are bending it you are plastically-deforming the metal, you are, by
definition, exceeding its yield stress. When you bend it in one direction, you are
applying a high tensile stress to the fibers on one side of the OD, and a high
compressive stress on the fibers on the opposite side. In the next cycle the
phenomena is repeated, the tensile stress fibers are now compressed and vice
versa, thus the material is cyclically strained which ultimately results in their
premature failure.
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Fatigue Failure
Often machine members subjected to such repeated or cyclic stressing
are found to have failed even when the actual maximum stresses were below the
ultimate strength of the material, and quite frequently at stress values even below
the yield strength. The most distinguishing characteristics is that the failure had
occurred only after the stresses have been repeated a very large number of
times. Hence the failure is called fatigue failure.
ASTM Definition of fatigue
The process of progressive localized permanent structural changes

occurring in a material subjected to conditions that produce fluctuating
stresses at some point or points and that may culminate in cracks or
complete fracture after a sufficient number of fluctuations.
Let us first make an attempt to understand the basic mechanism of fatigue failure
Fatigue Failure- Mechanism

A fatigue failure begins with a small crack; the initial crack may be so
minute and can not be detected. The crack usually develops at a point of
localized stress concentration like discontinuity in the material, such as a change
in cross section, a keyway or a hole. Once a crack is initiated, the stress
concentration effect become greater and the crack propagates. Consequently the
stressed area decreases in size, the stress increase in magnitude and the crack
propagates more rapidly. Until finally, the remaining area is unable to sustain the
load and the component fails suddenly. Thus fatigue loading results in sudden,
unwarned failure.
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Fatigue Failure Stages

Thus three stages are involved in fatigue failure namely
-Crack initiation
-Crack propagation
-Fracture
The macro mechanism of fatigue failure is briefly presented now.
Crack initiation
Areas of localized stress concentrations such as fillets, notches, key ways,

bolt holes and even scratches or tool marks are potential zones for crack
initiation.
Crack also generally originate from a
geometrical discontinuity
or
metallurgical stress raiser like sites of inclusions
As a result of the local stress concentrations at these locations, the

induced stress goes above the yield strength (in normal ductile materials)
and cyclic plastic straining results due to cyclic variations in the stresses.
On a macro scale the average value of the induced stress might still be
below the yield strength of the material.
During plastic straining slip occurs and (dislocation movements) results in

gliding of planes one over the other. During the cyclic stressing, slip
saturation results which makes further plastic deformation difficult.
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As a consequence, intrusion and extrusion occurs creating a notch like

discontinuity in the material.
Crack propagation
This further increases the stress levels and the process continues,
propagating the cracks across the grains or along the grain boundaries,
slowly increasing the crack size.
As the size of the crack increases the cross sectional area resisting the
applied stress decreases and reaches a thresh hold level at which it is
insufficient to resist the applied stress.
Final fracture
As the area becomes too insufficient to resist the induced stresses any
further a sudden fracture results in the component.
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The micro mechanism of fatigue fracture
Cause
Material body
Effect
Atomic
Cyclic stress
Microscopic
Macroscopic
Crack propagation
1.Dislocation movements
1. Slip formation
1.Stable stages
2.Dislocation multiplication
2. Slip saturation
2.Unstable stages
3.Defect interaction
3. Structure deterioration
3.Critical length
4.Cross slip
4. Extrusion intrusion
4.Final fracture
5. Engergy changes
6. Crack nucleation and growth
Crystallographically
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Variable stress in shaft under rotation

Extrusion
Intrusion
Dislocation
Slip saturation
movement and slip
Structural
deterioration
Intrusion and
Extrusion
Crack Nucleation
Effect of cyclic stressing

Animate
Basic features of failure appearance
A fatigue failure, therefore, is characterized by two distinct regions. The

first of these is due to progressive development of the crack, while the
second is due to the sudden fracture. The zone of sudden fracture is very
similar in appearance to the fracture of a brittle material, such as cast iron,
that has failed in tension. The crack propagation zone could be
distinguished from a polished appearance. A careful examination (by an
experienced person) of the failed cross section could also reveal the site
of crack origin
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How to tackle fatigue failures

The number of cycles that a metal can endure before it breaks is a complex function of the
static and cyclic stress values, the alloy, heat-treatment and surface condition of the
material, the hardness profile of the material, impurities in the material, the type of load
applied, the operating temperature, and several other factors.
Stress Life Relations

To understand the phenomena of fatigue failure a systematic study has been
conducted by a German railway engineer A.Wohler by testing axles to failure in the
laboratory under fully reversed loading. His work lead to the existence of a relation between
applied stress and the number of cycles to failure. This relation or the S-N diagram became
the standard way to characterize the behavior of materials under cyclic stressing, and
evaluate the fatigue strength of materials.
How is the fatigue strength of a metal determined?

The fatigue behavior of a specific material, heat-treated to a specific strength level, is
determined by a series of laboratory tests on a large number of apparently identical
samples of that specific material.
This picture shows a laboratory fatigue
specimen. These laboratory samples
are optimized for fatigue life. These
laboratory
samples
standardized
in
are
geometry
now
and
configuration such that no extraneous

factors other than the applied stress
influence the fatigue life. They are
Figure 1.2
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machined with shape characteristics

which maximize the fatigue life of a
metal, and are highly polished to
provide
the
surface
characteristics
which enable the best fatigue life.

A single test consists of applying a known, constant bending stress to a round sample of
the material, and rotating the sample around the bending stress axis until it fails. As the
sample rotates, the stress applied to any fiber on the outside surface of the sample varies
from maximum-tensile to zero to maximum-compressive and back. The test mechanism
counts the number of rotations (cycles) until the specimen fails. A large number of tests is
run at each stress level of interest, and the results are statistically massaged to determine
the expected number of cycles to failure at that stress level.
The most widely used fatigue-testing device is the R.R Moore high-speed rotating beam
machine. This machine subjects the specimen to pure bending (no transverse shear).
Standard Testing
A rotating bending machine (RBM) is mostly suitable to test the fatigue properties
at zero mean stress. A schematic sketch of the test device is illustrated in the figure below.
A standard test specimen is clamped in bearings at the ends and loaded at two points as
shown. With this type of device the region of rotating beam between built-in ends is
subjected to pure bending with a constant bending moment all along its length. While under
the influence of this constant moment, the specimen is rotated by the drive spindles around
the longitudinal axis; any point on the specimen is thus subjected to completely reversed
stress pattern.
RBM-Fatigue Testing
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Flexible coupling
Main Bearing
Load Bearing
Main Bearing
Motor
Test piece
Loading on the Test Specimen

w/2
w/2
w/2
w/2
Bending Moment
The S-N Diagram

Tests on several specimens are conducted under identical conditions with varying levels of
stress amplitude. The cyclic stress level of the first set of tests is some large percentage of
the Ultimate Tensile Stress (UTS), which produces failure in a relatively small number of
cycles. Subsequent tests are run at lower cyclic stress values until a level is found at which
the samples will survive 10 million cycles without failure.
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The results are plotted as an S-N diagram (see the figure) usually on semi-log or on log-log
paper, depicting the life in number of cycles tested as a function of the stress amplitude. A
typical plot is shown in the figure below for two class of materials.
Low Cycle
High Cycle
Finite Life
Infinite Life
140 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Sut120 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -----------------------------------------------------------------------------MPa100 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 90

80 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 70 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 60 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 50 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 40 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 30
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
Number of stress cycle, N
Endurance or Fatigue Limit

In the case of the steels, a knee (flattening or saturation) occurs in the graph, and beyond
this knee failure will not occur, no matter how large the numbers of cycles are. The strength
(stress amplitude value) corresponding to the knee is called the endurance limit (Se) or the
fatigue limit. However the graph never does become horizontal for non-ferrous metals and
alloys, hence these materials do not have an endurance limit.
Endurance Limit
Endurance or Fatigue limit - definition

Endurance or fatigue limit can be defined as the magnitude of stress amplitude
value at or below which no fatigue failure will occur, no matter how large the number of
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stress reversals are, in other words leading to an infinite life to the component or part being
stressed. For most ferrous materials Endurance limit (Se) is set as the cyclic stress level
that the material can sustain for 10 million cycles.
In general, steel alloys which are subjected to a cyclic stress level below the EL (properly
adjusted for the specifics of the application) will not fail in fatigue. That property is
commonly known as "infinite life". Most steel alloys exhibit the infinite life property, but it is
interesting to note that most aluminum alloys as well as steels which have been casehardened by carburizing, do not exhibit an infinite-life cyclic stress level (Endurance Limit).
Endurance or Fatigue Strength

For such materials, which do not have an endurance limit, to use in design
applications it is customary to define a fatigue or endurance strength (SN) as the value of
the stress amplitude at a specified life (in terms of stress reversals) usually 5X106 or 107
cycles. The specification of fatigue strength without specifying the corresponding life is
meaningless. The specification of a fatigue limit always implies infinite life.
Failure Line for S f
Sut
Endurance limit s e' exists
for some meterials
Se'
SN
Other meteials show no

endurace limit
0
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Log number of cycles N
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S-N Diagram-Operational Regions and Design Concepts

Low Cycle Fatigue
The body of knowledge available on fatigue failure from N=1 to N=1000 cycles is generally
classified as low-cycle fatigue.
Low Cycle Fatigue
High Cycle Fatigue

High-cycle fatigue, then, is concerned with failure corresponding to stress cycles
greater than 103 cycles.(Note that a stress cycle (N=1) constitutes a single application and
removal of a load and then another application and removal of load in the opposite direction.
Thus N= means that the load is applied once and then removed, which is the case with
the simple tensile test.)
High Cycle Fatigue
Finite and Infinite Life

We also distinguish a finite-life and an infinite-life region. Finite life region covers
life in terms of number of stress reversals upto the knee point.(in case of steels) beyond
which is the infinite-life region. The boundary between these regions cannot be clearly
defined except for specific materials; but it lies somewhere between 106 and 107 cycles, for
materials exhibiting fatigue limit.
Finite Life
Infinite Life
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Factors Influencing Fatigue

i)
Loading
Nature and type of loading: -Axial tension, bending, torsion and combined loading-Mean
and Variable components in case of Repeated, Fluctuating and Alternating loading and
Frequency of loading and rest periods
ii)
Geometry
Size effects and stress concentration
iii)
Material
Composition, structure, directional properties and notch sensitivity
iv)
Manufacturing
Surface finish, heat treatment, residual stresses
V)
Environment
Corrosion, high temperature, radiation
Material
As noted earlier there are two class of materials as for as the fatigue behavior is concerned,
those material which exhibit well defined endurance limit and those without do not show
endurance limit. Most ferrous materials and basic steels fall under the first category and
some heat treated alloys of steel, aluminum etc. fall under the second category.
Composition and strength of the material are interrelated and detail discussion on
strength follows later. Strength is also related to micro structure and in this respect it is
interesting to note that soft structure like ferrite resist fatigue better than hard structure
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like cementite. However because of the higher strength that can be achieved from the
same material by altering the micro structure, such structures are preferred in spite of
their poor resistance
IS
THERE
ANY
RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN
UTS
AND
FATIGUE
STRENGTH?
The endurance limit of steel displays some interesting properties. These are shown, in a
general way,
Fatigue Behaviour in Steel
280 420
560
700
840
980 1120 1260 1400 1540 1680 1820 1960 2100
UTS MPa
50%
Polished
Notched
Corroded
in this graph, and briefly discussed below. It is a simplistic rule of thumb that, for steels
having a UTS less than 1400 MPa, the endurance limit for the material will be
approximately 45 to 50% of the UTS if the surface of the test specimen is smooth and
polished.
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That relationship is shown by the line titled "50%". A very small number of special case
materials can maintain that approximate 50% relationship above the 1400 MPa level.
However, the EL of most steels begins to fall away from the 50% line above a UTS of about
1400 MPa, as shown by the line titled "Polished".
For example, a specimen of SAE-4340 alloy steel, hardened to 32 Rockwell-C (HRc), will
exhibit a UTS around 1400 MPa and an EL of about 700 MPa, or 50% of the UTS. If you
change the heat treatment process to achieve a hardness of about 50 HRc, the UTS will be
about 1820 MPa, and the EL will be about 590 MPa, which is only about 32% of the UTS.
Several other alloys known as "ultra-high-strength steels" and some maraging steels have
been demonstrated to have an EL as high as 45% of UTS at strengths as high as 2100
MPa. Also note that these values are EL numbers for fully-reversing bending fatigue.
In above figure illustrated, the line titled "Notched" shows the dramatic reduction in fatigue
strength as a result of the concentration of stress which occurs at sudden changes in crosssectional area (sharp corners in grooves, fillets, etc.). The highest EL on that curve is about
25% of the UTS (at around 350 MPa).
The surface finish of a material has a dramatic effect on the fatigue life. That fact is clearly
illustrated by the curve titled "Corroded". It mirrors the shape of the "notched" curve, but is
much lower. That curve shows that, for a badly corroded surface (fretting, oxidation,
galvanic, etc.) the endurance limit of the material starts at around 140 MPa for materials of
280 MPa UTS (50%), increases to about 180 MPa for materials between 280 and 1400
MPa UTS, then decreases back toward 140 MPa as the material UTS increases above
1400 MPa.
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WHY IS THE SURFACE SO IMPORTANT?

Fatigue failures almost always begin at the surface of a material. The reasons are that (a)
the most highly-stresses fibers are located at the surface (bending fatigue) and (b) the
intergranular flaws which precipitate tension failure are more frequently found at the surface.
Suppose that a particular specimen is being fatigue tested (as described above). Now
suppose the fatigue test is halted after 20 to 25% of the expected life of the specimen and a
small thickness of material is machined off the outer surface of the specimen, and the
surface condition is restored to its original state. Now the fatigue test is resumed at the
same stress level as before. The life of the part will be considerably longer than expected. If
that process is repeated several times, the life of the part may be extended by several
hundred percent, limited only by the available cross section of the specimen. That proves
fatigue failures originate at the surface of a component.
Frequency: or f in units of Hz. For rotating machinery at 3000 rpm, f = 50 Hz. In

general only influences fatigue if there are environmental effects present, such as humidity
or elevated temperatures
Waveform: Is the stress history a shine wave, square wave, or some other wave form?
As with frequency, generally only influences fatigue if there are environmental effects.
Is the endurance limit an exact number?

It is important to remember that the Endurance Limit of a material is not an absolute nor
fully repeatable number. In fact, several apparently identical samples, cut from adjacent
sections in one bar of steel, will produce different EL values (as well as different UTS and
YS) when tested, as illustrated by the S-N diagram below. Each of those three properties
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(UTS, YS, EL) is determined statistically, calculated from the (varying) results of a large
number of apparently identical tests done on a population of apparently identical samples.
The plot below shows the results of a battery of fatigue tests on a specific material. The
tests at each stress level form statistical clusters, as shown. a curve is fitted through the
clusters of points, as shown below. The curve which is fitted through these clusters, known
as an "S-N Diagram" (Stress vs. Number), represents the statistical behavior of the fatigue
properties of that specific material at that specific strength level. The red points in the chart
represent the cyclic stress for each test and the number of cycles at which the specimen
broke. The blue points represent the stress levels and number of cycles applied to
specimens which did not fail. This diagram clearly demonstrates the statistical nature of
metal fatigue failure.
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
1*100
1*101
1*102
1*103
1*104
1*105
1*106
1*107
1*108
Cycles
DO REAL-WORLD COMPONENTS EXHIBIT THE "LABORATORY" EL?

Unfortunate experience has taught engineers that the value of the Endurance Limit found in
laboratory tests of polished, optimized samples does not really apply to real-world
components.
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Because the EL values are statistical in nature, and determined on optimized, laboratory
samples, good design practice requires that one tries to determine what the actual EL will
be for each specific application. This is a time consuming process and at preliminary design
levels may not be feasible or desirable. As more and more knowledge is gained on the
fatigue aspects, this is now over come by applying a number of correction or modification
factors as discussed in the next lesson.
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Our real concern is how to design a component so that failure by fatigue could be precluded.
We have noted earlier that
-Materials response to fatigue loading is characterized by its S-N behavior obtained through
a standard test
-The most important factors that affect the fatigue performance (strength) are also noted in
the previous lecture.
-Standard test conditions do not account for all these factors.
-Components in real use will be subjected to different or varied conditions.
In order to design for satisfactory fatigue life (prior to testing actual components), good
practice requires that the "laboratory" Endurance Limit value be reduced by several
adjustment factors. These reductions are necessary to account for:
(a) the differences between the application and the testing environments, and
(b) the known statistical variations of the material.
This procedure is to insure that both the known and the unpredictable factors in the
application (including surface condition, actual load, actual temperature, tolerances,
impurities, alloy variations, heat-treatment variations, stress concentrations, etc. etc. etc.)
will not reduce the life of a part below the required value. Please read that paragraph again,
and understand it well.
An accepted contemporary practice to estimate the maximum fatigue loading which a
specific design can survive is the Marin method, in which the laboratory test-determined EL
of the particular material (tested on optimized samples) is adjusted to estimate the
maximum cyclic stress a particular part can survive.
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This adjustment of the EL is the result of six fractional factors. Each of these six factors is
calculated from known data which describe the influence of a specific condition on fatigue
life.
Those factors are:
(a) Surface Condition (ka): such as: polished, ground, machined, as-forged, corroded, etc.
Surface is perhaps the most important influence on fatigue life;
(b) Size (kb): This factor accounts for changes which occur when the actual size of the part
or the cross-section differs from that of the test specimens;
(c) Load (Kc): This factor accounts for differences in loading (bending, axial, torsional)
between the actual part and the test specimens;
(d) Temperature (kd): This factor accounts for reductions in fatigue life which occur when
the operating temperature of the part differs from room temperature (the testing
temperature);
(e) Reliability (ke): This factor accounts for the scatter of test data. For example, an 8%
standard deviation in the test data requires a ke value of 0.868 for 95% reliability, and 0.753
for 99.9% reliability.
(f) Miscellaneous (Kf): This factor accounts for reductions from all other effects, including
residual stresses, corrosion, plating, metal spraying, fretting, and others.
These six fractional factors are applied to the laboratory value of the material endurance
limit to determine the allowable cyclic stress for an actual part:
Real-World Allowable
Cyclic Stress = ka * kb * Kc * kd * ke * kf * EL
Thus designers are now able to tackle this situation by applying as many modification
factors as possible so that most important deviations of the real design condition from the
standard test conditions are accounted. So the next part of the discussion will deal with the
endurance strength modification factors.
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Endurance Strength Modification Factors

The most important deviations that occur in design situation compared to standard test
conditions are
Size variations
Surface finish differences
load variations
temperature differences
Other miscellaneous-effects
Differences-load variations-temperature differences-other miscellaneous-effects To account

for these conditions a variety of modifying factors, each of which is intended to account for
a single effect, is applied to the endurance limit value of test specimen obtained under
laboratory conditions. Consequently we may write
Se = Se* ka kb kc kd keS = endurance limit of mechanical element (to be designed) Se* =
endurance limit of test specimen. ka = surface factor kb = size factor kc = load factor kd =
temperature factor ke = miscellaneous-effects factor
Modification Factors
Surface Factor ka
the surface of the rotating-beam specimen is highly polished, with final polishing in the axial
direction to smooth out any circumferential scratches. For other conditions the modification
factor depends upon the quality of the finish and upon the tensile strength. Sufficient data
is available in the literature relating the basic strength of the material and its surface finish
or surface condition to the modification factor which is nothing but the percentage of
standard endurance that could be realized under this condition. Typical charts are given
below. A more practical approach can be to use an empirical relation of the type ka = aSbut
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is available in literature to account for the various surface condition values of constant a
and b are shown in the table below.
FACTOR a
SURFACE FINISH
EXPONENT b
Kpsi
MPa
Ground
1.34
1.58
-0.085
Meachined or cold rolled
2.70
4.51
-0.265
Hot Rolled
14.4
57.7
-0.718
As- forged
39.9
272
-0.995
100
Polished
90
Ground
80
Machined
70
60
50
Hot rolled
40
As Forge
30
corroded in
tap water
20
corroded in salt water
10
0
300
600
800
1000
1200
Tensile Strength (MPa)
1400
1600
1800
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1.1
1.6
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
25.0
6.3 3.125
12.5
0.4
1.6 0.8
0.025
0.05
0.1
0.2
50.0
0.6
0.5
0.4
280
560
840
1120
1400
1680
Failute Strength Sut (MPa)
Size Factor Kb
The size factor accounts for the variations in the size of the component when
compared to the test specimen. The size factor has been evaluated using sets of data
points, from available literature. The larger the size higher the probability of internal defects,
hence lower the fatigue strength. An empirical relation for the case of bending and torsion
can be expressed as given below
d / 7.62 )0.107 = 1.24d 0.107 2.79 d 51mm

k b = (
51 d 254mm
0.859 0.000837d
Size Factor
For large sizes, kb further reduces to 0.60 and lower Note that for axial loading there is
no size effect, therefore use kb = +1.0 in this case
Load Factor-Axial Loading

Though there is no apparent size effect for specimens tested in axial or pushpull
fatigue, there is definite difference between the axial fatigue limit and that in reserved
bending. A very extensive collection of data has been made by R.W.Landgraf (Ford motor
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company), on axial fatigue. These results were analyzed, resulting in the modification
values for axial loading as shown in the table.
Load Factor-Torsional Loading

A collection of 52 data points comparing the torsional endurance limit with the bending
endurance limit yielded a load factor for torsion of 0.565. Using a different set of data points,
Mischke obtained the result kc =0.585. Both of these are very close to the value of 0.577
shown in the table. Note that this value incidentally happen to be the relation between
torsional and tensile yield strengths according to the distortion energy theory.
Load Factor
Hence for the three basic types of loading normally encountered in most practical
applications, namely axial, bending and torsional stressing the effect could be accounted by
the load factor as shown in the table
0.923
1
kc =
1
0.577
Axial Loading
S<1520MPa(220Kpsi)
Axial Loading
S<1520MPa(220Kpsi)
Bending
Torsion and shear
Temperature factor
The limited amount of data available show that the endurance limit for steels in creases
slightly as the temperature rises and then begins to fall off in the 400 to 700 F range, not
unlike the behaviour of the tensile strength shown figure below
Machine Design II
1.0
Sut
0.9
Sy
0.8
ST/SRT
0.7
0.6
0.5
RT
200
400
600
Temperature, oC
For this reason it is probably true that the endurance limit is related to tensile strength at
clevated temperatures in the same manner as at room temperature. It seems quite logical,
therefore, to employ the same relations to predict endurance limit at elevated temperatures
as are used at room temperature, at least, this practice will provide a useful standard
against which the performance of various materials can be compared.
Two types of problems arise when temperature is a consideration. If the rotating- beam
endurance limit is known at room temperature, then use
kd =
ST
SRT
Miscellaneous Effects Factor Ke

Similarly the other factors take into account the deviations of actual condition of use
from the standard testing. Though the factor ke is intended to account for the reduction in
Machine Design II
endurance limit due to all other effects, it is really intended as a reminder that these must
be accounted for, because actual conditions of use vary from standard test condition;
values of ke are not always available.
Endurance - Limit - Preliminary Observations

The determination of endurance limit by fatigue testing is now a routine, though a
lengthy procedure. Generally stress testing is preferred to strain testing for endurance limits.
For preliminary and prototype design and for some failure analysis as well, a quick method
of estimating endurance limit is needed. There are great quantities of data in the literature
on the results of rotating-beam tests and simple (static) tension tests of specimen taken
from the same bar or in got. By plotting the resulting tensile and endurance strength values
as in shown in Figure, it is possible to see whether there is any correlation between the sets
of results. The graph appears to suggest that the endurance limit ranges from about 40 to
60 percent of the tensile strength for steels up to about 1400 MPa (200 kpsi). Beginning at
about Sut = 1400 MPa (200 kpsi), the scatter appears to increase, but the trend seems to
level off, as suggested by the dashed horizontal line at Se=700MPa (100 kpsi).
Hence for preliminary design purposes the standard laboratory endurance strength of can
be derived from its ultimate tensile strength values using the following relations
Machine Design II
Stress Concentration Effect

Fatigue Stress Concentration
The existence of irregularities or discontinuities, such as holes, grooves, or
notches, in a part increase the magnitude of stresses significantly in the immediate vicinity
of the discontinuity. Fatigue failure mostly originates from such places. Hence its effect
must be accounted and normally a fatigue stress-concentration factor Kf is applied when
designing against fatigue, even if the materials behavior is ductile.
Fatigue Stress Concentration Factor

Recall that a stress concentration factor need not be used with ductile materials
when they are subjected to only static loads, because (local) yielding will relieve the stress
concentration. However under fatigue loading, the response of material may not be
adequate to nullify the effect and hence has to be accounted. The factor Kf commonly
called a fatigue stress concentration factor is used for this. Normally, this factor is used to
indicate the increase in the stress; hence this factor is defined in the following manner.
Fatigue stress concentration factor can be defined as
k =
f
Fatigue strength (limit) of unnotched specimen

Fatigue strength (limit) of notched free specimen
The other form of use, where necessary is the miscellaneous-effects factor ke applied as a
strength reduction factor on the fatigue limit value. With this approach we define
ke =
1
Kf
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980
Carbon Steel
840
Alloy Steel
700
140
120
Wrought irons
100 Kpsi
560
80
420
60
280
140
40
+ +++
+++
20
0
0 140 280 420 560 700 840 980 1120 1260 1400 1540 1680 1820 1960 2100
Tensile Strength Sut ,MPa
Machine Design II
Stress Concentration Effect

Fatigue Stress Concentration
The existence of irregularities or discontinuities, such as holes, grooves, or
notches, in a part increase the magnitude of stresses significantly in the immediate vicinity
of the discontinuity. Fatigue failure mostly originates from such places. Hence its effect
must be accounted and normally a fatigue stress-concentration factor Kf is applied when
designing against fatigue, even if the materials behavior is ductile.
Fatigue Stress Concentration Factor

Recall that a stress concentration factor need not be used with ductile materials
when they are subjected to only static loads, because (local) yielding will relieve the stress
concentration. However under fatigue loading, the response of material may not be
adequate to nullify the effect and hence has to be accounted. The factor Kf commonly
called a fatigue stress concentration factor is used for this. Normally, this factor is used to
indicate the increase in the stress; hence this factor is defined in the following manner.
Fatigue stress concentration factor can be defined as
k =
f
Fatigue strength (limit) of unnotched specimen

Fatigue strength (limit) of notched free specimen
The other form of use, where necessary is the miscellaneous-effects factor ke applied as a
strength reduction factor on the fatigue limit value. With this approach we define
ke =
1
Kf
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Geometric stress concentration factor Kt and Fatigue Stress

Concentration factor Kf
This form of definition needs that the fatigue stress concentration factor or the
endurance strength values for different notch geometries on each of the material to be used
should be evaluated. However once sufficient data was available a simple approach, useful
at preliminary design stages was evolved to determine the fatigue stress concentration
factor value from the geometrical (theoretical) stress concentration values, data charts for
which is readily available, using a notch sensitivity relation.
Notch Sensitivity
Notch sensitivity q is defined by the equation
q=
Kf 1
Kt 1
Actual intensification of stresses over nominal stress

Theoretical intensifcation of stress over nominal stresses
The values of q are between zero and unity. It is evident that if q=0, then Kf =1, and the
material has no sensitivity to notches at all. On the other hand if q=1, then Kf = Kt, and the
material has full notch sensitivity. In analysis or design work, find Kt first, from geometry of
the part. Then select or specify the material, find q, and solve for Kf from the equation
K f = 1 + q(K t 1)
Machine Design II
Notch sensitivity curves

use these values with bending and axial load
use these values with torsion
Steel
Su ksi
and Bhn
as marked
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
q 0.6
Aluminium alloy (based on 2024- T6 data)
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
0
0.02
0.04
0.5
1.0
0.08
0.10
0.06
Notch radius r (in.)
1.5
2.0
2.5
Notch radius r (mm)
0.12
0.14
0.16
3.0
3.5
4.0
Machine Design II
Stressing other than fully reversed loadings.

Quite frequently it is necessary to determine the strength of parts corresponding to
stress situations other than complete reversals. Many times in design the stresses fluctuate
without passing through zero. Some of the stress time relationships and the components of
stresses involved with such situations and the relations among them will be discussed now.
One type is zero-to-max-to zero, where a part which is carrying no load is then subjected to
a load, and later, the load is removed, so the part goes back to the no-load condition. An
example of this type of loading is a chain used to haul logs behind a tractor.
Another type of fatigue loading is a varying load superimposed on a constant load. The
suspension wires in a railroad bridge are an example of this type. The wires have a
constant static tensile load from the weight of the bridge, and an additional tensile load
when a train is on the bridge. For such type of stressing how to proceed will be looked now.
Cyclic Stressing
As the name implies, the induced stresses vary in some pattern with time. This
can be due to variation in the applied load itself or because of the conditions of use as seen
earlier. Let us assume that the pattern of such a variation is sinusoidal. Then the following
are the basic terminology associated with variable stresses. The definitions included here
are elementary. They are introduced for clarity and convenience.
Maximum stress: max

The largest or highest algebraic value of a stress in a stress cycle. Positive for
tension
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1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
C
-1.2-1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Compression Sm /S uc
Tension S m / S ut
Ration of the mean

Minimum stress: max
The smallest or lowest algebraic value of a stress in a stress cycle. Positive for
tension.
Nominal stress: nom

As obtained or calculated from simple theory in tension, bending and torsion neglecting
geometric discontinuities
nom = F/A or M/Z or T.r/J
Hence max = Fmax/ A or Mmax/Z or Tmax.r/Jp
min = Fmin/ A etc
Machine Design II
Mean stress (Mid range stress) : m The algebraic mean or average of the
maximum and minimum stress in one cycle.
+ min
m = max
2
Stress range: r The algebraic difference between the maximum and minimum stress in
one cycle.
r = max min
Stress Amplitude: a Half the value of the algebraic difference between the maximum
and minimum stress in one cycle or half the value of the stress range.
a =
max min r
=
2
2
Types of Variations
(a) (Completely)Reversible stressing:
Stress variation is such that the mean stress is zero; Same magnitude of
maximum and minimum stress, one in tension and the other in compression .Now for
Completely reversible loading m = max= min; R = - 1 and A = 0
Machine Design II
Stress
+
max
0
_
m=0
min
(a) Fully reversed
(b) Repeated stressing:

Stress variation is such that the minimum stress is zero. Mean and amplitude
stress have the same value for repeated loading
min = 0
= a = max / 2
R = 0 and A = 1
Stress
max
a
------------------------------------------------------
t=0
0
min
_
(b) Repeated
(c) Fluctuating stressing:

Both minimum and maximum stresses are positive and mean stress also being positive
(tensile)
Machine Design II
Stress
+
max
a
------------------------------------------------------
t
min
m
_
(b) Flutuating
(d) Alternating stressing:

Positive maximum stress and negative minimum stress; mean stress is generally positive
but can also be negative.
Stress
+
max
------------------------------------------------------
a
r
t=0
------------------------------------------------------
min
General Cyclic Loading Influencing Parameters

What are the important parameters to characterize a given cyclic loading
history such as the typical ones highlighted above?
Note that the following parameters are common to all such types of variations
Stress Range:
= max min
Machine Design II
Stress amplitude: a =
1
( max min )
2
m =
1
( max + min )
2
Mean stress:
Stress ratio:
R=
min
max
Recall the following relations from the earlier discussions

max + min
min
m = max
2
2
a
min
R=
A=
max
m
m =
What is the effect of such variations on the Fatigue Strength?

Some typical types of variation in the cyclic stressing of materials have been highlighted
All such and several other types of variations can be bounded by two main parameters the
variable component of the stress or the stress amplitude and the mean component of stress
or the mean stress. The effect of stress amplitude is already noted in the S-N diagram.
Now let us note the effect of the mean stress.
By varying both the mean stress and the stress amplitude, or the alternating
component, we can learn some thing about the fatigue resistance of parts when subjected
to such situations. Three methods of plotting the results of such tests are in general use
and are shown in figures below
Machine Design II
Su
Sy
max
Se
min
0
45
Se
Sy
Mean Stress
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
C
-1.2-1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2
Compression Sm /S uc
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Tension S m / S ut
Ration of the mean
Machine Design II
4.0
2.33
1.5
A=1
0.67
0.43
0.25
0.11
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
R=0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
S ut
A=
R=-1.0
840
700
560
420
280
140
-840 -700 -560 -420 -280 -140
140 280
Minimum stress
420 560 700 840 980 1120 1260
min
,MPa
It is evident from the above figures that the presence of mean stress reduces the magnitude
of variable component or the stress amplitude that can be sustained before failure. The
higher the magnitude of mean stress the lower is the magnitude of amplitude stress that
can be sustained. However note that if the nature of mean stress is compressive, then it
has no effect on the magnitude of the variable component or the stress amplitude value.
Failure Criteria
Yield line
Gerber line
Se
Goodman line
Sa
Soderberg line
0
Sm
Alternating stress
S yt
S ut
Machine Design II
Four criteria of failure are diagrammed in figure, the Soderberg's, the modified
Goodman, the Gerber, and yielding. It is evident that only the Soderbergs criterion guards
against yielding. The linear theories of Figure can be placed in equation form: The equation
for the Soderbergs criteria (line) is
Sa Sm
+
=1
Se Syt
Machine Design II
DESIGN APPROACH FOR FATIGUE LOADINGS

Design for Infinite Life
It has been noted that if a plot is made of the applied stress amplitude verses the number
of reversals to failure to (S-N curve) the following behaviour is typically observed.
e
103
104
106
105
Cycle of failure, Nf
107
Completely Reversible Loading

If the stress is below the (the endurance limit or fatigue limit), the component
has effectively infinite life. e 0.35TS 0.50TS for the most steel and copper alloys. If
the material does not have a well defined e , often e , is arbitrarily defined as Stress that
gives N f = 107 For a known load (Moment ) the section area/(modulus) will be designed
such that the resulting amplitude stress will be well below the endurance limit.
Design approach can be better learnt by solving a problem.
Determine a suitable diameter for the axle of a rail carriage of tentative dimensions and
loading shown in the reference to figure below for fatigue endurance.
Machine Design II
This design criterion in the case is that to induced stress should be less than the endurance
limit of the material used for the axle. So the giving equation is
se
1 2
200
F
100
1500
2200

w/2
w/2
w/2
w/2
Bending Moment
Machine Design II
A suitable material suggested for the application can be medium carbon material like 45 C8,
If is evident that the shaft is subject to binding bonds. By drawing to bending moment
diagram the maximum bending moment can be determined. In this case
M max = F.l
= 82*103 * 200
= 16.4*106 Nmm
The induced stress
=
For circular cross section
M
Z
32M
d3
0.16705*106
d3
MPa
The number of stressing is going to be fully reversed because of rotating shaft with constant
load application point. Now we have to estimate the endurance limit for the material of the
shaft. The ultimate strength of this steel =670 Mpa.
Based on the relation between the EL
and UTS the basic endurance limit is =0.5Sut = 335 Ma. The design endurance limit Se is
to be estimated now as noted earlier
Se = Se * k a k b k c
Ka Surface factor. Assuming shaft surface is machined in nature
k a = aSbut = 4.45(670)0.265
= 0.793
ks - size factor . The diameter is unknown. Instead of taking this factor to be one, assuming
the diameter can be in the range 60-140 mm, for an average value of 100mm the factor is
going to be
Machine Design II
ks = 0.859 0.0008378 *100

= 0.775
Kc load factor
This being a fully reversible bending
Kc=1.0 as the diameter is uniform stress concentration effect is neglected.
Hence the actual endurance strength is likely to be Se = 0.5Sut * k a k b k c
.
= 0.5*670*0.793*0.775
Now the final design equation is

1
32.M 3
32.M
= 206 MPa or d =
3
d
e
Assuming a factor safety (N) of 1.5 the design Endurance strength is going to be 137.31
Substituting the values
1
3.2 *16.4 *106 3
d=
*137.31
106.75 mm
This values can be rounded off to the nearest Preferred size of = 110mm. In the next step,
let us perform a critical analysis of the problem. Because of the step in diameter between
the bearing and wheel region (1-2) stress Concentration is going to be there and this
section may be critical where failure can Occur. Accounting for the stress concentration
effect we can write
Machine Design II
= Kf
32M
d3
K f = 1 + (k t 1)q
For
D
r
5
= 1.22 and =
= 0.05k t = 1.96
d
d 90
For 45 C4 steel with Sut =670 and notch radius r= 5 q= 0.9
K f = 1 + (1.9 1)0.9 = 1.81

Now that the surface condition is not the same and correction factor for size is to be
modified. The surface factor for ground finish condition is
k a = aSbut = 1.58(670) 0.086
= 0.903
The size Correlation factor is going to be ks= 0.703

Hence the actual endurance strength now is
0.5*670*0.903*0.783*1.0 = 231.86
1.81* 32 *82 *103 *100

=
= 207.379
.903
The corresponding factor of safety now is
S
231.86
N= e =
= 1.11
207.379
The factor of safety may not be adequate and the diameter can be modified accordingly.
Machine Design II
Design approach for other type of cyclic loadings

The proceeding approaches to design the component assumes fully reversed
fatigue load, so that the mean stress m is zero. How do you handle the case where
m 0?
m1
m1 > m2 > m2 > m2

1
m2
m
Gerber line
m3
m3
Goodman line
Sa
Soderberg line
0
log N1
TS
Alternating stress m
The four different failure criterion and their mathematical equations have been note earlier
for such cyclic loadings having a definite mean stress
For design applications the induced stresses a and m can replace Sa and Sm in the
above equations and each strength is divided by a factor of safety N. The resulting equation
is
Soderberg's criteria (line) is
Kf
1
+ m =
Se Sut N
Goodman relation or criteria is
Kf
1
+ m =
Se Sut N
Machine Design II
Gerber parabolic relation:

N
m
Kf
+
S
Se
ut
N a
=1
(Note Se is corrected endurance limit values and Kf factor accounts for stress concentration
effects.) The meaning of these equations is illustrated in Figure, using the modified
Goodman theory as an example.
From the above approach we can evolve basic design equations involving the three main
type of loadings axial tension or compression, bending and torsion.
Machine Design II
Combination of Loading Modes

Two simple approaches can be presented for this, based on the
assumption that all stress components are always in time phase with each other.
The procedure is illustrated in the example. The resulting mathematical relations
are summarized for convenience.
Method I
'a
Se
'a = K fb xa
Where
'm
Sut
1
N
1
22
+ K fs a
1
2
2
'm = xm + m 2
( )
Method II
)
eq = m + K fs a ( sSut / sSe )
eq = m + K fb a Sut / Se
and
2 + 2 = Sut
eq
eq
N
Torsional fatigue strength under pulsating stresses

Extensive tests by Smith provide some very interesting results on
the pulsating torsional fatigue. Smiths first results based on 72 tests, shows that
Machine Design II
the existence of a torsional mean stress not more than the torsional yield
strength has no effect on the torsional endurance limit, provided the material is
ductile, polished, notch free, and cylindrical. However he finds that for materials
with stress concentration, notches, or surface imperfections, the torsional fatigue
limit decreases steadily with torsional mean stress. Hence modified Goodmans
relation is recommended for pulsating torsion also, since great majority of parts
will have surface imperfections. Thus the theory could be directly applied with the
load factor kc = 0.577 for torsion.
The above approach is illustrated by solving a problem.
Recall that in the last lesson we have designed an axle taking into account the
bending load alone.
In previous solutions torque on the axle is neglected. If the torque is also
accounted the problem is going to be of combined loading involving bending
torsion.
We need to know the torque on the axle.
The torque on the axle is going to be coefficient of friction times the normal bond.
According to T= 2XfXN
Where f is the co-efficient of friction between the wheel and the rail and
N is the normal reaction at each of the wheel
i.e
T = 0.25 * 82*103*2= 164 N. m
Machine Design II
Adopting approach I
1
2
2
m ' = bm + 3cm 2
bm = 0 Fully reversible bending and hence zero mean stress

'm = 0 + 3.
3*
167
d 3
16 *164 *103
d 3
1.447 *106
d3
m '.[(K fs .ba ) 2 + 3(k fs a ) 2 ]
Neglecting the stress concentration effect and assuming the torque is going to be
constant
Kfs=0
As constant torque is assumed a = 0
32M 32 *12 *103 * 200
2
a ' = ba =
=
d3
d3
167.04 *106
=
d3
Substituting in the main equation
Machine Design II
' 1
+ a .
s ut
se N
1.447 *106 167.04 *106
1
+
=
1.5
d3 .670
d3 .206
1.447 *106 167.04 *106
+
or d3 = 1.5
3
d3 .670
d .206
1.214 *106
m '
d = 106mm
Finite Life Design

As noted earlier the finite life region covers a life ranging from 10 3 to 10
stress
reversals. Design or analysis in this range can be accomplished either by using

a stress life and fatigue strength based approaches, or through the strain life
relations based. At very low and moderate cycles the plastic strain induced has
a greater effect on the fatigue life rather than the stress magnitude.
Fatigue Strength Based Finite Life Design

The finite life fatigue domain extends from 103 cycles, for steels, to the
endurance-limit life se, which is about 106 cycles or only slightly more. The
purpose of this section is to develop methods of approximating the S-N diagram
to define the fatigue strength Sf corresponding to any life N between 103 and 106
cycles. An analytical approach is to approximate the S-N diagram with a line on
Machine Design II
the log S-log N chart joining 0.9Sut at 103 cycles and Se at 106 cycles. Let the
equation of the S-N line be Sf = a Nb Then log Sf = log a + b log N. This line is to
intersect 106 cycles at Se and 103 cycles at 0.9 Sut
Substituting these values into the equation and solving for a and b we have,
( 0.9Sut )
a=
Se
0.9Sut
1
b = log
Se
3
Suppose a completely reversed stress a is given, the number of cycles of life

corresponding to this stress can now be found by substituting a for Sf, the result
is
1
b
N= a
a
If a component is to be designed for any finite life N ( 103< N<106) then value of
SN determined for this known life could be substituted in place of Se values in
Soderberg or Goodmans equation presented above.
Stress Life Approach

If a plot is prepared of log(a ) Verses log(2N f ) (where 2Nf represents the
number of reversals to failure, one cycle is equal to two reversals) a linear
relationship is commonly observed. The following relationship between stress
amplitude and life time (Basquine, 1910) has been proposed.
Machine Design II
= a = 'f 2Nf
2
The plot of this expression is depicted below:
f
c
p/2
p /2
p /2
2Nf
Reversal of failure 2Nf(log scale)
Stress Life Approach
The stress-life approach just described is applicable for the
situation involving the primary elastic deformation. Under these conditions the
component expected to have a long life time.
Strain-Life Approach
For situation involving high stresses, high temperatures, or high stress
concentration such as notches, where significant plasticity can be involved, the
stress life approach is not appropriate. How do we handle these situations?
Machine Design II
Rather than the stress amplitude a, the loading is characterized by the plastic
strain amplitude
p
2
Under these conditions if the plot is made of log(2N f ) verses
p
2
the following
linear behavior is generally observed
101
103
101
102
Reversal to failure, 2Nf
(log scale)
To represent this behaviour, the following relationship between the plastic strain
amplitude
p
2
and life in terms of stress reversals 2Nf has been proposed.
(Coffin Manson, ca.1955)
Machine Design II
p
2
= 'f ( 2N f
)c
Where f , is the fatigue ductility coefficient (for the most metals it is equal to
the true strain at fracture) and c is the fatigue ductility exponent (-0.5 to -0.7 for
many metals).
To represent this behaviour, the following relationship (Coffin Manson,).
p
2
1955) has been proposed. Where
= 'f ( 2N f
p
2
)c
is the plastic strain amplitude, 'f is the
fatigue ductility coefficient (for most metals
f is the true fracture ductility) and
c is the fatigue ductility exponent (-0.5 to -0.7 for many metals)

The above approach is more useful for analysis rather than for design.
Different amplitudes
How do we handle the situations where we have varying amplitude
loads, as depicted below?
Machine Design II
case 1
n1 cycles
case 2
n2 cycles
n2 cycles
a1
a2
n1 cycles
t
a
a2
a1
t
a1
a2
Nf2
Nf1
cycles to failure Nf
Is Fatigue Loading Cumulative?
It is important to realize that fatigue cycles are accumulative. Suppose a part
which has been in service is removed and tested for cracks by a certified aircraft
inspection station (where it is more likely that the subtleties of Magnaflux
inspection are known). Suppose the part passes the inspection, (i.e., no cracks
are found) and the owner of the shaft puts it on the "good used parts" shelf.
Later, someone comes along looking for a bargain on such a part, and purchases
this "inspected" part. The fact that the part has passed the inspection only proves
that there are no detectable cracks RIGHT NOW. It gives no indication at all as to
how many cycles remain until a crack forms. A part which has just passed a
Machine Design II
Magnaflux inspection could crack in the next 100 cycles of operation and fail in
the next 10000 cycles (which at 2000 RPM, isn't very long!).
CUMULATIVE FATIGUE DAMAGE

Instead of a single reversed stress for n cycles, suppose a part is
subjected to 1 for n1 cycles 1 for n2 cycles. etc. Under these conditions our
problem is to estimate the fatigue life of a part subjected to these reverse
stresses, or to estimate the factor of safety if the part has an infinite life. A search
of the literature reveals that this problem has not been solved completely.
Different Amplitudes
A very common approach is the Palmgren-Miner damage summation
rule. If we defines 2Nfi as the number of reversals to failures at ai then the
partial damage for d for each different loading applied for known number of
cycles ni is ai
d=
2n i
2Nfi
Reversal at ai
Reversal to failure at ai
The component is assumed to fail when the total damage becomes equal to 1, or
n
i =1
i Nfi
Machine Design II
It is assumed that the sequence in which the loads are applied has no influence
on the lifetime of the component. In fact the sequence of load can have a larger
influence on the lifetime of the component.
Consider the sequence of the two cyclic loads a1 and a2 .
Let a1 > a2
Case1: Apply then
n
In this case i can be less than 1. During the first loading ( a1 ) numerous
i Nfi
microcracks can be initiated, which can be further propagated by second loading
n
( a2 ) Case2: Apply a2 then a1 . In this case i can be greater than 1. The
i Nfi
first loading ( a2 ) is not high enough to cause any microcracks, but it is high
enough to strain harden the material. Then in the second loading ( a1 ), since the
material has been hardened it is more difficult to initiate any damage in the
material.
Cumulative Fatigue Damage

Thus the theory which is in greatest use at the present time to explain
cumulative fatigue damage, i.e the Palmgren-Minor cycle-ratio summation theory
also known as Minors rule can mathematically, stated as
n1 n 2
n
+
+ ..... + i = C
N1 N 2
Ni
Where n is the number of cycles of stress applied to the specimen and N is the
fatigue life corresponding to . The constant C is determined by experiment and
Machine Design II
is usually found in the range 0.7 C 2.2. Many authorities recommend C = 1

and the short form of the theory can state as:
n
=1
N
Problem Solutions (Lec 6)

Determine a suitable diameter for the axle of a rail (reference to figure)
for fatigue endurance. This design criteria in the case is that to induced stress
should be less than the endurance limit of the material used for the axle. So the
giving equation is
se
1 2
200
F
100
1500
2200
Machine Design II

w/2
w/2
w/2
w/2
Bending Moment
A suitable material suggested for the application can be medium carbon material
like 45 C8, If is evident that the shaft is subject to binding bonds. By drawing to
bending moment diagram the maximum bending moment can be determined. In
this case
M max = F.l
= 82*103 * 200
= 16.4*106 Nmm
The induced stress
=
=
M
Z
32M
d3
0.16705*106
d3
MPa
The number of stressing is going to be fully reversed because of rotating shaft

with constant load application point. Now we have to estimate the endurance limit
for the material of the shaft. The ultimate strength of this steel =670 Mpa.
Machine Design II
Based on the relation between the EL and UTS the basic endurance limit is
=0.5Sut = 335 Ma. The design endurance limit Se is to be estimated now as
noted earlier
Se = Se * k a k b k c
ka Surface factor. Assuming shaft surface is machined in nature
k a = aSbut = 4.45(670)0.265
= 0.793
ks - size factor . The diameter is unknown. Instead of taking this factors to be
one, assuming the diameter can be in the range 60-140 mm, for an average
value of 100mm the factor is going to be
ks = 0.859 0.0008378 *100

= 0.775
kc load factor K c loading
This being a fully reversible bending
kc=1.0 as the diameter is uniform stress concentration effect is neglected.
Hence the actual endurance strength is likely to be Se = 0.5Sut * k a k b k c
.
= 0.5*670*0.793*0.775
Machine Design II
Now the final design equation is

1
32.m
32.m 3
= 206 Mpa or d =
s
d3
e
Assuming a factor safety (N) of 1.5 the design Endurance strength is going to be
137.31
Substituting the values
1
3.2 *16.4 *106 3
d=
*137.31
106.75 mm
This values can be rounded off to the nearest Preferred size of = 110mm. In the
next step, let us perform a critical analysis of the problem. Because of the step in
diameter between the bearing and wheel region (1-2) stress Concentration is
going to be there and this section may be critical where failure can Occur.
Accounting for the stress concentration effect we can write
= Kf
32M
d3
K f = 1 + (k t 1)q
For
D
r
5
= 1.22 and =
= 0.05k t = 1.96
d
d 90
For 45 C4 steel with Sut =670 and notch radius r= 5 q= 0.9
Machine Design II
K f = 1 + (1.9 1)0.9 = 1.81

Now that the surface condition is not the same and correction factor for size is to
be modified. The surface factor for ground finish condition is
k a = aSbut = 1.58(670) 0.086
= 0.903
The size Correlation factor is going to be ks= 0.703

Hence the actual endurance strength now is
0.5*670*0.903*0.783*1.0 = 231.86
1.81* 32 *82 *103 *100

= 207.379
3
.90
The corresponding factor of safety now is

S
231.86
N= e =
= 1.11
207.379
The factor of safety may not be adequate and the diameter can be modified
accordingly.
In previous solutions torque on the axle is neglected. If the torque is also
accumulated the problem is going to be of combined binding involving bonding
torsion. The torque on the axle is going to be coefficient of friction lesser than the
normal bond. According to T= Friction factor* 2(for the?) = 0.25 * 82*103*2= 164
N. m
Machine Design II
Adopting approach I
1
2
2
m ' = bm + 3cm 2
bm = 0 Fully reversible binding with zero mean

'm = 0 + 3.
3*
167
d 3
16 *164 *103
d 3
1.447 *106
d3
m '.[(K fs .ba )2 + 3(k fs a )2 ]
For the center radius

Kfs=0
As constant torque is assumed a = 0
3
2 = 32M = 32 *12 *10 * 200
a ' = ba
d3
d3
167.04 *106
=
d3
Machine Design II
Substituting in the four main equation

' 1
+ a .
s ut
se N
1.447 *106 167.04 *106
1
+
=
1.5
d3 .670
d3 .206
1.447 *106 167.04 *106
3
or d = 1.5
+
3
d3 .670
d .206
1.214 *106
m '
d = 106mm
Machine Design II
Module 2 - GEARS
Lecture 1 - INTRODUCTION
Contents
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
History of gears
Definition of gears
Types of gears and their applications.
Spur Gear
Helical Gear
Double helical or Herringbone Gear
Internal Gear
Rack and pinion
Bevel Gear
(a) Straight (b) Spiral (c) hypoid
1.10 Crossed helical gear
1.11 Law of gearing
1.12 Gear profiles
1.13 Meshing of gears
1.1 HISTORY OF GEARS
Indian history as per our mythological stories is more than 12,000 years old. Since then
people living here have been striving to improve the living conditions. We also know that
earlier people were living in the caves and the doors of the caves were made of granite.
How were these heavy doors opened and closed? They were opened and closed by
none other than a system with gear mechanism, wheel, lever and rope drives. However,
the documented evidence has been lost due to destruction by the invaders and
improper storing of palm leaf literature. The guru Kula method of teaching and passing
of the information from mouth to ear procedure and keeping some of the advances as
closely guarded secret have resulted in poor dissemination of the knowledge and
documentation. But, the knowledge of gears has gone from India to east through some
of the globe trotters from China as back as 2600 years BC. They have used the gears
then ingeniously in chariots for measuring the speed and other mechanisms. Primitive
gears shown in Fig. 1 were first used in door drive mechanism in temples and caves,
and water lifting mechanisms 2600 B.C. in India and elsewhere.
Machine Design II
Aristotle in the fourth century B.C. mentions in his writings that gears were being used
very commonly in many applications. Classical origin of worm gearing was made by
Archimedes 287-212 B.C. Vitruvius a military engineer in his writing in 28 B.C. has
described a number of gear applications, typical ones are shown in Figs. 1.2 and 1.3.
Fig.1.1 Primitive gears made of wood
Fig.1.2 Water wheel and grain mill described by Vitruvius 40 B.C
Machine Design II
Fig.1.3 Schematic diagram of an odometer for a carriage described by Vitruvius

28 BC
Leonard da Vinci used multitudes of gears in various mechanisms developed by him
500 A.D. Greek and Roman literatures show extensive usage of gears for forward
motion. Toothed gears used for the clocks of Cathedrals and other ecclesiastical
buildings during the middle ages are still preserved in many places. Salisbury cathedral
still possesses the oldest clock in England made in 1386. The Wells Cathedral clock
made in 1392 is preserved in Science museum, South Kensington. Though the iron
gears have worn out to some extent, they still keep good timings.
German artist Albrecht Durers engravings
show a vehicle designed for the Emperor
Maximilian I during 15th century which is
shown in Fig.1.4. That vehicle was driven
by worm gears on all four wheels. This
clearly shows that he knew the concept of
gearing which helped him in sketching
them accurately.
In 18th century, Industrial Revolution in
England led to usage of cycloidal gears for
clocks, irrigation devices, water mills and
Fig.1.4 Chariot using worm gears
Machine Design II
powered machines. Fig. 1.5 gives the glimpses of their contribution to engine
application.
The industrialization of west made a big impact on gear technology which is the key to
the modern development and the gear technology is advancing rapidly. It is most
unlikely that gears are going to be replaced by any other component for their function in
the near future.
Fig.1.5 Schematic diagram of Watts rotating Engine, 1784, first engine to produce
power directly on a shaft
1.2 DEFINITION OF GEARS
Gears are toothed members which transmit power / motion between two shafts by
meshing without any slip. Hence, gear drives are also called positive drives. In any pair
of gears, the smaller one is called pinion and the larger one is called gear immaterial of
which is driving the other.
When pinion is the driver, it results in step down drive in which the output speed
decreases and the torque increases. On the other hand, when the gear is the driver, it
results in step up drive in which the output speed increases and the torque decreases.
Machine Design II
1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF GEARS

Gears are classified according to the shape of the tooth pair and disposition into spur,
helical, double helical, straight bevel, spiral bevel and hypoid bevel, worm and spiral
gears and this is shown in Fig. 1.6
(i)
(j)
Fig. 1.6 (a) Spur gear, (b)

helical gear, (c) Double
helical gear or herringbone
gear, (d) Internal gear , (e)
Rack and pinion, (f) Straight
bevel gear, (g) Spiral bevel
gear, (h) Hypoid bevel gear ,
(i) worm gear and (j) Spiral
gear
1.4 SPUR GEARS
Fig.1.7 Spur Gear
Fig.1.8 Gearbox of a motor cycle using spur gears
Machine Design II
Spur gears have their teeth parallel to the axis Fig.1.7 and are used for transmitting
power between two parallel shafts. They are simple in construction, easy to manufacture
and cost less. They have highest efficiency and excellent precision rating. They are
used in high speed and high load application in all types of trains and a wide range of
velocity ratios. Hence, they find wide applications right from clocks, household gadgets,
motor cycles, automobiles, and railways to aircrafts. One such application is shown in
Fig.1.8.
1.5 HELICAL GEARS
Fig.1.9 Helical Gear
Fig.1.10 Automatic transmission of an automobile
Helical gears are used for parallel shaft drives. They have teeth inclined to the axis as
shown in Fig. 1.9. Hence for the same width, their teeth are longer than spur gears and
have higher load carrying capacity. Their contact ratio is higher than spur gears and
they operate smoother and quieter than spur gears. Their precision rating is good. They
are recommended for very high speeds and loads. Thus, these gears find wide
applications in automotive gearboxes as illustrated in Fig. 1.10. Their efficiency is
slightly lower than spur gears. The helix angle also introduces axial thrust on the shaft.
Machine Design II
1.6 DOUBLE HELICAL GEAR OR HERRINGBONE GEAR

Double helical or Herringbone gears used for transmitting power between two parallel
shafts. They have opposing helical teeth with or without a gap depending on the
manufacturing method adopted, Fig. 1.11. Two axial thrusts oppose each other and
nullify. Hence the shaft is free from any axial force. Though their load capacity is very
high, manufacturing difficulty makes them costlier than single helical gear. Their
applications are limited to high capacity reduction drives like that of cement mills and
crushers, one such application is exhibited in Fig. 1.12.
Fig. 1.11 Double Helical

Gear or Herringbone
Gear
Fig. 1.12 Reduction gearbox of cement mill
1.7. INTERNAL GEAR

Internal gears are used for transmitting power between two parallel shafts. In these
gears, annular wheels are having teeth on the inner periphery. This makes the drive
very compact Fig.1.13.
In these drives, the meshing pinion and annular gear are running in the same direction
Machine Design II
A. flywheel
B. torque divider
C. torque converter
D. rear transmission
brakes
a. input shaft
Fig.1.13.Internal Gear
b. intermediate shaft
c. output brake
d. divider brake
e. rear transmission
f. free wheel
Fig. 1.14 Diwabus transmission (Voith) with internal

gears
Their precision rating is fair. They are useful for high load and high speed application
with high reduction ratio. Applications of these gears can be seen in planetary gear
drives of automobile automatic transmissions-Fig.1.14, reduction gearboxes of cement
mills, step-up drives of wind mills.
They are not recommended for precision meshes because of design, fabrication, and
inspection limitations. They should only be used when internal feature is necessary.
However, today precision machining capability has led to their usage even in position
devices like antenna drives.
1.8 Rack and Pinion
Rack is a segment of a gear of infinite diameter. The tooth can be spur as in Fig. 1.15 or
helical as in Fig.1.16. This type of gearing is used for converting rotary motion into
translatory motion or visa versa. Typical example of rack and pinion applications are
shown in Figs. 1.17 and 1.18.
Machine Design II
Fig .1.15 Spur tooth rack and pinion
Fig. 1.16 Helical tooth rack and pinion
Fig.1.17 Lathe carriage drive mechanism showing rack and pinion arrangement.
Machine Design II
Fig.1.18 Radial drilling machine spindle movement with rack and pinion
arrangement
1.9a STRAIGHT BEVEL GEAR

Straight bevel gears are used for transmitting power between intersecting shafts, Fig.
1.19. They can operate under high speeds and high loads. Their precision rating is fair
to good. They are suitable for 1:1 and higher velocity ratios and for right-angle meshes
to any other angles. Their good choice is for right angle drive of particularly low ratios.
However, complicated both form and fabrication limits achievement of precision. They
should be located at one of the less critical meshes of the train. Wide application of the
straight bevel drives is in automotive differentials, right angle drives of blenders and
conveyors. A typical application of straight bevel used in differential application is shown
in Fig.1.20.
Machine Design II
Fig.1.19 Straight Bevel Gear
Fig. 1.20 Differential of an automobile
1.9b SPIRAL BEVEL GEAR

Spiral bevel gears shown in Fig. 1.21 are also used for transmitting power between
intersecting shafts. Because of the spiral tooth, the contact length is more and contact
ratio is more. They operate smoother than straight bevel gears and have higher load
capacity. But, their efficiency is slightly lower than straight bevel gear. Usage of spiral
bevel gears in an automobile differential is shown Fig.1.22.
Fig.1.21 Spiral Bevel Gear
Fig.1.22 Crown and Pinion of final drive of an

automobile
Machine Design II
1.9c HYPOID BEVEL GEAR
Fig.1.23 Hypoid Bevel Gear
Fig.1.24 Crown and Pinion of final drive of an

automobile
These gears are also used for right angle drive in which the axes do not intersect. This
permits the lowering of the pinion axis which is an added advantage in automobile in
avoiding hump inside the automobile drive line power transmission. However, the non
intersection introduces a considerable amount of sliding and the drive requires good
lubrication to reduce the friction and wear. Their efficiency is lower than other two types
of bevel gears. These gears are widely used in current day automobile drive line power
transmission.
1.9. WORM GEAR
Worm and worm gear pair consists of a worm, which is very similar to a screw and a
worm gear, which is a helical gear as shown in Fig. 1.25. They are used in right-angle
skew shafts. In these gears, the engagement occurs without any shock. The sliding
action prevalent in the system while resulting in quieter operation produces considerable
frictional heat. High reduction ratios 8 to 400 are possible.
Efficiency of these gears is low anywhere from 90% to 40 %. Higher speed ratio gears
are non-reversible. Their precision rating is fair to good. They need good lubrication for
heat dissipation and for improving the efficiency. The drives are very compact.
Machine Design II
Fig.1.25 Worm Gear
Fig. 1.26 Worm gearbox of a crane drive
Worm gearing finds wide application in material handling and transportation machinery,
machine tools, automobiles etc. An industrial worm gear box used for converting
horizontal to vertical drive is shown in Fig. 1.26.
1.10 Spiral Gear
Spiral gears are also known as crossed helical gears, Fig. 1.27. They have high helix
angle and transmit power between two non-intersecting non-parallel shafts. They have
initially point contact under the conditions of considerable sliding velocities finally gears
will have line contact. Hence, they are used for light load and low speed application
such as instruments, sewing machine etc. Their precision rating is poor. An application
of spiral gear used in textile machinery is shown in Fig. 1.28.
Machine Design II
Fig 1.27 Spiral Gear
Fig. 1.28 Application of spiral gear in a textile machinery
Machine Design II
TABLE 1 SUMMARY AND EVALUATION OF GEAR TYPES

Type
Spur
Features and
Precision Rating
Parallel Shafting.
High speeds and loads
highest efficiency
Applications
Precision Rating is excellent
Helical
Applicable to all
types of trains and a
wide range of
velocity ratios.
Parallel Shafting. Very high Most applicable to

speeds and loads. Efficiency high speeds and
slightly less than spur mesh. loads; also used
whenever spurs are
Precision Rating is good
used.
Crossed Skewed shafting. Point

Helical contact.
High sliding
Low speeds
Light loads
Precision Rating is fair
Bevel
Worm
mesh
Intersecting shafts,
High speeds,
High loads.
Precision Rating is fair to
good
Right-angle skew shafts,
High velocity ratio,
High speeds and loads,
Low efficiency, Most
designs nonreversible.
Precision rating is fair to
good
Simplest tooth elements offering

maximum precision. First choice,
recommended for all the gear meshes,
except where very high speeds and
loads or special features of other types,
such as right angle drive, cannot be
avoided.
Equivalent quality to spurs, except for
complication of helix angle.
Recommended for all high-speed and
high-load meshes. Axial thrust
component must be accommodated.
Relatively low
velocity ratio; low
speeds and light
loads only. Any
angle skew shafts.
To be avoided for precision meshes.

Point contact limits capacity and
precision. Suitable for right angle drives,
if light load. A less expensive substitute
for bevel gears. Good lubrication
essential because of point of contact and
high sliding action.
Internal drives
requiring high
speeds and high
loads; offers low
sliding and high
stress loading; good
for high capacity,
long life. Used in
planetary gears to
produce large
reduction ratios.
Suitable for 1:1 and
higher velocity
ratios and for rightangle meshes (and
other angles)
Not recommended for precision meshes

because of design, fabrication, and
inspection limitations. Should only be
used when internal feature is necessary.
Precision Rating is poor

Internal Parallel shafts
spur
High speeds
High loads
Comments Regarding Precision
High velocity ratio

Angular meshes
High loads
Good choice for right angle drive,

particularly low ratios. However
complicated both form and fabrication
limits achievement of precision. Should
be located at one of the less critical
meshes of the train.
Worm can be made to high precision,
but worm gear has inherent limitations.
To be considered for average precision
meshes, but can be of high precision
with care. Best choice for combination
high velocity ratio and right-angle drive.
High sliding requires excellent
lubrication.
Table is continued in the next page
Machine Design II
(Continued) TABLE 1 SUMMARY AND EVALUATION OF GEAR TYPES

Type
Specials
- Face,
Spiroid,
Helicon,
Beveloid
Features and
Precision Rating
Intersecting and skew
shafts.
Modest speeds and loads.
Precision Rating is fair to
good
Applications
Comments Regarding Precision
Special cases
To be avoided as precision meshes.

Significant non-conjugate action with
departure from nominal center distance
and shaft angles. Fabrication needs
special equipment and inspection is
limited.
1.11 LAW OF GEARING

The fundamental law of gearing states that the angular velocity ratio between the gears
of a gear set must remain constant throughout the mesh. This amounts to the following
relationship:
1
n
d
Z
1 2 2
2
n 2 d1 Z1
(1.1)
where the terminology for the above is as

follows:
Fig.1.29 Two spur gears in mesh
In order to maintain constant angular velocity ratio between two meshing gears, the
common normal of the tooth profiles, at all contact points with in mesh, must always
pass through a fixed point on the line of centers, called pitch point.
1.12 PROFILES SATISFYING LAW OF GEARS
Profiles which can satisfy the law of gearing are shown in Fig. 1.22 a to c. These are (a)
involute (b) cycloidal and (c) circular arc or Novikov. Among these, cycloidal was the first
to be evolved. This is followed by the invention of involute profile which replaced many
of the other profiles due to several technological advantages. Circular arc or Novikov
Machine Design II
profile has some advantages over the other profiles. But due to manufacturing
difficulties, it did not become popular. However with powder metallurgy process it is
slowly getting into industry now for specific application.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 1.22 Profiles satisfying the law of gearing, (a) involute (b) cycloidal and (c)
Circular arc
1.12a Involute Gear Tooth Profile

Involute is the path generated by the end of a thread as it unwinds from a reel. In order
to understand what is involute, imagine a reel with thread wound in the clockwise
direction as in Fig.1.2. Tie a knot at the end of the thread. In the initial position, the
thread is at B0 with knot on the reel at C0. Keeping the reel stationary, pull the thread
and unwind it to position B1. The knot now moves from C0 to C1. If the thread is
unwound to position B2 the knot moves to C2 position. In repeated unwinding, the taut
thread occupies position B3, B4 while the knot moves to C3, C4 positions. Connect these
points C0 to C4 by a smooth curve, the profile obtained is nothing but an involute, the
illustration of which is given below.
Machine Design II
This forms the left side part of the tooth profile. If similar process is repeated with thread
wound on the reel in anticlockwise direction in the same position, it forms the right side
part of the same tooth. The completely formed involute tooth is shown in Fig.1.25.
Fig.1.23 The generation of involute Fig.1.24 The generation of involute

profile on left side
profile on right side
Involute profiles have special properties. Imagine two involute teeth in contact as shown
in Fig.1.26. If a normal is drawn at the contact point to the involute profile, it will be
tangent to the generating circles. This can be visualized better from Fig. 1.23 where the
taut thread is normal to the profile as well as tangent to the reel which forms the
generating or the base circle. The profile will be involute above the base circle only.
Below the base circle the profile will not be involute.
Machine Design II
The common normal to the profile at the contact point will be tangent to the base circles.
It passes through a fixed point lying at the intersection of the tangent to the rolling/pitch
circles and the line connecting the centres of the gear wheels. This point is known as
the pitch point. As the gears rotate the contact point travels along the common tangent
to the base circle. Hence this line is also known as the line of action. The movement of
the contact point along the line of action can be seen in the gear meshing later on.
Fig.1.25 Involute gear tooth profile

appearance after generation
Fig. 1.26 Gear meshing
Advantages of Involute Gears

1. Variation in centre distance does not affect the velocity ratio.
2. Pressure angle remains constant throughout the
engagements which results in smooth running.
3. Straight teeth of basic rack for involute admit
simple tools. Hence, manufacturing becomes
simple and cheap.
Machine Design II
1.12b Cycloidal Gear Tooth Profile

Cycloid is the locus of a point on the circumference of a circle when it rolls on a straight
line without slipping. If the circle rolls on the outside of another circle or inside of another
circle gives rise to epicycloid and hypocycloid respectively. This is illustrated in
Fig. 1.27. The profile of a cycloidal tooth consists of two separate curves or double
curvature. This tooth form also satisfies the law of gearing or conjugate action similar to
an involute gear.
Fig.1.27 Figure illustrating the generation of cycloidal tooth
Fig.1.28 Cycloidal tooth form
Fig.1.29 Cycloidal gear of a

clock.
Machine Design II
Advantages of Cycloidal Gears

1. Cycloidal gears do not have interference.
2. Cycloidal tooth is generally stronger than an involute tooth owing to spreading flanks
in contrast to the radial flanks of an involute tooth.
3. Because of the spreading flanks, they have high strength and compact drives are
achievable.
4. Cycloidal teeth have longer life since the contact is mostly rolling which results in low
wear.
Disadvantages of Cycloidal Gears
1. For a pair of Cycloidal gears, there is only one theoretically correct center distance for
which a constant angular-velocity ratio is possible.
2. The hob of Cycloidal gear has curved teeth unlike involute rack teeth. Hence hob
manufacture is difficult and costly.
3. Cycloidal gear will cost more.
Applications of Cycloidal Gears
1. Cycloidal gears are extensively used in watches,
Clocks - Fig.1.30, and instruments where strength
and interference are prime considerations.
2. Cast bull gears of paper mill machinery.
3. Crusher drives in sugar mills.
Fig. 1.30 Application of

cycloidal tooth gear in a clock
mechanism
Machine Design II
1.12c Novikov, Wildhaber or Circular Arc Tooth Profile
Fig.1.31 Transverse section of

Novikov gear
Fig.1.32 Novikov gears in mesh
The Novikov gears are having circular tooth surfaces in the transverse section Fig. 1.31.
Normally pinion has a convex tooth profile and the gear tooth has a concave tooth
profile. They can also have concave profile for pinion and convex profile for the gear or
convex profiles for both. The teeth of Novikov gears have point contact in mesh. Hence
to increase the contact ratio the teeth are made helical and appearance of Novikov gear
is shown in Fig.1.32. The height of a Novikov gear tooth is about half that of the
corresponding an involute tooth of the same module. Hence these teeth can with stand
high load with weight of the gears approximately half the size of involute gears. Since
these gears are having pure rolling action at the contact, their efficiency is as high as
99.5%.
Novikov gear also satisfies the law of gearing since the common normal to the gears at
the point of contact will always be passing through a fixed point, viz., pitch point as
illustrated in Fig. 1.31 and in more detail in Fig. 1.33. Hence these profiles are conjugate
to each other and pressure angle remains constant
Machine Design II
Fig.1.33 Enlarged view of Novikov gears in mesh in transverse section
Advantages of Novikov Gears

1. A convex surface is always in contact with another concave surface.
2. The beam strength is much higher for the pinion than for the gear when the gear is
much larger than the pinion.
3. The contacting teeth have rolling action and hence wear is less.
4. If the convex profile is on the pinion teeth, and within the practical limits, the radii are
close to the same value to provide the maximum possible wear strength.
Disadvantages of Novikov Gears
1. The circular-arc profiles are not conjugate and consequently, in a plane each tooth
can make contact at only one point in each revolution.
2. The circular-arc gears are very sensitive to variations in center distances and are
hence best suited for slow-speed operation.
3. For the circular-arc gears in a plane, the contact ratio is zero. Hence, the circular-arc
teeth cannot be used on spur gears but must be used on helical gears, where the
contact ratio for the gear can be made greater than 1.0 by providing overlap ratio.
Machine Design II
Applications of Novikov or Circular Arc Gears
Fig 1.34 Slow speed Gear boxes
1.13 MESHING OF GEARS

In order to have a more understanding of the conjugate action in gears and how the
point of contact moves during the mesh, an illustration is provided in flash
---------------Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Machine Design II
Module 2 - GEARS
Lecture 2 INVOLUTE SPUR GEARS
Contents
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Nomenclature of involute spur gears
2.3 Meshing of gears
2.4 Interference in gears
2.5 Methods of eliminating interference
2.6 Minimum number of teeth to avoid interference
2.7 Length of line of action
2.8 Contact ratio
2.1 INRODUCTION:
The function of a gear is to work smoothly while transmitting motion or torque. For this the
angular velocity ratio at all times should remain constant. This aspect is explained here
using various gear terminology that are peculiar to gears. Understanding of the definition of
these terminologies helps to grasp the functioning of gears and the design of gears.
Fig.2.1 Portion of involute spur gear
Machine Design II
2.2. NOMENCLATURE OF INVOLUTE SPUR GEARS
Refer to the Figs.2.1 and 2.2 which show a portion of a pair of involute gears in
mesh.
Pitch surface: The surface of the imaginary rolling cylinder (cone, etc.) that replaces
the toothed gear.
Pitch surface: The surface of the imaginary rolling cylinder (cone, etc.) that replaces
the toothed gear.
Pitch circle: A normal section of the pitch surface.
Addendum circle: A circle bounding the ends of the teeth, in a normal section of the
gear.
Dedendum circle or Root circle: The circle bounding the spaces between the teeth,
in a normal section of the gear.
Addendum: The radial distance between the pitch circle and the addendum circle.
Dedendum: The radial distance between the pitch circle and the root circle.
Clearance: The difference between the Dedendum of one gear and the addendum
of the mating gear.
Face of a tooth: That part of the tooth surface lying outside the pitch surface.
Flank of a tooth: The part of the tooth surface lying inside the pitch surface.
Top land: The top surface of a gear tooth.
Bottom land: The bottom surface of the tooth space.
Circular thickness (tooth thickness): The thickness of the tooth measured on the
pitch circle. It is the length of an arc and not the length of a straight line.
Tooth space: The space between successive teeth.
Width of space: The distance between adjacent teeth measured on the pitch circle.
Backlash: The difference between the tooth thickness of one gear and the tooth
space of the mating gear.
Machine Design II
Fig.2.2 Part section of meshing of two involute gears
Circular pitch p: The width of a tooth and a space, measured on the pitch circle. It is
equal to the pitch circumference divided by the number of teeth. If,
p - circular pitch
z - number of teeth
d
z
(2.1)
P - diametral pitch
d - pitch diameter
Diametral pitch P: The number of teeth of a gear per unit pitch diameter. The
diametral pitch is hence the number of teeth divided by the pitch diameter.
P = z/d
(2.2)
Machine Design II
The product of the diametral pitch and the circular pitch equals .
pP=
(2.3)
The effect of diametral pitch on the size of the gear tooth is shown in Fig. 2.3
Fig.2.3 Variation of tooth size with diametral pitch
Actual tooth size for various diametral pitches is shown in Fig.2.4. The diametral
pitches are standardized and these values are given Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Standard diametral pitches
1.25 1.5
1.75 2
2.5
10
12
14
16
18
20
24
32
48
64
72
80
96
120
Machine Design II
Fig. 2.4 Actual size of the gear tooth for different diametral pitches
In metric system, module is used instead of diametral pitch. It is nothing but the inverse of
diametral pitch. The standard modules for which cutters are readily available in the market
are given in Table 2.2
Module m: Pitch diameter divided by number of teeth. The pitch diameter is usually
specified in millimeters.
m = d/z
(2.4)
Machine Design II
Table 2.2 Standard modules in mm

0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
1.0
1.25
1.5
1.75
2.0
2.25
2.5
3.5
4.5
5.5
6.5
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
33
36
39
42
45
50
Further increase is in terms of 5 mm
Fillet Radius: The small radius that connects the profile of a tooth to the root circle.
Crowning: Grinding of tooth edges to prevent edge loading is known as crowning.

This is shown in Fig. 2.5.
Fig. 2.5 Crowning of the tooth to overcome edge loading
Machine Design II
Figs. 2.6 and 2.7 illustrate various terminologies one comes across during meshing of
gear teeth.
Fig.2.6 Meshing of two pairs of gear teeth which explains the various terminologies
used in involute gearing in detail
From the Fig.2.6 and 2.7
Pinion: The smallest of any pair of mating gears.
Gear: The largest of the pair is called simply the gear.
Velocity ratio i: The ratio of rotational speed of the driving gear n1 (or input gear) to
the rotational speed of the driven gear n2 (or output gear). If z1 & z2 , d1 & d2, r1 & r2,
and 1 & 2
are corresponding number of teeth, pitch diameters, radii and
angular velocities of pinion and the gear, then
n1 1 z 2 d2 r2

n2 2 z1 d1 r1
(2.5)
Base circle: An imaginary circle used in involute gearing to generate the involutes
that form the tooth profiles.
Machine Design II
Fig.2.7 Meshing of two pairs of gear teeth which explains the various
terminologies used in involute gearing.
Pitch point: The point of tangency of the pitch circles of a pair of mating gears.
Common tangent: The line tangent to the pitch circle at the pitch point.
Line of action: A line normal to a pair of mating tooth profiles at their point of
contact.
Path of contact: The path traced by the contact point of a pair of tooth profiles.
Pressure angle : The angle between the common normal at the point of tooth
contact and the common tangent to the pitch circles.
Pressure angle is also the angle between the line of action and the common tangent
Machine Design II
2.3 Gear meshing
Fig 2.8 Gear meshing illustration

Having known various terminologies during meshing of gears, how the contact points
traverses is illustrated by flash in Fig. 2.8. It can be seen clearly during operation the
contact point demarked by red point is established on the left hand side of the axis joining
the centre of the gears and moves to the right and vanishes. New contact is established
again at the left side. It moves along the straight line known as line of action which is
tangent to both the base circles. The angle made by it with the common tangent to the
pitch circles at the pitch point is known as the pressure angle. It can be noted that the line
of action passes through the pitch point which is the point of intersection of the line
connecting the centres of the gears with the common tangent.
If the portion of the gear exists below the base circle, then it results in interference and
leads to undercutting of the tooth. In Fig. 2.9 the shaded portion of the teeth are below the
base circles. They are going to cause interference. In Fig.2.10 portion of the pinion tooth
below the gear tooth surface is seen. In practice this cannot happen unless the part of the
Machine Design II
2.4 Gear tooth Interference
Fig. 2.9 Illustration of interference in gear meshing
Fig 2.10 Gears in mesh showing portion of the tooth of pinion digging into the
gear tooth on the left
Machine Design II
gear tooth is relieved of material causing this interference. This is achieved by the harder
pinion tooth removing away the portion of the gear tooth to avoid interference. Note that
the tooth portion below the base circle is not having involute profile. Such a situation will
arise when a gear with a certain number of teeth mates with pinion having number of teeth
below a critical value.
2.5 Methods of elimination of Gear tooth Interference

In certain spur designs if interference exists, it can be overcome by:
(a) removing the cross hatched tooth tips i.e., using stub teeth
(b) increasing the number of teeth on the mating pinion.
(c) increasing the pressure angle
(d) tooth profile modification or profile shifting
(e) increasing the centre distance as illustrated in Fig.2.11.
For a given gear, the interference can also the eliminated by increasing the centre
distance.
Fig.2.11 Method of elimination of interference in spur gears
Machine Design II
2.6 Minimum No. of Teeth on pinion to avoid interference for a given gear
Referring to Fig. 2.10, the involute profile doesnt exist beyond base circle. When
the pinion rotates clockwise, first and last point of contacts are e and g where the
line of action is tangent to the base circles.
Any part of the pinion tooth face extending beyond a circle through g interferes with
gear flank as shown at i.
The interference limits the permissible length of addendum. As the diameter of the
pinion is reduced, the permissible addendum of larger gear becomes smaller.
Let the addendum height be k times the module i.e., km. From the Fig.2.12 the
maximum gear addendum circle radius is :
AE= r2 + km = AG 2 +GE 2
(2.6)
Fig.2.12 Pinion and gear meshing shown by equivalent circles

But ,
AG = r2 cos and GE = (r1 + r2 )sin
Substituting in equation (2.6) and simplifying
r2 +km = r22cos2 +(r1 +r2 )2sin 2
(2.7)
Substituting r1 = mz1 and r2 = mz2 in equation (2. 7) and rearranging
Machine Design II
z 12 + 2 z 1 z 2 =
4k (z 2 +k)
sin 2
(2.8)
For a rack and pinion, z2 = and the equation (2.8) reduces to
Z1 =
2k
sin 2
(2.9)
For full depth gears (i.e., k = 1) engaging with rack, minimum teeth on the pinion to avoid
interference is
z1 = 31.9
= 32 for 14.50 pressure angle
z1 = 17.097 = 17 for 200 pressure angle

z1 = 13.657 = 14 for 22.50 pressure angle
rounded to integer value.
The equation (2.8) indicates that the minimum number of teeth on pinion permissible and it
depends on the gear ratio and pressure angle.
From the practical consideration it is observed that rack gear generation and hobbing
process for lower value than the one given earlier, a little undercutting takes place and the
strength of the gear is not affected. Hence, corresponding minimum number of teeth are
27, 14 and 12 for 14.50, 200, and 22.50 instead of 32, 17 & 14.
2.7 Line of Action

In order to have smooth continuous rotation, the arc of action should be greater than the
circular pitch or line of action or path of contact should be equal to or greater than base
pitch.
GE = (r2 + r1) sin p cos

From which
And
p (r2 + r1) tan

z1 + z 2
2
tan
(2.10)
(2.11)
(2.12)
The line of action should be at least 1.4 times the circular pitch for continuous
action.
Machine Design II
2.8 Contact ratio
Fig. 2.13 Various circles and line of action in a pair of meshing gears
Referring to the Fig.2.13, the theoretical length of line of action of any pair of true involute
gears
La = A1 B + AB1 A1B1
La = (r1 + a1 )2 -r1 2cos 2 +
(r2 + a 2 )2 -r2 2cos 2 - (r1 + r2 )sin
(2.13)
Contact ratio: is defined as the maximum number of teeth in contact at any time. Higher
the contact ratio smoother will be gear operation
Contact ratio =
La
La
=
p cos m cos
(2.14)
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Machine Design II
Module 2 GEARS
Lecture 3 - INVOLUTE SPUR GEARS
Contents
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Standard tooth systems for spur gears
3.3 Profile shifted gears
3.4 Involutometry
3.5 Design of gear blanks
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In lecture 2 various terminologies used in describing a gear and a gear pair in mesh was
dealt in detail. For convenience, the gear nomenclature is reproduced in Fig. 3.1. It can be
Fig. 3.1 Spur gear nomenclature
Machine Design II
observed here that by varying the various parameters, it is possible to get infinite varieties
of gears. In practice if we use such large varieties of gears, then the manufacture, quality
check, replacement in the case of failure all become more complicated. To overcome this,
standard gear systems are evolved and these are dealt in detail here. Earlier the definition
of interference in gears was illustrated by many figures and methods of avoiding
interference were dealt in detail. For easy recollection of interference, refer to Fig. 3.2
where the interference portion of the teeth is shown in red.
Fig. 3.2 Interference in gears
3.2. STANDARD TOOTH SYSTEMS FOR SPUR GEARS

To reduce the varieties of gears to a manageable numbers, standards are evolved.
Standard makes it easy for design, production, quality assurance, replacement etc. Three
commonly used pressure angles are 14.5o, 20o and 25o pressure angle systems as shown
in Fig. 3.3. In this, one can have full depth gears or stronger stub tooth gears. In Standard
tooth system for metric gears, addendum: a =1m, dedendum: b= 1.25m where as the for
the stub tooth gears, addendum a = 0.8m and dedendum: b= 1.0m. The shorter tooth
makes it stronger and its load carrying capacity increases. It also helps in avoiding
interference in certain cases.
Machine Design II
Fig. 3.3 Standard tooth systems
Table 3.1 Standard tooth system for spur gears

Item
Addendum a
20 degree full
depth
1m
20 degree
Stub
0.8m
25 degree
full depth
1m
Dedendum b
1.25 m
1m
1.25m
Clearance c
0.25 m
0.2 m
0.25m
Working dept
2m
1.6m
2m
Whole depth h
2.25m
1.8m
2.25m
Tooth thickness t
1.571m
1.571m
1.571m
Face width f
9m-14m
9m-14m
9m-14m
Fillet radius min.
0.3 m
0.3 m
0.3 m
Top land min.
0.25m
0.25m
0.25m
14.5o and 25o stub tooth systems have become obsolete now.
How the various spur gear tooth parameters are fixed in standard gear system is given in
Table 3.1
Machine Design II
3.3 PROFILE SHIFTED GEARS

Interference in smaller number of tooth pinions can be avoided by having unequal
addendum, longer addendum for the pinion and shorter for the gear as seen in the earlier
figure. These are called profile shifted gears or non-standard gears (Fig. 3.4). AGMA
defines the addendum modification coefficient as x1 and x2 which sums up to zero, being
equal in magnitude and opposite in sign.
Fig. 3.4 Non Standard gears
+ve coefficient applied to pinion increases the addendum and ve coefficient

applied to gear decreases the addendum. The net effect is to shift the pitch circles away
from the base circle of the pinion and eliminate that non-involute portion of pinion tooth
below the base circle.
The standard coefficients are 0.25 and 0.50 which add and subtract 25%
and 50% of the standard addendum, respectively. The limit approach occurs when the
pinion tooth becomes pointed. How the tooth appears in profile shifted gears is shown in
Fig.3.5.
Machine Design II
Fig. 3.5 Influence of Profile shift on the shape of gear teeth
Machine Design II
3.3.1 WHAT PROFILE SHIFTING DOES TO GEARS

1. The pinion becomes thicker at the base and thus stronger
2. The gear tooth correspondingly weakens since full depth gear tooth is stronger than full
depth pinion tooth, thus equalizes the strength.
3. The unequal addendum tooth forms increase the sliding velocity at the tooth tip.
4. Consequently tooth surface stresses increase.
5. The friction losses in the gear mesh also increase at high sliding velocities.
3.3.2 WHEN PROFILE SHIFTING IS USED
1. When the interference is to be avoided

2. When predetermined centre distance has to be attained
3. To increase the strength at the root and flank of the teeth.
4. To improve sliding and contact relation.
5. To shift the beginning of the effective profile away from the base circle.
3.4 INVOLUTOMETRY
Involutometry is the study of involute

geometry. In Fig. 3.6, at T, the generating
line length, rb tan , also rb ( )
From the above relationship, tan
Which is also written as
inv tan
From the Fig.3.6 ,
rb
cos
(3.1)
Fig. 3.6 Illustration for involutometry
Machine Design II
3.4.1 TOOTH THICKNESS AT ANY POINT ON THE TOOTH PROFILE
Fig. 3.7 Tooth layout for finding tooth thickness at any point
In order to derive the relationship between tooth thickness and it distance r from the centre
refer to the Fig. 3.7. The half tooth thickness at A and T are given by:
t1
1 r1
2
So that
t1
2 r1
(3.2),
(3.4),
t
r
2
t
2r
(3.3)
(3.5)
Now we can write
inv inv 1
t1
t
2 r1
2r
(3.6)
Rearranging the terms we get
t 2r (
t1
inv inv )
2 r1
(3.7)
Machine Design II
3.5 DESIGN OF GEAR BLANKS
Fig. 3.8 Design of gear blanks for small diameter gears d < 200 mm
The design of gear blank depends on the size, load carrying capacity, speed of operation,
space limitations and application. Small gears up to a pitch diameter of 200 mm are
normally made of solid blanks as in Fig. 3.8, (a) to (c). However in these gears, sometimes
to reduce the weight and inertia in higher sizes, material is removed in the web portion
where the stress is low by turning process Fig. 3.8 (d) or turning and drilling process
Fig.3.8 (e) to (g) especially for high speed operation. In multi-speed gear boxes to make
the arrangement compact, cluster and sliding gears as shown in Fig. 3.9 (a) to (e) are
used. The gaps between the gears should be adequate to relieve the gear cutter.
Fig.3.9 Cluster and sliding gears

Many a times, the tool relief does not result in compact drive. Hence, to further make it
compact, glue jointed or shrink fitted composite gears shown in Fig. 3.10 (a) and (b) are
often used.
Machine Design II
Fig. 3.10 Glue-jointed / shrink fitted composite gears

In the case of medium sized gears normally forging process is used. The wheels are made
solid or cored as shown in Fig. 3.11 (a). Cast wheel with crossed I shaped spokes shown
in Fig. 3.11 (b) are used when the diameter is <1000 mm and f<200 mm.
Fig. 3.11 Design of medium size gear blanks
Machine Design II
Many a times to reduce the cost of the gears, rimmed construction is used. Here the
central portion of the gear wheel is made of lower grade steel as the stress encountered
here is less and the gear portion rim is press fitted or shrunk on the central portion. The rim
is prevented from loosening by grub screws as seen in Fig. 3.11 (c)
Large gears are normally cast as in Fig. 3.12 (a) to (d) with web straight or inclined.
To reduce the weight of the gears, non stressed portion is made hollow by keeping cores.
When a small number of high quality gears are required, the gears made with rimmed,
bolted or welded construction as shown in Fig. 3.11 (e) to (g). To save alloy steel, large
wheels are made with fretting rings. Wheel central portions are made from Cast iron or
cast steel. The ring is forged or roll expanded from special steel of tooth material. For f >
500 mm two Fretting rings are hot-fitted on the centers. Set screws to prevent loosening
are also provided. When wheels are made in small quantities, to reduce the weight,
welding is employed. Care should be taken to ensure adequate rigidity in these cases.
Fig. 3.12 Design of large gear blanks
The empirical formulae for finding proportions of spur gear wheel are given in Fig.3.13 (a)
and that for a bevel gear wheel is given in Fig. 3.13 (b).
Machine Design II
(b)
(a)
Fig. 3.13 Gear wheel proportions (a) spur gear (b) bevel gear
The empirical formulae for finding proportions of welded wheel elements are shown in
Fig. 3.14
Fig. 3.14 Spur gear wheel proportions for weld construction.
Machine Design II
The empirical formulae for finding proportions of wheel elements of cast spur and helical
gears are given in Fig. 3.15.
Fig. 3.15 Spur gear proportions for cast wheels.

------------------------
Machine Design II
Module 2 - GEARS
Lecture 4: WORKED OUT PROBLEMS ON INVOLUTE SPUR GEARS
Content
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Gear Calculation -Worked example 1
4.3 Gear Calculation -Worked example 2
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In the earlier lectures, the definition of gear, gear terminology, interference, methods of
eliminating interference, standard tooth systems for spur gears, profile shifted gears,
involutometry and design of gear blanks were dealt in detail. With the background of the
above knowledge, solving of simple gear problems will be dealt in this lecture.
4.2 GEAR CALCULATION Worked out example 1

In a drive, a velocity ratio of 2.5 with a centre distance of 70 mm is desired. (a) Determine
the pitch diameter of the gears with 20o full depth involute teeth; (b) Is there any
interference in the system? If so, how will you avoid it? (c) Determine the contact ratio, (d)
Find the dedendum, addendum, root diameters and the tip clearance, (e) If the centre
distance is increased by 1.5%, what will be the new pressure angle?
i = 2.5;
C = 70 mm; = 20o;
Given Data:
It is an involute full depth tooth system ;
To be found:
m = ?;
Z1 = ? ;
d1 = ?;
Interference exists or not ?;
Z2 = ?;
d2 = ?;
CR = ?
We know that,
C = (r1 +r2) = 0.5 m ( Z1 + Z2) = 0.5 m (Z1 + i Z1) = 70 mm
1
Machine Design II
From the above,
i.e., m x Z1 = 40
Possible solutions for standard modules as can be seen from the table:
Solution I:
m = 2mm, Z1 = 20, Z2 = i. Z1 = 2.5 x 20 = 50
d1 = m Z1 = 2 x 20 = 40 mm
d2 =i d1 = 2.5 x 40 = 100 mm
STANDARD MODULES IN mm:

0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
1.0
1.25 1.5
1.75
2.0
2.25
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
33
36
39
42
45
50 Further increase is in terms of 5 mm
Minimum number of teeth that can engage with the gear of 50 teeth without
interference is given by,
z12 + 2 z1 z2 =
4k(z2 + k)
sin 2
For full depth gears, k = 1. Substituting the values Z2 = 50, = 20o in the above
equation,
z12 2 z1 x50
4 x 1( 50 1 )
sin 2 20 o
z 2 + 100 z 1744 0
1
1
i.e., Z1min = 15 is the minimum permissible number of teeth without interference.
Since from the above it is seen that, Z1 > Z1min no interference will occur.
2
Machine Design II
Fig 4.1. Path of Contact
Contact ratio, CR:

Referring to fig. 4.1, the path of contact:
La = ua + ur
L ( r a )2 r 2 cos 2
a
1
1
( r a )2 r 2 cos 2 ( r r ) sin
2
2
1 2
Substituting the values,

L ( 20 2 ) 2 20 2 cos 2 20o ( 50 2 ) 2 50 2 cos 2 20o ( 20 50 ) sin 20o
a
9.798 mm
3
Machine Design II
Now CR can be calculated with the formulae below,
CR
L
L
9.798
9.798
a
a
1.660
p cos m cos x 2 x cos 20o
5.901
For full depth tooth, the various values calculated are as shown below:
Addendum:
a = 1m = 1x2
= 2mm
Dedendum:
b = 1.25m = 1.25x2 = 2.5 mm
Clearance:
c = 0.25 m = 0.25x2
Pinion root circle diameter:
dr1 = d1- 2b = 40 2x2.5 = 35 mm
Pinion addendum diameter:
da1 = d1+ 2a = 40 + 2x2 = 44 mm
Gear root circle diameter:
dr2 = d2- 2b = 100 2x2.5 = 95 mm
Gear addendum diameter:
da2 = d2+ 2a = 100 + 2x2 = 104 mm
= 0.5 mm
Solution II:
The centre distance is given by, C = (r1 +r2) = 0.5 m ( Z1 + Z2) = 0.5 m (Z1 + i Z1)
= 70 mm
Simplifying, m x Z1 = 40
Another possible solution for standard module from the table is,
m = 2.5 mm, Z1 = 16, Z2 = i x Z1 = 40,
d1 = m Z1 = 2.5x16=40 mm,
d2 = m Z2 = 2.5 x 40 =100 mm
Minimum number of teeth that can engage the gear of 40 teeth without interference
is given by,
z12 + 2 z1 z2 =
4 k (z2 + k)
sin 2
4
Machine Design II
For full depth gears k = 1. Substituting Z2 = 40, = 20o, in the above equation,
4(40 + 1 )
z 2 + 2 z x 40 =
1
1
sin2 20o
z 2 + 80 z 1402 0
1
1
i.e., Z1min = 15 is the minimum permissible without interference.

Since Z1 > Z1min, no interference will occur.
Contact ratio, CR :
Referring to the fig. 4.1, the path of contact is given by,
La = ua + ur
L ( r a )2 r 2 cos 2
a
1
1
( r a )2 r 2 cos 2 ( r r ) sin
2
2
1 2

L ( 20 2.5 )2 20 2 cos 2 20 o
a
11.854 mm
( 50 2.5 )2 50 2 cos 2 20 o ( 20 50 ) sin 20 o
Now CR can be calculated as,

CR
L
L
11.854
11.854
a
a
1.607
p cos m cos
5.901
x 2.5 x cos 20o
For full depth tooth the values are,

Addendum :
a =1m = 1x2.5 =2.5mm
Dedendum :
b =1.25m =1.25x2.5 = 3.125 mm
5
Machine Design II
Clearance:
c = 0.25 m = 0.25x2.5 = 0.625 mm
[Pinion root circle diameter:
dr1= d1- 2b = 40 2x3.125 = 33.75 mm
da1= d1+ 2a = 40+2x2.5 = 45 mm
Gear root circle diameter:
dr2= d2- 2b = 100 2x3.125 = 93.75 mm
da2= d2+ 2a = 100 + 2x2.5 = 105 mm
New Pressure angle when the centre distance C is increased by 1.5% is given by:
= cos-1( r1 cos20o / r1 1.015) = 22.21o
4.3 GEAR CALCULATIONS- Worked out example 2

A 21 teeth gear has 20o full depth involute teeth with a module of 12mm. (a) Calculate the
radii of pitch circle, base circle and addendum circle (b) Determine the tooth thickness at
base circle, pitch circle and addendum circle. Comment on the top land thickness.
rb
cos
inv tan
t
t 2 r ( 1 inv inv )
2r
1
Fig 4.2 Involutometry
The terminologies used in the problem are explained in earlier chapters. Hence the figures
referred are self explanatory.
6
Machine Design II
Fig. 4.3 Layout for tooth thickness determination at any point on tooth profile
Given Data: Pressure angle, =20o = 0.349 rad., Z1 = 21, m= 12mm.
Solution:
r1 = 0.5.m.Z1 = 0.5 x 12 x 21=126 mm
rb = r1.Cos = 126 x cos 20o = 118.4 mm
a = 1m = 1 x 12 = 12 mm
ra = r1 + a = 126 + 12 = 138 mm
p1 = .m = . 12 = 37.14 mm
t1 = 0.5 p1 = 0.5 x 37.14 = 18.57 mm
inv = tan - = tan 0.349 0.349 = 0.015 rad
7
Machine Design II
At the base circle b= 0, Hence tooth thickness tb at the base circle is:
t
t 2 r ( 1 inv inv )
b
b 2r
b
1
18.57
2 x 118.4 x(
0.015 0 ) 21.0 mm
2 x126
At the addendum circle the pressure angle is given by,

a=cos-1(rb/ra) =cos-1(118.4 /138) =0.54 rad
inv a = tan 0.54 0.54 = 0.059
Hence tooth thickness ta can be calculated as,

t
t 2 r 1 inv inv
a
a 2r
a
1
18.57
t 2 x 138 x
0.015 0.059 8. 20 mm
a
2 x 126
Minimum recommended top land thickness is,

tamin = 0.25 m = 0.25 x 12 = 3 mm
From the above, we know that, ta > tamin, hence the tip thickness is adequate and
permissible.
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8
Machine Design II
Module 2 - GEARS
Lecture 5 - GEAR MANUFACTURING
Contents
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Forming
5.2.1 Casting
5.2.1a Sand casting
5.2.1b Die casting
5.2.1c Investment casting
5.2.2Sintering
5.2.3 Injection molding
5.2.4 Extruding
5.2.5 Cold drawing
5.2.6 Stamping
5.2.7 Preforming
5.2.8 Forging
5.3. Machining
5.3.1 Roughing
5.3.1.1 Form milling
5.3.1.2 Rack generation
5.3.1.3 Gear shaping
5.3.1.4 Hobbing
5.3.2 Finishing
5.2.2.1 Shaving
5.2.2.2 Grinding
5.2.2.3 Burnishing
5.2.2.4 Lapping and honing
5.4. Quality of the gears
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5.1 INTRODUCTION
Gear manufacturing can be divided into two categories namely forming and machining as
shown in flow chart in Fig 5.1. Forming consists of direct casting, molding, drawing, or
extrusion of tooth forms in molten, powdered, or heat softened materials and machining
involves roughing and finishing operations. They are discussed in the different sections of
this chapter.
Fig 5.1 Categories of gear manufacturing process
5.2 FORMING GEAR TEETH

Characteristics: In all tooth-forming operations, the teeth on the gear are formed all at
once from a mold or die into which the tooth shapes have been machined. The accuracy
of the teeth is entirely dependent on the quality of the die or mold and in general is much
less than that can be obtained from roughing or finishing methods. Most of these methods
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have high tooling costs making them suitable only for high production quantities. The
various forming techniques are discussed below in detail:
5.2.1 Casting
Sand casting, die casting and investment casting are the casting processes that are best
suited for gears and are shown in fig 5.2. They are explained in the following sections:
Fig.5.2 Casting processes
5.2.1a Sand Casting

Characteristics:
The characteristics of sand cast gears are,
Cheaper low quality gear in small numbers
The tooling costs are reasonable
Poor Surface finish and dimensional accuracy
Due to low precision and high backlash, they are noisy.
They are suited for non- critical applications
Applications: (without finishing operation)

Sand casting is used for gear manufacture which are used in variety of applications such
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as for toys, small appliances, cement-mixer barrels, hoist gearbox of dam gate lifting
mechanism, hand operated crane etc.,
Materials:
The materials that can be sand cast are C I, cast steel, bronzes, brass and ceramics. The
process is confined to large gears that are machined later to required accuracy.
(a)
(b)
Fig 5.3(a) SAE 4640 cast steel helical gear, (b) Silicon bronze heavy duty drive gears from
200mm to 1600mm diameter
5.2.1b Die casting
Characteristics:
The characteristics of die cast gears are,
Better surface finish and accuracy (tooth spacing and concentricity)
High tooling costs
Suited for large scale production Applications:
Applications:
Gears that are die cast are used in instruments, cameras, business machines, washing
machines, gear pumps, small speed reducers, and lawn movers. Fig. 5.3 shows gears that
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are manufactured by die casting.

Materials:
Materials used to manufacture these gears are zinc, aluminium and brass. The gears
made from this process are not used for high speeds and heavy tooth loading. They are
normally applied for small size gears.
5.2.1c. Investment casting or lost wax process

Characteristics:
The characteristics of gears that are manufactured by investment casting are,
Reasonably accurate gears
Applicable for a variety of materials
Refractory mould material
Allows high melt-temperature materials
Accuracy depends on the original master pattern used for the mold.
Materials:
Tool steel, nitriding steel, monel, beryllium copper are the materials that can be investment
casted for the manufacture of gears. The process is used only if no other process is
suitable since production cost is high. Fig 5.4 shows a wire twister stellite gear which
mates with a rack made by IC. Complicated shape makes it economical to produce by
investment casting process.
Fig. 5.4 Complicated shape of gear manufactured by Investment casting
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5.2.2. Sintering or P/M process:

The powder metallurgy technique used for gear manufacture is shown in fig 5.5.
Characteristics:
Accuracy similar to die-cast gears
Material properties can be Tailor made
Typically suited for small sized gears
Economical for large lot size only
Fig 5.5 Process chart for P/M gear manufacture
As shown in Fig 5.6, for the components manufactured by P/M technique, secondary
machining is not required. Fig 5.7 shows cluster gears, different types of gears that can be
combined and keyways can be built-in.
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Fig. 5.6. Components manufactured by sintering
Fig 5.7 Cluster gears, combination of gears and gears with key ways
Fig 5.8 shows helical gears and combination of gears made by P/M or sintering process.
Material utilization is more than 95% in this manufacturing process. The material
utilizations of forged and sintered processes are shown in Fig 5.9.
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Fig 5.8 Helical gears and combination of gears
Fig. 5.9 Material utilization of forged and sintered processes

Fig 5.10 shows the P/M gear production by hot forging process and the manufactured
components are shown in fig 5.11.
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Fig 5.10 P/M gear production by hot forging process
(b)
(a)
Fig 5.11 P/M gears by hot forging process
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5.2.3. Injection Molding:

Injection molding is used to make nonmetallic gears in various thermoplastics such as
nylon and acetal. These are low precision gears in small sizes but have the advantages of
low cost and the ability to be run without lubricant at light loads.
Applications:
Injection molded gears are used in cameras, projectors, wind shield wipers, speedometer,
lawn sprinklers, washing machine. They are shown in fig.5.12 and 5.13.
Materials:
The materials for injection molding components are Nylon, cellulose acetate, polystyrene,
polyimide, phenolics.
Fig. 5.12 IM camera gears
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Fig 5.13 Food mixer
Fig 5.14 Compression molded gear
5.2.4 Extruding
Extruding is used to form teeth on long rods, which are then cut into usable lengths and
machined for bores and keyways etc. Nonferrous materials such as aluminum and copper
alloys are commonly extruded rather than steels. This result in good surface finishes with
clean edges and pore free dense structure with higher strength. Table 5.1 shows various
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extruded sections along with their number of teeth, outside diameter, pitch diameter, root
diameter, pitch and tooth thickness.
Fig. 5.15 Extruded gears

Materials:
Aluminum, copper, naval brass, architect-ural bronze and phosphor bronze are the
materials that are commonly extruded.
Applications:
Splined hollow & solid shafts, sector gears are extruded and various gears are shown in fig
5.15.
Table 5.1 Specifications of various extruded sections
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The progression in the formation of a gear blank by cold forming is shown in fig 5.16 and
the stages in the extrusion of a gear is shown in fig 5. 17.
Fig 5.16 Progression of a cold formed gear blank
Fig 5.17 Stages in extrusion of a gear
Helical gears manufactured by extrusion are shown below in fig 5.18.
Fig 5.18 Helical gear made by extrusion

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5.2.5. Cold Drawing:

Cold drawing forms teeth on steel rods by drawing them through hardened dies. The cold
working increases strength and reduces ductility.
The rods are then cut into usable
lengths and machined for bores and keyways, etc.
Fig 5.19 For cold drawing, the 11-tooth pinion below is enlarged by AGMA-ASA
standard to the form above, avoiding undercut and giving radius rather than sharp
corners
5.2.6. Stamping:
Sheet metal can be stamped with tooth shapes to form low precision gears at low cost in
high quantities. The surface finish and accuracy of these gears are poor.
Applications:
Stamped gears are used as toy gears, hand operated machine gears for slow speed
mechanism.
5.2.6 a Precision stamping:
In precision stamping, the dies are made of higher precision with close tolerances wherein
the stamped gears will not have burrs.
Applications:
Clock gears, watch gears etc.
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5.2.7. Preforming
For close die forging the feed stock has to be very near to the net shape and this is
obtained by performing. This is explained by flow diagrams both in sinter forging and
precision hot forging.
5.2.8 Forging:
The steps in forging process are represented in fig 5.20 and the forged gears are shown in
fig 5.21.
Fig 5.20 Procedure for forging of gears
Fig 5.21 Various forged gears

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5.3 MACHINING
The bulk of power transmitting metal gears of machinery are produced by machining
process from cast, forged, or hot rolled blanks. Refer fig 5.1 for classification of machining
processes. Roughing processes include milling the tooth shape with formed cutters or
generating the shape with a rack cutter, a shaping cutter or a hob cutter which are shown
in fig 5.22.
Fig 5.22 Various gear cutters

Despite its name, the roughing processes actually produce a smooth and accurate gear
tooth. Only for high precision and quiet running, the secondary finishing operation is
justified at added cost.
5.3.1 Roughing processes:

Roughing process consists of forming, generation, shaping and hobbing processes. By this
method gears are made to an accuracy which is more than adequate for the slow speed
operations. These processes are dealt here.
5.3.1.1 Form milling:

Forming is sub-divided into milling by disc cutters and milling by end mill cutter which are
having the shape of tooth space.
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5.3.1.1a Form milling by disc cutter:

The disc cutter shape conforms to the gear tooth space. Each gear needs a separate
cutter. However, with 8 to 10 standard cutters, gears from 12 to 120 teeth can be cut with
fair accuracy. Tooth is cut one by one by plunging the rotating cutter into the blank as
shown in fig 5.23.
Fig 5.23 Form milling by disc cutter
5.3.1.1b Form milling by end mill cutter:

The end mill cutter shape conforms to tooth spacing. Each tooth is cut at a time and then
indexed for next tooth space for cutting. A set of 10 cutters will do for 12 to 120 teeth
gears. It is suited for a small volume production of low precision gears. The form milling by
end mill cutter is shown in fig 5.24.
Fig 5.24 Form milling by end mill cutter

To reduce costs, the same cutter is often used for the multiple-sized gears resulting in
profile errors for all but one number of teeth. Form milling method is the least accurate of
all the roughing methods.
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5.3.1.2a Rack generation:

In rack cutter the tooth shape is trapezoid and can be made easily. The hardened and
sharpened rack is reciprocated along the axis of the gear blank and fed into it while gear
blank is being rotated so as to generate the involute tooth on the gear blank as shown in
fig 5.25.
Fig 5.25 Generation of involute tooth on gear blank
The rack and gear blank must be periodically repositioned to complete the circumference.
This introduces errors in the tooth geometry making this method less accurate than
shaping and hobbing.
(a)
(b)
Fig 5.26 (a) (b) Rack generations
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The process is limited to small gears since the length of the rack has to be equal to
circumference of the gear at pitch diameter. The generation of spur gear by planing is
shown in fig 5.27.
Fig 5.27 generation of spur gear by planing
5.3.1.2b Gear shaping:

Gear shaping used a cutting tool in the shape of a gear which is reciprocated axially
across the gear blank to cut the teeth while the blank rotates around the shaper tool. It is a
true shape-generation process in which the gear-shaped tool cuts itself into mesh with the
gear blank as shown in fig 5.28. The accuracy is good, but any errors in one tooth of the
shaper cutter will be directly transferred to the gear. Internal gears can be cut with this
method as well.
Fig 5.28 Gear shaping

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5.3.1.2c Hobbing:
Hob teeth are shaped to match the tooth space and are interrupted with grooves to provide
cutting surfaces. It rotates about an axis normal to that of the gear blank, cutting into the
rotating blank to generate the teeth as shown in fig 5.29.
Fig 5.29 Hobbing

It is the most accurate of the roughing processes since no repositioning of tool or blank is
required and each tooth is cut by multiple hob-teeth, averaging out any tool errors.
Excellent surface finish is achieved by this method and it is widely used for production of
gears.
5.3.2.2 Finishing Processes:

When high precision is required secondary operation can be performed to gears made by
any of the above roughing methods. Finishing operations typically removes little or no
material but improves dimensional accuracy, surface finish, and or hardness. The various
finishing processes are shown in fig 5.1.
5.2.2a Shaving:
Shaving is similar to gear shaping, but uses accurate shaving tools to remove small
amounts of material from a roughed gear to correct profile errors and improve surface
finish. Shaving operation is shown in fig 5.30.
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Fig 5.30 External gear being shaved
5.2.2b Grinding:
In grinding, a contoured grinding wheel is run over machined surface of the gear teeth
using computer control. With a small amount of metal removal high surface finish is
obtained. Fig 5.31 shows grinding operations and dressing of the wheel.
Fig 5.31 (a) Grinding the flanks only, (b) Grinding root and flanks, (c) Grinding each
flank separately with twin grinding wheels and (d) Pantograph dressing of the wheel
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Grinding is used to correct the heat-treatment distortion in gears hardened after roughing.
Improvement in surface finish and error correction of earlier machining are added
advantages. Grinding operation for gears can be done by profile grinding or form grinding
as shown in fig 5.32 and 5.33.
(a)
(b)
Fig 5.32 (a) Maag zero pressure angle profile grinding and (b) Maag profile grinding
Fig 5.33 David Brown form grinding of worm threads
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5.2.2c Burnishing:
In burnishing, a specially hardened gear is run over rough machined gear. The high forces
at the tooth interface cause plastic yielding of the gear tooth surface which improves finish
and work hardens the surface creating beneficial compressive residual stresses.
5.2.2d Lapping and Honing:

Lapping and honing both employ an abrasive-impregnated gear or gear-shaped tool that is
run against the gear to abrade the surface. In both cases, the abrasive tool drives the gear
in what amounts to an accelerated and controlled run-in to improve surface finish and the
accuracy. Fig 5.34 shows lapping operation for bevel gears.
Fig 5.34 Special bevel gears being lapped
5.3. Quality of the Gear:

The quality of gear gives its accuracy, dimensional and profile which dictates the suitability
of gears for different operations.
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Various standards for assuring the quality of gears are,
The AGMA standard 2000-A88 defines dimension tolerance for gear teeth and a
quality index Qv that ranges from the lowest quality 3 to the highest precision 16.
DIN 3962 defines quality index in another way. Highest quality is assigned number
1 and the lowest quality is assigned number 12.
Based on the machining/production techniques the accuracy of gears varies viz., with the
pitch error, profile errors and surface finish, the Qv varies. These errors give rise to
vibration in the gears and affect their smooth running. Consequently the gear quality limits
their speed of operation. The various gear manufacturing processes and the
corresponding dynamic load factors at various speeds are depicted in Fig. 5.35. The
limiting speeds and dynamic load factors for various quality of gears is shown in Fig. 5.36
Fig. 5.35 Various gear manufacturing processes, their operating speed limits and
dynamic load factors
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(b)
Fig. 5.36 Gear quality, their limiting speeds and dynamic load factors
Table 5.2 Allowable velocities and applications of gears of various accuracy grades
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Module 2 - GEARS
Lecture 6 GEAR FAILURE
Contents
6.1. Introduction
Modes of Gear Failure
6.2 Scoring
6.2.1. Initial Scoring
6.2.2. Moderate Scoring
6.2.3. Destructive Scoring
6.2.4. Frosting
6.3 Wear
6.3.1. Adhesive
6.3.2. Abrasive
6.3.3. Corrosive
6.4. Pitting
6.4.1. Subsurface origin failure
6.4. 2. Surface origin failure
6.5. Plastic Flow
6.5. 1. Cold flow
6.5. 2. Ridging
6.5. 3. Rippling
6.6. Tooth Breakage
6.6. 1. Fatigue breakage
6.6. 2. Overload breakage
6.7. Gear noise
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6.1 INTRODUCTION
Gear failure can occur in various modes. In this chapter details of failure are
given. If care is taken during the design stage itself to prevent each of these
failure a sound gear design can be evolved. The gear failure is explained by
means of flow diagram in Fig.. 1.
Fig. 6.1 Different modes of failure
6.1 SCORING:
Scoring is due to combination of two distinct activities: First, lubrication failure in
the contact region and second, establishment of metal to metal contact. Later
on, welding and tearing action resulting from metallic contact removes the metal
rapidly and continuously so far the load, speed and oil temperature remain at the
same level. The scoring is classified into initial, moderate and destructive.
6.1.1 INITIAL SCORING

Initial scoring occurs at the high spots left by previous machining. Lubrication
failure at
these spots leads to initial scoring or scuffing as shown in Fig. 6.2.
Once these high spots are removed, the stress comes down as the load is
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distributed over a larger area. The scoring will then stop if the load, speed and
temperature of oil remain unchanged or reduced. Initial scoring is nonprogressive and has corrective action associated with it.
Fig. 6.2 Initial scoring
6.1.2 MODERATE SCORING

After initial scoring if the load, speed or oil temperature increases, the scoring will
spread over to a larger area. The Scoring progresses at tolerable rate. This is
called moderate scoring as shown in Fig. 6.3.
Fig. 6.3 Moderate scoring
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6.1.3 DESTRUCTIVE SCORING

After the initial scoring, if the load, speed or oil temperature increases
appreciably, then severe scoring sets in with heavy metal torn regions spreading
quickly throughout as shown in Fig. 6.4. Scoring is normally predominant over
the pitch line region since elastohydrodynamic lubrication is the least at that
region. In dry running surfaces may seize.
Fig. 6.4 Destructive scoring
6.2 WEAR
As per gear engineers point of view, the wear is a kind of tooth damage where in
layers of metal are removed more or less uniformly from the surface. It is nothing
but progressive removal of metal from the surface. Consequently tooth thins
down and gets weakened. Three most common causes of gear tooth wear are
metal-to-metal contact due to lack of oil film, ingress of abrasive particles in the
oil and chemical wear due to the composition of oil and its additives. Wear is
classified as adhesive, abrasive and chemical wear.
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6.2.1 ADHESIVE WEAR MILD / POLISHING WEAR

Unlike scoring, adhesive wear is hard to detect. It occurs right from the start.
Since the rate of wear is very low, it may take millions of cycles for noticeable
wear. Prior to full load transmission, gears are run in at various fractions of full
load for several cycles.
Fig. 6.5 Polishing wear

The surface peaks are quashed over a long period of running and the surface
gets polished appearance. Hence this is known as mild or polishing wear as
shown in Fig. 6.5.
6.2.1a MODERATE ADHESIVE WEAR:
Fig. 6.6 Moderate adhesive wear

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When the load and speed of operation are more than mild wear conditions,
moderate wear takes place with higher rate. Worn out portions appear bright and
shiny. Yet it occurs over a long period. A typical example of this wear in helical
gear is shown in the Fig. 6.6.
6.2.2 ABRASIVE WEAR

Abrasive wear is the principal reason for the failure of open gearing and closed
gearing of machinery operating in media polluted by abrasive materials.
Examples are mining machinery; cement mills; road laying, building construction,
agricultural and transportation machinery, and certain other machines. In all
these cases, depending on the size, shape and concentration of the abrasives,
the wear will change. Abrasive wear is classified as mild and severe.
6.2.2a MILD ABRASION

Mild abrasion is noticed when there is ingress of fine dust particles in lubricating
oil which are abrasive in nature. Since abrasive is very fine, the rate of metal
removal is slow. It takes a long time for perceptible wear.
Fig. 6.7 Mild abrasion

The surface appears as though it is polished. A spiral bevel pinion with mild
abrasion is shown in Fig. 6.7. Mild abrasive wear is faced in cement mills, ore
grinding mills. Fine dust particles entering the lubricating medium cause three
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body abrasions. The prior machining marks disappear and surface appears
highly polished as shown in Fig.. 6.8. Noticeable wear occurs only over a long
time. Sealing improvement and slight pressurization of the gear box with air can
reduce the entry of dust particles and decrease this wear.
Fig. 6.8 Mild abrasion

6.2.2b SEVERE ABRASION
This wear occurs due to ingress of larger abrasive particles in the lubricating
medium and higher concentration of the particles. The particles will plough a
series of groove on the surface in the direction of sliding on the gear tooth as
seen in the Fig. 6.9. High rate of wear in this case will quickly reduce the tooth
thickness. Thinned tooth may later on fracture leading to total failure.
Fig. 6.9 Severe abrasion

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6.2.3 CORROSIVE WEAR

Corrosive wear is due to the chemical action of the lubricating oil or the additives.
Tooth is roughened due to wear and can be seen in the Fig. 6.10 (a). Chemical
wear of flank of internal gear caused by acidic lubricant is shown in Fig. 6.10 (b).
(a)
(b)
Fig. 6.10 Corrosive wear
6.3 PITTING OF GEARS

Pitting is a surface fatigue failure of the gear tooth. It occurs due to repeated
loading of tooth surface and the contact stress exceeding the surface fatigue
strength of the material. Material in the fatigue region gets removed and a pit is
formed. The pit itself will cause stress concentration and soon the pitting spreads
to adjacent region till the whole surface is covered. Subsequently, higher impact
load resulting from pitting may cause fracture of already weakened tooth.
However, the failure process takes place over millions of cycles of running.
There are two types of pitting, initial and progressive.
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6.3.1 INITIAL / INCIPIENT PITTING

Initial pitting occurs during running-in period wherein oversized peaks on the
surface get dislodged and small pits of 25 to 50 m deep are formed just below
pitch line region. Later on, the load gets distributed over a larger surface area
and the stress comes down which may stop the progress of pitting.
Fig. 6.11 Initial pitting
In the helical gear shown in Fig. 6.11 pitting started as a local overload due to
slight misalignment and progressed across the tooth in the dedendum portion to
mid face. Here, the pitting stopped and the pitted surfaces began to polish up
and burnish over. This phenomenon is common with medium hard gears. On
gears of materials that run in well, pitting may cease after running in, and it has
practically no effect on the performance of the drive since the pits that are formed
gradually become smoothed over from the rolling action. The initial pitting is nonprogressive.
6.3.2 PROGRESSIVE OR DESTRUCTIVE PITTING

During initial pitting, if the loads are high and the corrective action of initial pitting
is unable to suppress the pitting progress, then destructive pitting sets in. Pitting
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spreads all over the tooth length. Pitting leads to higher pressure on the unpitted
surface, squeezing the lubricant into the pits and finally to seizing of surfaces.
Fig. 6.12 Tooth surface destroyed by extensive pitting
Pitting begins on the tooth flanks near the line along the tooth passing through
the pitch point where there are high friction forces due to the low sliding velocity.
Then it spreads to the whole surface of the flank. Tooth faces are subjected to
pitting only in rare cases. Fig. 6.12 shows how in destructive pitting, pitting has
spread over the whole tooth and weakened tooth has fractured at the tip leading
to total failure.
Fig. 6.13 Whole tooth is destroyed by extensive pitting
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6.3.2a FLAKING / SPALLING

In surface-hardened gears, the variable stresses in the underlying layer may lead
to surface fatigue and result in flaking (spalling) of material from the surface as
shown in Fig. 6.14.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 6.14 Flaking / Spalling
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6.3.3 PITTING - SUBSURFACE ORIGIN FAILURE:

Fig. 6.15 shows the subsurface origin failure.
Fig. 6.15 Subsurface origin failure
6.3.4 PITTING - SURFACE ORIGIN FAILURE:

Failure modes in gear namely the surface origin failure is shown in Fig. 6.16.
Fig. 6.16 Surface origin failure
6.3.5 PROGRASSIVE PITTING:

The progressive pitting is shown in Fig. 6.17.
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(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 6.17 Progressive pitting
6.3.6 PITTING - FROSTING

Frosting usually occurs in dedendum portion of the driving gear first and later on
the addendum as shown in Fig. 6.18. The wear pattern doesnt have normal
metal polish but has etched-like finish.
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Fig. 6.18 Frosting
Under magnification, surface reveals very fine micro-pits of 2.5m deep. These
patterns follow the higher ridges caused by cutter marks. Frosting results from
very thin oil film and some asperity contact.
6.3.7 PITTING FAILURE

Surface endurance strength determines the selection of dimensions and material
for almost all gearing operating under conditions of the best possible lubrication.
6.4 PLASTIC FLOW COLD FLOW

Plastic flow of tooth surface results when it is subjected to high contact stress
under rolling cum sliding action. Surface deformation takes place due to yielding
of surface or subsurface material. Normally it occurs in softer gear materials. But
it can occur even in heavily loaded case hardened gears. Cold flow material over
the tooth tip can be seen clearly in the bevel gear shown in the Fig. 6.19.
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Fig. 6.19 Plastic flow - cold flow
6.4.1 PLASTIC FLOW DUE TO OVERHEATING

The plastic flow due to overheating is shown in Fig. 6.20.
Fig. 6.20 Damage to a case hardened gear resulting from overheating

associated with insufficient lubrication
6.4.2 PLASTIC FLOW RIDGING / GROOVING

When moderately loaded softer gears run for sometime, they develop a narrow
band of bright finish along the pitch line. It is due to reversal of direction of sliding
at the pitch line. After running for a longer time or with heavier load, the pair of
gears in ductile steel will often exhibit ridge along the pitch line of wheel and
groove in the pitch line of the pinion as shown in Fig. 6.21.
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Fig. 6.21 Plastic flow Ridging / Grooving

In accordance with the direction of the friction forces, the plastic flow of the
material on the teeth of driven gear is toward the pitch point and leads to the
formation of a ridge at the line passing through this point. In driving gears the
flow is away from this line and a groove is formed. Too low viscosity of the
lubricant and lack of surface hardness are the reasons.
6.4.5 RIPPLING IN SPIRAL BEVEL PINION

Rippling is a periodic wave-like formation at right angles to the direction of
sliding. It has fish scale appearance and is usually seen on hardened gear
surface. It is a kind of wear or plastic deformation in micro form with very thin oil
films. Such a failure in a Spiral bevel pinion is shown in the Fig. 6.22.
Fig. 6.22 Rippling in spiral bevel pinion

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6.5 TOOTH FRACTURE

Tooth fracture is the most dangerous kind of gear failure and leads to
disablement of the drive and frequently to damage of other components (shafts,
bearings, etc.) by pieces of the broken teeth. Tooth breakage may be the result
of high overloads of either impact or static in nature, repeated overloads causing
low-cycle fatigue, or multiple repeated loads leading to high cycle fatigue of the
material.
6.5.1 TOOTH BREAKAGE BENDING FATIGUE

Bending fatigue failure occurs over a long period of time. The initiation of crack
takes place at the weakest point, normally at the root of the tooth or at the fillet
where high stress concentration exists together with highest tensile stress from
bending or from the surface defects as shown in Fig. 6.23. The crack slowly
propagates over 80 to 90% of the life.
Fig. 6.23 Root crack

Then crack propagates fast and suddenly results in fracture of the tooth as
shown in Fig. 6.24. The fractured surface will exhibit beach marks in the slow
crack propagation region and brittle fracture behaviour in sudden fracture region.
Since time taken for the failure is very long, it is known as high cycle fatigue.
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Fig. 6.24 Tooth breakage
6.5.2 TOOTH BREAKAGE HIGH CYCLE FATIGUE

The tooth breakage in case of high cycle fatigue is shown in Fig. 6.25.
Fig. 6.25 High cycle fatigue
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6.5.3 TOOTH BREAKAGE LOW CYCLE FATIGUE (OVER LOAD):

Overload breakage or short (low) cycle fatigue causes stringy fibrous appearance
in broken ductile material. In harder materials this break has a more silky or
crystalline appearance as shown in Fig. 6.26.
Fig. 6.26 Low cycle fatigue (over load)
6.5.4 TOOTH BREAKAGE BENDING FATIGUE:

The Fig. 6.27 shows tooth fatigue by bending fatigue.
Fig. 6.27 Bending fatigue

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6.5.5 TOOTH BREAKAGE:

Breakage is often due to load concentration along the tooth length as a result of
errors in machining and assembly or of large elastic deformation of the shafts;
tooth wear leading to weakening of the teeth results in increased dynamic loads.
Shifting of sliding gears into mesh takes place without stopping the rotation of the
shafts. Cracks are usually formed at the root of the teeth on the side of the
stretched fibers where the highest tensile stresses occur together with local
stresses due to the shape of the teeth. Fracture occurs mainly at a cross section
through the root of the teeth.
In the case of fatigue failure, the fracture is of concave form in the body of the
gear; it is of convex form when the failure is from overload.
The teeth of
herringbone or wide-face helical gears usually break off along a slanting cross
section. To prevent tooth breakage, the beam strength of the gear teeth is
checked by calculations. Fatigue pitting of the surface layers of the gear teeth is
the most serious and widespread kind of tooth damage that may occur in gears
even when they are enclosed, well lubricated and protected against dirt.
6.6 GEAR NOISE

The gear noise arises due to several reasons. At the contact point due to error in
the gear profile, surface roughness, impact of tooth and sliding and rolling
friction; bearings, churning of the lubricant, and windage.
The principal methods of combating noise are: improving the tooth finishing
operations, changing over to helical gearing, modifying the profile by flanking,
increasing the contact ratio, equalizing the load along the face width of the tooth
rim, using crowned gears, and improving the design of the covers and housings.
---------
Machine Design II
Module 2 - GEARS
Lecture 7 - SPUR GEAR DESIGN
Contents
7.1 Spur gear tooth force analysis
7.2 Spur gear - tooth stresses
7.3 Tooth bending stress Lewis equation
7.4 Tooth bending stress AGMA procedure
7.5 Bending fatigue strength AGMA procedure
7.6 Permissible bending stress
7.7 Buckingham equation for dynamic load on gears
7.1 SPUR GEAR TOOTH FORCE ANALYSIS
Fig. 7.1 Spur gear tooth force analysis

As shown in Fig.. 7.1, the normal force F can be resolved into two components; a
tangential force F t which does transmit the power and radial component F r which does
no work but tends to push the gears apart. They can hence be written as,
F t = F cos
(7. 1)
F r = F sin
(7.2)
From eqn. (7.2),

F r = F t tan
(7.3)
The pitch line velocity V, in meters per second, is given as
dn
6000
(7.4)
Machine Design II
Ft V
1000
(7.5)
where d is the pitch diameter of the gear in millimeters and n is the rotating speed in
rpm and W power in kW.
7.2 SPUR GEAR - TOOTH STRESSES
Fig. 7.2 Photo-elastic Model of gear tooth

Stresses developed by Normal force in a photo-elastic model of gear tooth as per Dolan
and Broghammer are shown in the Fig.. 7.2. The highest stresses exist at regions
where the lines are bunched closest together. The highest stress occurs at two
locations:
A. At contact point where the force F acts
B. At the fillet region near the base of the tooth.
7.3 SPUR GEAR - LEWIS EQUATION FOR TOOTH BENDING STRESS
Fig. 7.3 Gear tooth as cantilever beam

Machine Design II
Lewis considered gear tooth as a cantilever beam with static normal force F applied at
the tip.
Assumptions made in the derivation are:
1. The full load is applied to the tip of a single tooth in static condition.
2. The radial component is negligible.
3. The load is distributed uniformly across the full face width.
4. Forces due to tooth sliding friction are negligible.
5. Stress concentration in the tooth fillet is negligible.
The Fig. 7.3 shows clearly that the gear tooth is stronger through out than the inscribed
constant strength parabola, except for the section at a where parabola and tooth profile
are tangential to each other.
At point a, bending stress is
Mc 6Ft h
I
b t2
(7.6 )
By similar triangles,
t
2
2 h or t 4x
x t
h
2
(7.7)
Substituting of Eqn. (7.7) in Eqn. (7.6), it gives
6Ft
4b x
(7.8)
2x
3p
(7.9)
where y is defined as the Lewis form factor .

And substituting Eqn. (7.9) in Eqn. (7.8) we get
Ft
bp y
(7.10)
Eqn. 7.10 is the basic Lewis equation in terms of circular pitch.

In SI units gears are more often made to standard modules. Hence by substituting
Machine Design II
p m in equation (7.10), we get
Ft
b ym
(7.11)
Let Y = y, which is known as modified Lewis form factor, then
Ft
bYm
(7.12)
Eqn. 12 is the standard Lewis equation for tooth bending stress based on module.
Both Y and y are functions of tooth shape (but not size) and therefore vary with the
number of teeth in the gear. These values can be obtained from Table 7.1 or Graph in
Fig. 7.4.
Table 7.1 VALUES OF LEWIS FORM FACTOR
Machine Design II
Fig. 7.4 spur gear - graph 1 for modified Lewis form factor
The Lewis equation indicates that tooth bending stress varies with the following:
Ft
bY m
(7.12)
(1) Directly with load,

(2) Inversely with tooth width b,
(3) Inversely with tooth size p or m,
(4) Inversely with tooth shape factor y or Y.
Drawbacks of Lewis equation are:
1. The tooth load in practice is not static. It is dynamic and is influenced by pitch line
velocity.
2. The whole load is carried by single tooth is not correct. Normally load is shared
by teeth since contact ratio is near to 1.5.
3. The greatest force exerted at the tip of the tooth is not true as the load is shared
by teeth. It is exerted much below the tip when single pair contact occurs.
4. The stress concentration effect at the fillet is not considered.
Machine Design II
SPUR GEAR MODIFIED LEWIS EQUATION FOR BENDING STRESS

The modified Lewis equation for bending stress is,
Ft
K bYm
'
v
(7.13)
where K v is known as velocity factor and is given by Barths equation below for known
pitch line velocity V in m/s and is given by,
K 'v
6
6 V
(7.14)
Eqn. (7.14) is used for cut or milled teeth or for gears not carefully generated.
K 'v
50
50 (200V)0.5
(7.15)
Eqn. (7.15) is used for hobbed and shaped gears.
78
K
0.5
78 (200V)
0.5
'
v
(7.16)
Eqn. (7.16) is used for high-precision shaved or ground teeth.

The modified Lewis equation given in eqn. 7.13 is used when fatigue failure of the gear
teeth is not a problem and a quick estimate is desired for more detailed analysis.
SPUR GEAR - TOOTH BENDING STRESS

Factors that influence gear tooth bending stresses are as follows:
1. Pitch line velocity.
2. Manufacturing accuracy.
3. Contact ratio.
4. Stress concentration.
5. Degree of shock loading.
6. Accuracy and rigidity of mounting.
7.
Moment of inertia of the gears and attached rotating Members.
Machine Design II
7.4 SPUR GEAR TOOTH BENDING STRESS (AGMA)

Accommodating the earlier mentioned factors, American Gear Manufacturing
Association (AGMA) came up with a refined form of Lewis equation as given below:
Ft
K K K
bmJ v o m
Where,
(7.17)
J = Spur gear geometry factor. This factor includes the Lewis form factor Y
and also a stress concentration factor based on a tooth fillet radius of 0.35/P. It also
depends on the number teeth in the mating gear.
J=
Where,
Y
Kf
(7.18)
Y is the modified Lewis form factor dealt earlier and
K f is the fatigue stress concentration factor given below:

L
t t
Kf H
r l
Where,
(7.19)
H = 0.34 0.458 366 2 ------- (7.20)

L = 0.316 0.458 366 2 ------ (7.21)
M = 0.290 + 0.458 366 2 ------ (7.22)
Fig. 7.4.Maximum Tooth loading

Machine Design II
rf (b rf )2
(7.23)
(d / 2) b rf
Where, r f is the fillet radius, d is the pitch diameter and b is the dedendum.
r
J value can also be obtained from the Table 7.2 or Fig.7.5

Table 7.2 AGMA Geometry factor J for teeth having = 20o, a = 1m, b = 1.25m
and r f = 0.3m
Fig. 7.5 Graph 2 AGMA geometry (J) factor

Machine Design II
K v - Velocity factor given by eqns. (7.24) to (7.26)

K o = overload factor, given in Table 7.3
K m = Load distribution factor, given in Table 7.4
K v = Velocity or dynamic factor, indicates the severity of impact as successive pairs of
teeth engage. This is a function of pitch line velocity and manufacturing accuracy. It is
given by inverse of Barths equation (7.24), (7.25) & (7.26) or very rough value from the
Fig.7 6.
Kv
6 V
6
(7.24)
Eqn. (7.24) is used for cut or milled teeth or for gears not carefully generated.
Kv
50 (200V)0.5
50
(7.25)
Eqn. (7.25) is used for hobbed and shaped gears.
78 (200V) 0.5
Kv
78
0.5
(7.26)
Eqn. (7.26) is used for high-precision shaved or ground teeth.
Fig. 7.6 Velocity factor K v

K o = Overload factor which reflects the
torques. It is given in Table 7.3
degree of non-uniformity of driving and load
Machine Design II
K m = Load distribution factor which accounts for non-uniform spread of the load across
the face width. It depends on the accuracy of mounting, bearings, shaft deflection and
accuracy of gears.
Table 7. 3 -Overload factor K o

Driven Machinery
Source of power Uniform Moderate Shock Heavy Shock
Uniform
1.00
1.25
1.75
Light shock
1.25
1.50
2.00
Medium shock
1.50
1.75
2.25
Table 7.4 Load distribution factor K m

Face width ( mm)
Characteristics of Support
0 - 50
150
225
400 up
Accurate mountings, small bearing

clearances, minimum deflection, precision
gears
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.8
Less rigid mountings, less accurate gears,

contact across the full face
1.6
1.7
1.8
2.2
Accuracy and mounting such that less than

full-face contact exists
Over 2.2
Over 2.2
Over 2.2
Over 2.2
7.5 SPUR GEAR PERMISSIBLE TOOTH BENDING STRESS (AGMA)

Endurance limit of the material is given by:
e = e kL kv ks kr kT kf km
(7.27)
Where, e endurance limit of rotating-beam specimen

k L = load factor , = 1.0 for bending loads
Machine Design II
k v = size factor, = 1.0 for m < 5 mm and

= 0.85 for m > 5 mm
k s = surface factor, is taken from Fig. 7.7 based on the ultimate tensile strength of the
material
for cut, shaved, and ground gears.
k r = reliability factor given in Table 7.5.
k T = temperature factor, = 1 for T 350oC
= 0.5 for 350 < T 500oC
Fig. 7.7 Surface factor k s

Table 7.5 Reliability Factor k r
k f = fatigue stress concentration factor. Since this factor is included in J factor, its value
is taken as 1.
k m = Factor for miscellaneous effects. For idler gears subjected to two way bending, =
1. For other gears subjected to one way bending, the value is taken from the
Fig.7.8. Use k m = 1.33 for ut less than 1.4 GPa.
Machine Design II
Fig. 7.8 - Miscellaneous effects factor k m
7.6 Permissible bending stress
[]
e
s
(7.28)
where s is the factor of safety.

Hence the design equation from bending consideration is :
[]
(7.29)
7.7 SPUR GEARS BUCKINGHAMS DYNAMIC LOAD EQUATION

Buckinghams dynamic load equation (1932):
According to him, small machining error and deflection of teeth under load cause
periods of acceleration, inertia forces, and impact loads on the teeth similar to variable
load superimposed on a steady load. The total maximum instantaneous load on the
teeth or dynamic load is F d
Machine Design II
Fig. 7.9 Dynamic loading on gear
Fd = Ft + Fi
(7.30)
9.84V (Cb +Ft )

Fi
9.84V + 0.4696 Cb+Ft
(7.31)
Where
F d dynamic load, N
F t transmitted load, N
F i increment load due to machining errors and the pitch line velocity
V pitch line velocity, m/s
b face width, mm
C factor depending on machining error
Table 7.6 Value of C for spur gears
Machine Design II
Fig. 7.10 Graph 6 Permissible error
Table 7.7 Expected error in tooth profile
SPUR GEARS BUCKINGHAMS DYNAMIC LOAD FOR DESIGN

Lewis equation is,
Ft
bYm
(7.12)
Machine Design II
Rearranging eqn 12,

Ft = b Y m
(7.32)
If we substitute permissible stress in Eqn. (7.32) we get on the right side, beam or tooth
strength of the gear F td as,
F td = [] b Y m
(7.33)
From design point of view Ftd Fd
-----------
Machine Design II
Module 2- GEARS
Lecture 8 SPUR GEAR DESIGN
Contents
8.1 Surface durability basic concepts
8.2 Surface failures
8.3 Buckingham contact stress equation
8.4 Contact stress AGMA procedure
8.5 Surface fatigue strength AGMA procedure
8.6 Gear materials
8.1 SURFACE DURABILITY BASIC CONCEPTS

Earlier various types of gear failures have been discussed in detail. Under contact
conditions, gear teeth are subjected to Hertzian contact stresses and elastohydrodynamic lubrication. Excessive loading and lubrication breakdown can cause
combinations of abrasion, pitting and scoring.
Fig. 8.1 Single tooth contact
Machine Design II
Fig. 8.1 shows the contact of a gear and pinion tooth at the tip. The instantaneous
contact point velocities of gear and pinion are vectorially denoted by Vg and Vp
a. The individual velocity can be resolved into two components normal and tangent
to the tooth surface as Vpn and Vpt for the pinion and Vgn and Vgt for the gear
respectively.
b. When the teeth do not separate or crush together, the components Vpn and Vgn
normal to the surface must be the same.
c. Hence tangential velocity components of the surface are different.
d. The sliding velocity is the difference between Vpt and Vgt
Fig. 8.2 Gear tooth contact position during operation.
If the contact is at the pitch point P in Fig. 8.2, the sliding velocity is zero; the tooth
relative motion is of pure rolling.
a) At all the other contact points, the relative motion is one of pure rolling and
sliding.
Machine Design II
b) The sliding velocity is directly proportional to the distance between the pitch point
and the point of contact
c) The maximum sliding velocity occurs with contacts at the tooth tips.
d) Gear teeth with longer addenda have higher sliding velocities than gears with
shorter addenda.
The relative sliding velocity reverses the direction as a pair of teeth roll through the pitch
point. During approach, the sliding friction forces tend to compress the teeth and during
recess friction forces tend to elongate the teeth to give smoother action.
8.2 SURFACE FAILURES

a. Gear teeth are also subjected to Hertz contact stresses and the lubrication is often
elastohydrodynamic.
b. Excessive loading and lubrication breakdown results in various combinations of
abrasion, pitting and scoring.
1. Abrasive wear is caused

a) by the presence of foreign particles, in gears that are not enclosed,
b) in enclosed gears that were assembled with abrasive particles present,
c) in gears lubricated by an oil supply with inadequate filtration.
2. Scoring:
a) It occurs at high speeds when adequate lubrication is not provided by the
elasto-hydrodynamic action.
b) Lack of lubrication causes high sliding friction. High tooth loading and high
sliding velocities that produce a high rate of heat in the localized contact
region causes welding and tearing of surfaces apart.
c) Scoring can often be prevented by directing adequate flow of appropriate
lubricant that maintains hydrodynamic lubrication.
Machine Design II
d) Surface finish is also an important factor for scoring. Surface finish as fine
as 0.5m cla is desirable to avoid scoring.
3. Pitting or surface fatigue failure:
Complex stresses within the contact zone cause surface and subsurface fatigue
failures. Pitting occurs only after a large a number of repeated loading mainly in the
vicinity of the pitch line where the oil film breaks down because of zero sliding velocity.
8.3 SPUR GEAR BUCKINGHAM CONTACT STRESS EQUATION

Buckingham adapted the Hertz contact stress equation for a pair of gear teeth shown in
Fig. 8.3. He treated a pair of gear teeth as two cylinders of radii equal to the radii of
curvature of the mating involutes at the pitch point. From basic involute geometry, these
radii are given as,
R1 = (d1sin ) / 2 & R2 = (d2 sin) / 2
(8.1)
Fig. 8.3 Forces acting at the tooth contact
Machine Design II
FE
bR
(8.2)
Where F = Ft / cos
(8.3)
H' 0.564
1 1 12 1 22
E
E1
E2
(8.4)
1
1
1
2
2
R R1 R2 d1 sin d 2 sin
(8.5)
Substituting the value of Ft, E and R from equation (8.3), (8.4) & (8.5) into (8.2) we get
2
2
)
d1 sin d 2 sin
0.564
1 12 1 22
b cos (
)
E1
E2
Ft (
H'
(8.6)
It is seen from eqn. (8.6) that,
Since contact area also increases with load, the contact stress increases only as
the square root of load Ft
Contact area increases with decrease of modulii of elasticity, E1and E2.
Larger gears have greater radii of curvature, hence lower stress.
Equation (8.6) can be rewritten by combining terms relating to the elastic properties of
the material into single factor Cp given by:
Cp 0.564
1
1 1 22
E1
E2
2
1
The Cp values are given in Table 8.1.
(8.7)
Machine Design II
Table 8.1 Elastic Coefficient Cp for Spur Gears, in MPa0.5

Pinion Material
Gear Material
(=0.3 in all cases)
Steel
Cast iron
Al Bronze
Tin Bronze
Steel, E=207 GPa
191
166
162
158
Cast iron, E=131 GPa
166
149
149
145
Al Bronze, E=121 GPa
162
149
145
141
Tin Bronze, E= 110
158
145
141
137
GPa
Combining terms relating to tooth shape into second factor, I, known as the geometry
factor:
(8.8)
sin cos i
2
i 1
Where the speed ratio i = d2 /d1

The simplified contact stress equation is:
H' C p
Ft
b d1 I
(8.9)
In this equation Ft is considered as static since the Hertz equation is derived for static
loads. Rearranging the terms,
'
Ft b d1 I H
C
p
(8.10)
If we substitute H by the permissible stress [H] for the material, then what we get is
the tooth surface strength of the pinion Fts.
[ ]
Ft s b d1 I H
C
p
(8.11)
Machine Design II
Fts > Fd
(8.12)
For safe operation of the gear from surface fatigue considerations, Fd which is the
Buckingham dynamic load on gear tooth should be less than the tooth surface strength
of the gear. This approach gives quick results for preliminary design. This is the
Buckingham design approach for wear strength.
8.4 CONTACT STRESS AGMA

Introducing the factors Kv, Ko and Km used in the bending fatigue analysis into the
contact stress equation, the dynamic contact stress is obtained as H:
H Cp
Ft
KV K o K m
b d1 I
(8.13)
Kv = Velocity or dynamic factor, indicates the severity of impact on successive pairs of

teeth during engagement. This is a function of pitch line velocity and manufacturing
accuracy. It is given by equation (8.14), (8.15) and (8.16).
Kv
6 V
6
(8.14)
Equation (8.14) is used for cut or milled teeth or for gears not carefully generated.
Kv
50 (200V )0.5
50
(8.15)
Equation (8.15) is used for hobbed and shaped gears.
78 (200V ) 0.5
Kv
78
0.5
(8.16)
Equation (8.16) is used for high-precision shaved or ground teeth.

Ko = Overload factor which reflects the degree of non-uniformity of driving and load
Machine Design II
Table 8.2 -Overload factor Ko

Driven Machinery
Uniform
1.00
1.25
1.75
Light shock
1.25
1.50
2.00
Medium shock
1.50
1.75
2.25
Km = Load distribution factor which accounts for non uniform spread of the load across
accuracy of gears. Values are given in Table 8.3.
Table 8.3 Load distribution factor Km

Face width b ( mm)
0 - 50
150
225
400 up
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.8
1.6
1.7
1.8
2.2

gears
Accuracy and mounting such that less
Over 2.2 Over 2.2 Over 2.2 Over 2.2
than full-face contact exists
8.5 SURFACE FATIGUE STRENGTH (AGMA)

Surface fatigue strength of the material is given by,
sf = sf KL Kr KT
Where
sf = surface fatigue strength of the material given in Table 8.4
(8.17)
Machine Design II
KL = Life factor given in Fig. 8.4

KR = Reliability factor, given in Table 8.5
Table 8.4 Surface fatigue strength sf (MPa) for metallic spur gears (107
cycle life 99% reliability and temperature < 1200 C)
Material
sf ( MPa )
Steel
2.8 ( Bhn ) 69 MPa
Nodular iron
0.95 [ 2.8 (Bhn ) 69 MPa ]
Cast iron, grade 20
379
Cast iron, grade 30
482
Cast iron, grade 40
551
Tin Bronze, AGMA 2C (11% Sn)
207
Aluminium Bronze ( ASTM B 148 52 )
448
(Alloy 9C H. T )
Fig. 8.4 Life Factor KL
Machine Design II
Table 8.5 Reliability factor KR

Reliability (%)
KR
50
1.25
99
1.00
99.9
0.80
KT = temperature factor,
= 1 for T 120oC based on lubricant temperature.
< 1 for T > 120oC based on AGMA standards.
Allowable surface fatigue stress for design is given by

[ H ] = Sf / s
(8.18)
Factor of safety s = 1.1 to 1.5

Hence Design equation is:
H [ H ]
(8.19)
8.6 GEAR MATERIALS

Gears are commonly made of cast iron, steel, bronze, phenolic resins, acetal, nylon or
other plastics. The selection of material depends on the type of loading and speed of
operation, wear life, reliability and application. Cast iron is the least expensive. ASTM /
AGMA grade 20 is widely used. Grades 30, 40, 50, 60 are progressively stronger and
more expensive. CI gears have greater surface fatigue strength than bending fatigue
strength. Better damping properties enable them to run quietly than steel.
Machine Design II
Nodular cast iron gears have higher bending strength together with good surface
durability. These gears are now a days used in automobile cam shafts. A good
combination is often a steel pinion mated against cast iron gear. Steel finds many
applications since it combines both high strength and low cost. Plain carbon and alloy
steel usage is quite common.
Through hardened plain carbon steel with 0.35 - 0.6% C are used when gears need
hardness more than 250 to 350 Bhn. These gears need grinding to overcome heat
treatment distortion. When compactness, high impact strength and durability are
needed as in automotive and mobile applications, alloy steels are used. These gears
are surface or case-hardened by flame hardening, induction hardening, nitriding or case
carburizing processes. Steels such as En 353, En36, En24, 17CrNiMo6 widely used for
gears.
Bronzes are used when corrosion resistance, low friction and wear under high sliding
velocity is needed as in worm-gear applications. AGMA recommends Tin bronzes
containing small % of Ni, Pb or Zn. The hardness may range from 70 to 85Bhn.Non
metallic gears made of phenolic resin, acetal, nylon and other plastics are used for light
load lubrication free quiet operation at reasonable cost. Mating gear in many such
applications is made with steel. In order to accommodate high thermal expansion,
plastic gears must have higher backlash and undergo stringent prototype testing.
--------------
Machine Design II
Module 2- GEARS
Contents
9.1 Problem 1 Analysis
9.2 Problem 2 Spur gear
9.1 PROBLEM 1 SPUR GEAR DESIGN

In a conveyor system a step-down gear drive is used. The input pinion is made of 18
teeth, 2.5 mm module, 20o full depth teeth of hardness 330Bhn and runs at 1720 rpm.
The driven gear is of hardness 280Bhn and runs with moderate shock at 860 rpm. Face
width of wheels is 35 mm. The gears are supported on less rigid mountings, less
accurate gears and contact across full face may be assumed. The ultimate tensile
strength of pinion and gear materials is 420 and 385MPa respectively. The gears are
made by hobbing process. Find the tooth bending strength of both wheels and the
maximum power that can be transmitted by the drive with a factor of safety 1.5. The
layout diagram is shown in the Fig 9.1.
Fig 9.1 Conveyor drive layout

Machine Design II
Solution:
The bending fatigue stress is found from AGMA equation as,
Ft
K K K
bmJ v o m
We know that,
(9.1)
Z2= Z1 x (N1/N2)
Substituting values from table 1,

Z2= 18 X (1720/860) = 36
Table 9.1 Data given for gear and pinion

N
Pinion 1720rpm 18 2.5 mm 45 mm
35 mm
Gear
35 mm
860 rpm
36 2.5 mm 90 mm
Using the values from Table 9.1,

V = dn/60000 = x 45 x 1720/60000
= 4.051m/s
We know that
Kv
50 (200V)0.5
50
(9.2)
Table 9.2 J values for pinion and gear

Z
J (sharing)
Kv
Ko
Km
Pinion
18
0.338
1.569
1.25
1.6
Gear
36
0.385
1.569
1.25
1.6
The J value is obtained from Fig. 9.2 for sharing teeth as in practice. Ko and Km values
are obtained from Tables 9.3 and 9.4 for the given conditions.
Machine Design II
Fig.9.2 - Geometric Factor J
SPUR GEAR TOOTH BENDING STRESS (AGMA)
Table 9.3 - Overload factor Ko

Driven Machinery
Uniform
1.00
1.25
1.75
Light shock
1.25
1.50
2.00
Medium shock
1.50
1.75
2.25
Machine Design II
Table 9.4 - Load distribution factor Km

Face width ( mm)
0 - 50
150
225
400 up
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.8
1.6
1.7
1.8
2.2
Over
Over
Over
Over
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2

gears
For pinion:
Ft
K K K
bmJ v o m
Ft
x1.569 x1.25x1.6
35x 2.5x 0.338

= 0.1061 Ft
And for Gear:
(9. 3)
Ft
K K K
bmJ v o m
Ft
=
x1.569 x1.25x1.6
35 x 2.5x 0.385
= 0.0932 Ft
(9.4)
Fatigue strength of the material is given by,

(9.5)
Table 9.5 Properties of pinion and gear

Prop.
ut MPa e=0.5ut MPa kL Kv
ks
Pinion
420
210
0.8
Gear
385
187.5
0.8
Machine Design II
SPUR GEAR PERMISSIBLE TOOTH BENDING STRESS (AGMA)

Endurance limit of the material is given by:
(9.6)
Where, e is the endurance limit of rotating-beam specimen

From table 9.5,
kL = load factor = 1.0 for bending loads
kv = size factor = 1.0 for m < 5 mm and
= 0.85 for m > 5 mm
ks = surface factor, is taken from Fig.9.3 based on the ultimate tensile strength of the
material
for cut, shaved, and ground gears.
kr = reliability factor given in Table 9.5.
kT = temperature factor = 1 for T 350oC
= 0.5 for 350 < T 500oC
Fig.9.3 Surface factor Ks
Reliability of 90%, working temperature <150o C and reversible is assumed.

kf = 1.0 since it is taken in J factor.
Machine Design II
km = 1.0 for reverse bending assumed here

Table 9.6 K terms of pinion and gear
Prop.
kT
kr
kf
km
Pinion
0.897 1.0 1.0 1.0
Gear
0.897 1.0 1.0 1.0
Table 9.7 Reliability factor R

Reliability factor R
0.50
0.90
0.95
0.99
0.999 0.9999
Factor Kr
1.000
0.897
0.868
0.814
0.753
0.702
Permissible bending stress
[ ]
e
n
(9.7)
Hence the design equation from bending consideration is,

[]
(9.8)
Factor of safety required = 1.5

```````````````````````Table 9.8 Strength values of pinion and gear
Prop.
e MPa []= e / s MPa MPa
FT N
Pinion
150.7
100.5
0.1061 Ft
947
Gear
134.6
89.7
0.0932 Ft
962
Table 9.8 shows that the pinion is weaker than gear. And maximum tangential force that
can be transmitted is: Ft= 947 N
So, the maximum power that can be transmitted is:
W = Ft v / 1000 = 947 x 4.051 /1000
= 3.84 kW
----------------Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Machine Design II
9.2 PROBLEM 2 SPUR GEAR DESIGN

In a conveyor system a step-down gear drive is used. The input pinion is made of 18
teeth, 2.5 mm module, 20o full depth teeth of hardness 340Bhn and runs at 1720rpm.
The driven gear is of hardness 280Bhn and runs with moderate shock at 860 rpm. Face
width of wheels is 35mm. The gears are supported on less rigid mountings, less
accurate gears and contact across full face may be assumed. The ultimate tensile
strength of pinion and gear materials is 420 and 385MPa respectively. The gears are
made by hobbing process. From surface durability consideration, find the maximum
power that can be transmitted by the drive with a factor of safety 1.2 for a life of 108
cycles. Drive layout is shown in the Fig 9.4.
Fig. 9.4 Conveyor drive Layout diagram

Data given:
i = n1/n2 = 1720/860 = 2
Z2= Z1 x i = 18 X 2 = 36
Machine Design II
Table 9.9 Data given for pinion and gear

n
d = mZ
Pinion 1720rpm 18 2.5 mm 45 mm
35 mm
Gear
35 mm
860 rpm
36 2.5 mm 90 mm
Table 9.10 Properties of gear and pinion

Bhn
Reliability Life
Temp
Pinion
340 20o
99 %
108
<120oC
Gear
280 20o
99 %
<120oC
Solution:
The induced dynamic contact stress is given by equation below,
H Cp
Ft
KV Ko Km
b d1 I
(9.9)
When both pinion and gear material are made up of steel, from Table 9.11,
Cp = 191 MPa
(9.10)
SPUR GEAR CONTACT STRESS

Table 9.11 Elastic coefficient Cp for spur gears in
Pinion Material(=0.3 in
all cases)
MPa
Gear material
Steel
Cast iron
Al
Bronze
Tin Bronze
Steel, E=207Gpa
191
166
162
158
Cast iron, E=131Gpa
166
149
149
145
Al Bronze, E=121Gpa
162
149
145
141
Tin Bronze, E=110Gpa
158
145
141
137
Machine Design II
sin cos i
2
i 1
(9.11)
Substituting the values from table 10,
sin 20o cos 20o 2

I
0.1071
2
2 1
SPUR GEAR SURFACE DURABILITY
From table 3 and 4,
V = dn/60000 = x 45 x 1720/60000
= 4.051m/s
For hobbed gear,
Kv
50 (200V)0.5
50
(9.12)
Table 9.14 K Values of pinion and gear

Z
Kv
Ko
Km
Pinion
18
1.569
1.25
1.6
Gear
36
1.569
1.25
1.6
Substituting values from Table 14, we have,

H Cp
191
Ft
KV Ko Km
bd1 I
Ft
1.569x1.25x1.6
35x45x0.1071
26.051 Ft MPa
Surface fatigue strength of the material is given by,

sf = sf KL Kr KT
(9.13)
From table 10, for steel life is 107 cycles & reliability 99% and from Table 9.15,
Machine Design II
sf = 28(Bhn) 69 = 2.8x340 69 = 954MPa

KL = 0.9 for 108 cycles from Fig.9.2
KR = 1.0. for 99% reliability from Table 9.10
SPUR GEAR SURFACE FATIGUE STRENGTH
Table 9.15 Surafce fatigue strength sf for metallic spur gears (107 cycle life 99%
reliability and temperature <120 0 C)
Material
sf(MPa)
Steel
2.8 (Bhn)-69MPa
Nodular iron
0.95 (2.8(Bhn)-69MPa)
Cast iron, grade 20
379
Cast iron, grade 30
482
Cast iron, grade 40
551
207
Aluminium Bronze (ASTM 148 52)
448
(Alloy 9C H.T.)
Fig. 9.5 Life factor Kl
Machine Design II
SPUR GEAR ENDURANCE LIMIT

Reliability (%)
KR
50
1.25
99
1.00
99.9
0.80
SPUR GEAR ALLOWABLE SURFACE FATIGUE STRESS (AGMA)

We know that,
[ H ] = Sf / fs = 954/1.2 = 795MPa
For factor of safety fs = 1.2
Design equation is, H [ H ]
26.051 Ft = 795
Ft = 931 N
Maximum Power that can be transmitted is,

W = Ft V/1000 = 931x4.051/1000 = 3.51kW
-----------------------
Machine Design II
Module 2 - GEARS
Contents
10.1 Problem 3 Spur gear design
10.1.1 Buckingham Approach
10.1.2 AGMA Approach
10.1 Problem 3 - Design of Spur gear

A pair of gears is to be designed to transmit 30kW power from a pinion running at
960rpm to a gear running at 320rpm. Design the gears so that they can last for 108
cycles. Assume 20o full depth involute spur gear for the system. Motor shaft diameter is
30mm.
Data given:
W = 30 kW; n 1 = 960 rpm; n 2 = 320 rpm; Life = 108 cycles; 20o full depth involute spur
gear.
Solution:
i = n 1 / n 2 = 960 / 320 = 3
In order to keep the size small and meet the centre distance, Z 1 = 17 chosen
Z 2 = i Z 1 = 3 x 17 = 51
2n1 2 x x 960
100.48 rad/s
60
60
Torque is given by,
T1
w 30x1000
298.57 Nm
100.48
Machine Design II
From Lewis equation for pinion we have,

p
Ft
2T1
[]p
b Y m bYZ1m 2
(10.1)
SAE 1050 hardened by OQT with permissible bending strength of 532 and hardness of
223Bhn is selected for pinion and SAE 1045 hardened by WQT with permissible
bending strength of 487 and hardness of 215 Bhn is selected for the gear from Table
10.1. Face width b = 10m is chosen for both wheels.
Table 10.1 Safe static stresses for use in the Lewis equation
Material
[ ] MPa
BHN
Gray cast iron

ASTM 25
ASTM 35
ASTM 50
122
183
228
174
212
223
Cast steel(low carbon)

0.2% C not heat treated
0.2% C WQT
304
380
180
250
Forged carbon steel

SAE 1020 case hardened and WQT
SAE 1030 not heat treated
SAE 1045 hardened by WQT
SAE 1045 hardened by WQT
SAE 1050 hardened by OQT
274
304
350
380
456
487
532
156
180
190
202
205
215
223
Alloy steel
SAE 2320 case hardened and WQT
SAE 3115 case hardened and OQT
761
761
563
806
989
989
837
1019
225
475
212
475
475
475
475
475
Machine Design II
10.1.1 Buckingham approach:

The preliminary dimensions are found from Lewis equation and then they are checked
for dynamic loads by Buckingham equation.
From equation (10.1) substituting the value of b = 10m, we have,
T1
[]p
5YZ1m3
(10.2)
From Table 10.2, for the pinion Y = 0.25808 for Z 1 = 17

For the gear, Y = 0.39872, for Z 2 = 51
For gear, Y[] g = 0.39872x 487 = 194.17
For pinion, Y[] p = 0.25808 x 542 = 139.87
Table 10.2 Values of the Lewis form factor Y

Number of
teeth
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
24
26
28
30
34
38
45
50
60
75
100
=20
a=0.8m*
b=m
0.335 12
0.348 27
0.359 85
0.370 13
0.379 31
0.387 57
0.395 02
0.401 79
0.407 97
0.413 63
0.418 83
0.428 06
0.436 01
0.442 94
0.449 20
0.459 20
0.467 40
0.478 46
0.484 58
0.493 91
0.503 45
0.513 21
=20
a=m
b=1.25m
0.229 60
0.243 17
0.255 30
0.266 22
0.276 10
0.285 08
0.293 27
0.300 78
0.307 69
0.314 06
.0319 97
0.330 56
0.339 79
0.347 90
0.355 10
0.367 31
0.377 27
0.390 93
0.398 60
0.410 47
0.422 83
0.435 74
=25
a=m
b=1.25m
0.276 77
0.292 81
0.307 17
0.320 09
0.331 78
0.342 40
0.352 10
0.360 99
0.369 16
0.376 71
0.383 70
0.396 24
0.407 17
0.416 78
0.425 30
0.439 76
0.451 56
0.467 74
0.476 81
0.490 86
0.505 46
0.520 71
Machine Design II
Hence, for the same face width pinion will be weaker and consideration for the design
is,
T
298.57 x1000
13610
3
3
5YZ1m 5x0.25808 x17m
m3
532 MPa
(10.3)
m = 2.93 mm. Since motor shaft diameter is 30 mm, to get sufficiently large pinion m = 4
mm is taken.
Table 10.3 Data for pinion and gear

Wheel
b=10m
Pinion 17 4mm 40 mm
Gear
d
68mm
V =wrv
Material
Hardness
3.42 m/s SAE1050
223
51 4mm 40 mm 204mm 3.42 m/s SAE1045
215
We will now use Buckingham dynamic load approach for the design.
F t = T 1 /r 1 = 298.57/0.034 = 8781 N
Buckingham dynamic load is given by,
9.84V (Cb + Ft )
Fi
9.84V +0.4696 Cb+ Ft
(10.4)
For V=3.42 m/s permissible error is e= 0.088 mm from Fig.10.1. From Table 10.4, if we
choose I class commercial cut gears, expected error is 0.050 for m=4mm. In order to
keep the dynamic load low precision cut gears are chosen. So, e = 0.0125
Machine Design II
Fig. 10.1 Permissible error

Table 10.4 Expected error in tooth profile
Gear quality and expected error e
Module
First class commercial
Carefully cut gears
Precision gears
gears
Up to 4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0.050
0.056
0.064
0.072
0.080
0.085
0.090
0.025
0.025
0.030
0.035
0.038
0.041
0.044
Table 10.5 Value of C

Material of pinion and
Tooth form
gear
14.5o
0.0125
0.0125
0.0150
0.0170
0.0190
0.0205
0.0220
Cast iron and cast iron

steel and cast iron
steel and steel
5720 e
7850 e
11440 e
20o Full depth Cast iron and cast iron

steel and cast iron
steel and steel
5930 e
8150 e
11860 e
20o Stub
tooth
6150 e
8450 e
12300 e
Cast iron and cast iron

steel and cast iron
steel and steel
From Table 10.5, if material for both gear and pinion are steel, then,
Machine Design II
C = 11860e = 11860 x 0.0125 = 148.25

Substituting the values F t = 8781 N, C = 148 .25, V=3.42 m/s, b= 40mm in eqn. (10.4),
Buckingham dynamic load is given by,
9.84x3.42(148.25x40 +8781)
Fi
5464N
9.84x3.42+0.4696 148.25x40+8781
(10.5)
F d = F t + F i = 8781 + 5464 = 14245 N

Beam strength of the pinion is given by,
F tp = bYm [] p = 40x0.25808 x4x542 = 22381 N
Since F tp (22381)> F d (14245) the design is safe from tooth bending failure
consideration.
Wear strength of the pinion is given by,
[ ]
Fts bd1 I H
Cp
(10.6)
From Table 10.6 for steel vs steel, pinion and gear C p = 191 MPa0.5 and substituting i
=3, =200 we
I
sin cos i
sin 20o cos 20o 3
0.1205
2
i 1
2
3 1
Table 10.6 Elastic coefficient C p for spur gears in MPa0.5

Pinion Material
(=0.3 in all cases)
Gear Material
Steel
Cast iron
Al Bronze
Tin Bronze
Steel, E=207 GPa
191
166
162
158
Cast iron, E=131 GPa
166
149
149
145
Al Bronze, E=121 GPa
162
149
145
141
Tin Bronze, E=110

GPa
158
145
141
137
Machine Design II
Surface fatigue strength of the pinion material is sf = sf K L K R K T

sf = 2.8(Bhn) 69MPa
= 2.8 x 223-69 = 555.4MPa
K L = 0.9 for 108 cycles life from graph1
K R = 1.0 taken for 99 reliability
K T = 1.0 for operating temperature <120oC (assumed)
Table 10.7 Surface fatigue strength sf (MPa) for metallic spur gears (107 cycle
life 99% reliability and temperature <120oC)
Material
sf (MPa)
Steel
2.8 (Bhn)-69MPa
Nodular iron
0.95(2.8(Bhn)-69MPa)
Cast iron, grade 20
379
Cast iron, grade 30
482
Cast iron, grade 40
551
207
Aluminium Bronze (ASTM 148 52) (Alloy 9C H.T.)
448
Fig.10.2 Life factor K L
Machine Design II
Table 10.8 Reliability factor K R
Reliability (%)
KR
50
1.25
99
1.00
99.9
0.80

= 555.4x0.9x1x1 = 500MPa
Assuming, factor of safety, s = 1.1
[ H ] = sf /s = 500/1.1 = 455MPa
Wear strength of the pinion is:
2
2
[ ]
455
Fts = bd1 I H = 40x68x0.1205
=1860 N
Cp
191
Since F ts (1860) << F d (14245), the design is not safe. Revision is necessary.
As the SAE1050 can attain a hardness of 800 VPN(~750 Bhn) after oil quenching,
increase the hardness to 475 Bhn and increase the b to 13m
= 13 x 4 = 52 mm.
From Table 10.7, we know that,

sf = 2.8(Bhn) 69MPa
= 2.8 x 475-69 = 1261MPa
K L = 0.9 for 108 cycles life from Fig.10.1
K R = 1.0 taken for 99 reliability
K T = 1.0 for operating temperature <120oC Assumed.
= 1261x0.9x1x1 = 1135MPa
Machine Design II
Fig.10.3 Effect of carbon content on the hardness of fully hardened steel

Assuming factor of safety, s = 1.1
[ H ] = sf /s = 1135 /1.1 = 1032MPa
2
2
[ ]
1032
Fts = bd1 I H = 52x68x0.1205
=12439 N
C
191
Since F ts (12439)< F d (14245), still it is not safe. Hence increase the module to 5mm.
Table 10.9 Properties of pinion and gear
Wheel
b=13m
V =wrv
85mm
4.27 m/s
C 50
475
51 5mm 65 mm 255mm 4.27 m/s
C 45
450
Pinion 17 5mm 65 mm
Gear
Material Hardness
Machine Design II
With new dimensions F d = 16098 N

F ts = 19436 N. Since F ts > F d , the revised design is safe from surface fatigue (pitting)
considerations.
If b = 50 mm, F d = 13186 N
F ts = 14951 N , Face width of 50 mm is adequate
10.1.2 AGMA Approach

Data given:
W = 30 kW; n 1 = 960 rpm; n 2 = 320 rpm; Life = 108 cycles; 20o full depth involute spur
gear.
Solution:
i = n 1 / n 2 = 960 / 320 = 3
In order to keep the size of gears small and avoid interference, Z 1 = 17 is chosen.
Z 2 = i Z 1 = 3 x 17 = 51
1 =
T1
2n1 2x960
100.48rad / s
=
60
60
1000W 1000x30
298.57 Nm
1
100.48
AGMA equation for tooth bending stress is,
Ft
K K K
bmJ v o m
d1 = m Z1
2T1
K K K [ ]
b Z1 m 2 J v o m
Face width, b= 10 to 13 m.
Machine Design II
b = 10 m is assumed for the first trial.
J = 0.34404 for pinion Z 1 = 17 mating with gear Z 2 =51
For gear J = 0.40808
These values are obtained from the table
Table 10.10 AGMA geometry factor J for teeth having = 20o, a=1m, b=1.25m and
r f =0.300m
Number
of teeth
Number of teeth in mating gear

1
17
25
35
50
85
300
1000
18
0.244 86 0.324 04 0.332 12 0.338 40 0.344 04 0.350 50 0.355 94 0.361 12
19
0.247 94 0.330 29 0.338 78 0.345 37 0.351 34 0.358 22 0.364 05 0.369 63
20
0.250 72 0.336 00 0.344 85 0.351 76 0.358 04 0.365 32 0.371 51 0.377 49
21
0.253 23 0.341 24 0.350 44 0.357 64 0.364 22 0.371 86 0.378 41 0.384 75
22
0.255 52 0.346 07 0.355 59 0.363 06 0.369 92 0.377 92 0.384 79 0.391 48
24
0.259 51 0.354 68 0.364 77 0.372 75 0.380 12 0.388 77 0.396 26 0.403 60
26
0.262 89 0.362 11 0.372 72 0.381 15 0.388 97 0.398 21 0.406 25 0.414 18
28
0.265 80 0.368 60 0.379 67 0.388 51 0.396 73 0.406 50 0.415 04 0.423 51
30
0.268 31 0.374 62 0.385 80 0.395 00 0.403 59 0.413 83 0.422 83 0.431 79
34
0.272 47 0.383 94 0.396 71 0.405 94 0.415 17 0.426 24 0.436 04 0.445 86
38
0.275 75 0.391 70 0.404 46 0.414 80 0.424 56 0.436 33 0.446 80 0.457 35
45
0.280 13 0.402 23 0.415 79 0.426 85 0.437 35 0.450 10 0.461 52 0.473 10
50
0.282 52 0.408 08 0.422 08 0.435 55 0.444 48 0.457 78 0.469 75 0.481 93
60
0.286 13 0.417 02 0.431 73 0.443 83 0.455 40 0.469 60 0.482 43 0.495 57
75
0.289 79 0.426 20 0.441 63 0.454 40 0.466 68 0.481 79 0.495 54 0.509 70
100
0.293 13 0.435 61 0.451 80 0.465 27 0.478 27 0.494 37 0.509 09 0.524 35
150
0.297 38 0.445 30 0.462 26 0.476 45 0.490 23 0.507 36 0.523 12 0.539 54
300
0.301 41 0.455 26 0.473 04 0.487 98 0.502 78 0.520 78 0.537 65 0.555 33
Rack
0.305 75 0.465 54 0.484 15 0.499 88 0.534 67 0.534 67 0.552 72 0.571 73
The tooth bending stress is given by,

78 (200V) 0.5
Kv
78
0.5
1.15
is assumed.
Machine Design II
K o = 1.25 is taken assuming uniform power source and moderate shock load from the
table 7
K m = 1.3 assuming accurate mounting and precision cut gears for face width of about
50mm.
Table 10.11 -Overload factor K o
Driven Machinery
Uniform
1.00
1.25
1.75
Light shock
1.25
1.50
2.00
Medium shock
1.50
1.75
2.25

Face width ( mm)
0 - 50
150
225
400 up
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.8
1.6
1.7
1.8
2.2
Over
Over
Over
Over
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2

gears
Substituting these values in the equation,

1
2T1
298570 x1.15 x1.25 x1.3
Kv Ko Km
2
10m x17xm 2 x 0.34404
b Z1 m J
9539
m3
Machine Design II
The pinion is of steel C50 OQT with 223Bhn hardness and tensile strength of 660MPa
and the gear is of C45 OQT with hardness 210Bhn and tensile strength of 465MPa.
For pinion e = 0.5 ut = 0.5 x 660 = 330MPa
k L = 1 for bending, k V = 1 assumed expecting m to be <5mm; k S = 0.73 from the
Fig.10.4 for ut = 660MPa, k r = 0.897 for 90% reliability
Fig. 10. 4 Surface factor k s
Table 10.13 Reliability factor K r

0.50
0.90
0.95
0.99
0.999
0.9999
Factor Kr
1.000
0.897
0.868
0.814
0.753
0.702
kT =1 assumed based on operating temperature <120oC

kf = 1.- and km = 1.33 for ut= 660MPa
( Ultimate tensile strength = 660 MPa for
SAE 1050 OQT condition)

e
= e kL kv ks kr kT kf km
= 330x1x1x0.73x0.897x1x1x1.33 = 287.4MPa
Factor of safety on bending of 1.5 assumed
Machine Design II
[] = e / s = 287.4 / 1.5 =191.6MPa
Fig.10.5 - Miscellaneous effects factor km

From tooth bending fatigue considerations,
9539
[ ] 191.6
m3
Solving the equation we get m = 3.68mm

Now take m=4 mm as the next standard value. From this module, the dimensions
calculated are given in Table 10.14.
Table 10.14 Dimensions of pinion and gear

Wheel
b=10m
V =wrv
68mm
3.42 m/s
C 50
223
51 4mm 40 mm 204mm 3.42 m/s
C 45
205
Pinion 17 4mm 40 mm
Gear
Material Hardness
Ft = T1 / r1 = 29857/34 = 8781N
The tooth has to be checked from surface durability considerations now.
The contact stress equation of AGMA is given below:
H Cp
Ft
KV Ko Km
bd1 I
Cp = 191 MPa0.5 from the table for steel vs steel
Machine Design II
Substituting i =3, =200 we get I= 0.1205
sin cos i
sin 20o cos 20o 3
I
0.1205
2
i 1
2
3 1
78 (200V) 0.5
Kv
78
0.5
78 (200x3.42) 0.5
78
0.5
1.15
From Table 10.11 and 10.12,

Ko = 1.25 and Km = 1.3 assumed as in the case of bending stress calculation
H Cp
Ft
8781x1.15x1.25x1.3
K V K o K m 191
bd1 I
40x68x0.1205
H = 1209MPa
The surface fatigue strength of the pinion material is given by,

sf = sf KL KR KT
Where sf = 2.8(Bhn) 69MPa
= 2.8 x 223-69 = 555.4MPa
KL= 0.9 for 108 cycles life from graph1
KR = 1.0 taken for 99% reliability
KT = 1.0 for operating temperature <120oC assumed.
Substituting the values in the equation,
sf = sf KL KR KT
= 555.4x0.9x1x1 = 500MPa
Assuming a factor of safety, s = 1.1
From Fig. 10.2 and Table 10.8, we get,
[H] = sf /s = 500/1.1 = 455MPa
H = 1209MPa
Machine Design II
Since H (1209) >> [H] (455), the design is not safe and surface fatigue failure will
occur.
Solution:
Increase the surface hardness of the material to 475Bhn and also increase the b to 13m
= 13 x 4 = 52 mm
From Fig. 3 we get,
Surface fatigue strength of the pinion material as
sf = sf KL KR KT
where sf = 2.8(Bhn) 69MPa = 2.8 x 475-69 = 1261MPa
KL= 0.9 for 108 cycles life from graph1

KR = 1.0 taken for 99% reliability
KT = 1.0 for operating temperature <120oC Assumed.
Substituting these values we get,

sf = sf KL KR KT
= 1261x0.9x1x1 = 1135MPa
Assuming a factor of safety s = 1.1
[H] = sf /s = 1135 /1.1 = 1032MPa
H Cp
Ft
8781x1.15x1.25x1.3
K V K o K m 191
b d1 I
52x68x0.1205
As H (1185) > [H] (1032) the design is not safe from surface durability considerations.
Hence increase the module to 5mm and take b=10m
H Cp
Ft
7025x1.17x1.25x1.3
K V K o K m 191
bd1 I
50x85x0.1205
Machine Design II
H =975MPa < [H ] (1032MPa). Hence the design is safe from surface durability
consideration. Final specification of the pinion and gear are given in the Table 10.20
and 10.21.
Table 10.20 Values for gear and pinion

Wheel
b=10m
Pinion
17
5mm
50 mm
85mm
Gear
51
5mm
50 mm
255mm
Table 10.21 Specification of gear and pinion

Wheel
Material Steel
Hardness Manufacturing quality
Pinion
SAE1050 OQT
475Bhn
Precision cut
Gear
SAE 1045 OQT
450Bhn
Precision cut
-------------------
Machine Design II
Module 2- GEARS
Lecture 11 HELICAL GEARS
Contents
11.1 Helical gears an introduction
11.2 Helical gears Kinematics
11.3 Helical gears geometry and nomenclature
11.4 Helical gears force analysis
11.5 Helical gears bending stress
11.6 Helical gears contact stress
11.7 Crossed helical gears
11.7.1 Tips for crossed helical gear design
11.1 HELICAL GEARS an introduction
In spur gears Fig.11.1 dealt earlier, the teeth are parallel to the axis whereas in
helical gears Fig.11.2 the teeth are inclined to the axis. Both the gears are transmitting
power between two parallel shafts.
Fig.11.1 Spur gear
Fig.11.2 Helical gear
Machine Design II
Helical gear can be thought of as an ordinary spur gear machined from a stack of thin
shim stock, each limitation of which is rotated slightly with respect to its neighbours as in
Fig.11.3. When power is transmitted both shafts are subjected to thrust load on the
shaft.
Fig.11.3 Illustration of concept of helical gear
Fig.11.4 Double helical gear or herringbone gear
Machine Design II
Herringbone or double helical gear shown in Fig. 11.4 can be two helical gears
with opposing helix angle stacked together. As a result, two opposing thrust loads
cancel and the shafts are not acted upon by any thrust load.
The advantages of elimination of thrust load in Herringbone gears, is obliterated by
considerably higher machining and mounting costs. This limits their applications to very
heavy power transmission.
Fig.11.5 Double helical gear of a cement mill rotary gear drive
Machine Design II
Fig. 11.6 Crossed helical gears.

Crossed helical gears As in Fig. 11.6 are used for transmitting power between two nonparallel, non-intersecting shafts. Common application is distributor and pump drive from
cam shafts in automotive engines.
11.2 HELICAL GEARS- KINEMATICS
Fig.11.7 Helical gear

When two helical gears are engaged as in the Fig. 11.7, the helix angle has to be the
same on each gear, but one gear must have a right-hand helix and the other a left-hand
helix.
Machine Design II
Fig.11.8 Illustration of helical gear tooth formation

The shape of the tooth is an involute helicoid as illustrated in the Fig. 11.8. If a
paper piece of the shape of a parallelogram is wrapped around a cylinder, the angular
edge of the paper becomes the helix. If the paper is unwound, each point on the angular
edge generates an involute curve. The surface got when every point on the edge
generates an involute is called involute helicoid. In spur gear, the initial contact line
extends all the way across the tooth face. The initial contact of helical gear teeth is point
which changes into a line as the teeth come into more engagement.
In spur gears the line contact is parallel to the axis of rotation; in helical gear the
line is diagonal across the face of the tooth. Hence gradual engagement of the teeth
and the smooth transfer of load from one tooth to another occur.
This gradual engagement makes the gear operation smoother and quieter than
with spur gears and results in a lower dynamic factor, Kv. Thus, it can transmit heavy
loads at high speeds. Typical usage is automotive transmission for compact and quiet
drive.
11.3 HELICAL GEARS GEOMETRY AND NOMENCLATURE
The helix angle , is always measured on the cylindrical pitch surface Fig. 11.8. value
is not standardized. It ranges between 15o and 45o. Commonly used values are 15, 23,
30 or 45o. Lower values give less end thrust. Higher values result in smoother operation
and more end thrust. Above 45o is not recommended.
Machine Design II
Fig.11.9 Portion of helical rack

The circular pitch (p) and pressure angle () are measured in the plane of rotation, as in
spur gears. These quantities in normal plane are denoted by suffix n (pn, n) as shown
in Fig. 11.9.
From geometry we have normal pitch as
pn = p cos
(11.1)
Normal module mn is
mn = m cos
(11.2)
mn is used for hob selection.

The pitch diameter (d) of the helical gear is:
d = Z m = Z mn / cos
(11.3)
The axial pitch (pa) is:

pa = p / tan
(11.4)
For axial overlap of adjacent teeth, b pa
(11.5)
In practice b = (1.15 ~2) pa is used.
Machine Design II
The relation between normal and transverse pressure angles is

tan n = tan .cos
(11.6)
In the case of helical gear, the resultant load between mating teeth is always
perpendicular to the tooth surface. Hence bending stresses are computed in the normal
plane, and the strength of the tooth as a cantilever beam depends on its profile in the
normal plane. Fig. 11.10 shows the view of helical gear in normal and transverse plane.
The following figure shows the pitch cylinder and one tooth of a helical gear. The normal
plane intersects the pitch cylinder in an ellipse.
Fig.11.10 View of helical gear in normal and transverse sections

The shape of the tooth in the normal plane is nearly the same as the shape of a spur
gear tooth having a pitch radius equal to radius Re of the ellipse.
Re = d/ (2cos2 )
(11.7)
The equivalent number of teeth (also called virtual number of teeth), Zv, is defined as
the number of teeth in a gear of radius Re:
Zv
2R e
d
mn
mn cos2
(11.8)
Machine Design II
Substituting mn = m cos, and d = Z m
Zv
Z
cos3
(11.9)
When we compute the bending strength of helical teeth, values of the Lewis form factor
Y are the same as for spur gears having the same number of teeth as the virtual
number of teeth (Zv) in the Helical gear and a pressure angle equal to n.
Determination of geometry factor J is also based on the virtual number of teeth. These
values are plotted in Fig.11.11 and 11.12.
HELICAL GEARS GEOMETRY FACTOR
Fig 11.11 Geometry factor for use with a 75-tooth mating gear, pressure angle
(n) 20o, std. addendum of 1m and shaved teeth
Machine Design II
HELICAL GEARS J FACTOR MULTIPLIERS
Fig.11.12 J factor multipliers to be used with mating gears other than 75 teeth
11.4 HELICAL GEARS - FORCE ANALYSIS
Fig.11.13 Tooth force acting on a right hand helical gear

3-dimensional view of the forces acting on a helical gear tooth is shown in the Fig.11.13.
Resolving Fn
Machine Design II
Fr = Fn sin n
(11.10)
Ft = Fn cos n cos
(11.11)
Fa = Fn cos n sin
(11.12)
Fr = Ft tan
(11.13)
Fa = Ft tan
(11.14)
Fn
Ft
cos n cos
(11.15)
Fig.11.14 illustrates the tooth forces acting on spur and helical gears. For spur gears,
the total tooth force consists of components tangential Ft and radial Fr forces. For helical
gears, component Fa is added and normal section NN is needed to show a true view of
total tooth force Fn.
Fig. 11.14 The comparison of force components on spur and helical gears
The vector sum Ft and Fa is labeled Fb; the subscript b being chosen because Fb is the
bending force on the helical tooth (just as Ft is bending force on the spur tooth).
Machine Design II
The force component associated with power transmission is only Ft
Ft
1000W
V
(11.16)
Where Ft is in (N), W is in kW, and V is the pitch line velocity in (m/s).

Fb = Ft / cos
(11.17)
Fr = Fb tan n
(11.18)
Fr = Ft tan
(11.19)
Combining equation 11.12, 11.17 and 11.18

tan n = tan cos
(11.20)
11.5 HELICAL GEAR - TOOTH BENDING STRESS

The bending stress equation for helical gear teeth is given as
Ft
K v K o (0.93Km )
bm J
(11.21)
Introduction of constant 0.93 with the mounting factor reflects slightly lower sensitivity of
helical gears to mounting conditions. The J factor can be determined from Figs.11.15
and 1.16.
Fig.11.15 Geometry factor J for helical gear with n = 20o

and mating with 75 tooth gear
Machine Design II
Fig.11.16 J-factor multiplier when the mating gear has tooth other than 75
Velocity factor Kv is calculated from the equation 11.22 or from Fig.11.17
78 (200V) 0.5
Kv
78
0.5
(11.22)
Fig. 11.17 Dynamic factor Kv for helical gears
Fig.11.17 The dynamic factors for the helical gear tooth

Ko = Overload factor which reflects the degree of non-uniformity of driving and load
Machine Design II
Km = Load distribution factor which accounts for non uniform spread of the load across
accuracy of gears. Taken from Table 11.2.
Table 11.1 -Overload factor Ko
Driven Machinery
Source of power Uniform
Moderate Shock
Heavy Shock
Uniform
1.00
1.25
1.75
Light shock
1.25
1.50
2.00
Medium shock
1.50
1.75
2.25
Table 11.2 Load distribution factor Km

Face width ( mm)
0 - 50
150
225
400 up

clearances, minimum deflection,
precision gears
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.7
Less rigid mountings, less accurate

gears, contact across the full face
1.5
1.6
1.7
2.0
Over 2.0
Over 2.0
Over 2.0
Over 2.0
Accuracy and mounting such that

less than full-face contact exists
HELICAL GEAR PERMISSIBLE TOOTH BENDING STRESS (AGMA)

Fatigue strength of the material is given by:
Where, e endurance limit of rotating-beam specimen
kL = load factor, = 1.0 for bending loads
(11.23)
Machine Design II
kv = size factor, = 1.0 for m < 5 mm and

= 0.85 for m > 5 mm
ks = surface factor, is taken from Fig. 11.18 based on the ultimate strength of the
material and for cut, shaved, and ground gears.
kr = reliability factor, given in Table 11.3.
kT = temperature factor, = 1 for T 120oC
more than 120oC, kT < 1 to be taken from AGMA standards
Fig.11.18 Surface factor ks

Table 11.3 Reliability factor kr
0.50
0.90
0.95
0.99
0.999
0.9999
Factor kr
1.000
0.897
0.868
0.814
0.753
0.702
kf = fatigue stress concentration factor. Since this factor is included in J factor, its value
is taken as 1.
Machine Design II
Fig. 11.19 Miscellaneous effects factor km

km = Factor for miscellaneous effects. For idler gears subjected to two way bending,
= 1. For other gears subjected to one way bending, the value is taken from the Fig.5.
Use km = 1.33 for ut less than 1.4 GPa
Permissible bending stress
[]
e
s
(11.24)
Hence the design equation from bending consideration is:
[]
(11.25)
11.6 HELICAL GEAR - CONTACT STRESS

In the case of spur gears of contact ratio less than 2, the theoretical length of
tooth contact is 1.0b.
With helical gears, the length of contact per tooth is b/cos and the helical action
causes the total length of tooth contact to be approximately b/cos times the contact
ratio (CR) at all times.
The AGMA recommends that 95% of this value be taken as the length of contact when
computing contact stress.
Machine Design II
The contact stress equation is given as
H Cp
Ft cos
K v K o (0.93K m )
bdI 0.95CR
(11.26)
Elastic coefficient factor Cp is given by
Cp 0.564
1
1 1 22
E1
E2
2
1
(11.27)
Where E and are the youngs modulus and Poissons ratio. Suffix 1 is for pinion and 2
is for gear. The values are given in Table 11.4
Table 11.4 Elastic coefficient Cp for spur gears and helical gears, in MPa
The geometry factor I given by:
sin cos i
2
i1
(11.28)
Where the speed ratio i =n1 /n2 = d2 /d1 and is the transverse contact angle.
Kv , Ko and Km as taken for bending stress calculation.
The contact ratio is given by:
Machine Design II
(r a)2 r 2 (r a)2 r 2 (r r ) sin

1
b1
2
b2
1
2
(11.29)
CR
mcos
Where r is the pitch circle radius, rb is the base circle radius, suffix 1 for pinion and 2 for
gear. a is the addendum, is the transverse pressure angle.
HELICAL GEAR SURFACE FATIGUE STRENGTH

Surface fatigue strength of the material is given by:
sf = sf KL KH KR KT
(11.30)
Where
sf = surface fatigue strength of the material given in Table 11.5
KL = Life factor given in Fig.11.20
Table 11.5 Surface fatigue strength sf (MPa) for metallic spur gears
(107 cycles life with 99% reliability and temperature <120oC)
Machine Design II
Fig.11.20 Life Factor KL

KH = Hardness ratio factor, given in Fig.11.21.
K ratio of Brinell hardness of the pinion by Brinell hardness of the Gear. KH = 1.0 for K <
1.2
KR = Reliability factor, given in Table 11.6
Fig.11.21 Hardness ratio factor, KH

K= Brinell hardness ratio of the pinion
and gear KH = 1.0 for value of K below 1.2
Machine Design II

Reliability (%)
50
99
99.9
KR
1.25
1.00
0.80
KT = temperature factor,
= 1 for T 120oC , based on Lubricant temperature.
Above 120oC, it is less than 1 to be taken from AGMA standards.
HELICAL GEAR ALLOWABLE SURFACE FATIGUE STRESS (AGMA)

[H] = Sf / s
(11.31)
Factor of safety s = 1.1 to 1.5

Hence Design equation is:
H [ H ]
(11.32)
11.7 CROSSED HELICAL GEAR

a. Crossed helical gears are identical with other helical gears but are mounted on nonparallel shafts. They are basically non-enveloping worm gears since the gear blanks
have a cylindrical form.
b. The relationship between the shaft angle
= 1 2
and the helix angles of mating gears is
(11.33)
Where is the shaft angle. + sign is used when the gears have the same hand, and sign when they are opposite hand.
c. Opposite hand crossed helical gears are used when the shaft angle is small.
Machine Design II
d. The most common shaft angle is 90 that results in mating gears with complementary
helix angles of the same hand.
e. The action of the crossed helical gears differs fundamentally from that of parallel
helical gears in that the mating teeth slide across each other as they rotate.
f. The sliding velocity increases with increasing shaft angle.
g. For a given shaft angle, the sliding velocity is least when the two helix angles are the
same.
h. Mating crossed helical gears must have the same pn and n but not necessarily the
same transverse p and .
i. The pitch diameter d is:
dmZ
mn Z
cos
(11.34)
j. Furthermore, the velocity ratio is not necessarily the ratio of pitch diameters; it must be
calculated as the ratio of the numbers of teeth.
Fig. 11.22 View of the pitch cylinder of a pair of crossed helical gear
Machine Design II
11.7.1 CROSSED HELICAL GEAR - DESIGN TIPS

a. Crossed helical gears have very low load carrying capacities usually less than a
resultant tooth load of 400 N.
b. The limitation is one of surface deterioration, not bending strength.
c. Since they have point contact, to increase the load capacity contact ratios of 2 or
more are usually used.
d. Low values of pressure angle and relatively large values of tooth depth are commonly
specified to increase the contact ratio.
e. There are no standards for crossed helical gear tooth proportions. Many different
proportions give good tooth action.
-------------------------
Machine Design II
Module 2 - GEARS
Lecture 12 HELICAL GEARS-PROBLEMS
Contents
12.1 Helical gears Problem 1 Force analysis
12.2 Helical gears Problem 2 Stress analysis
12.3 Helical gears Problem 3 Reworking of gear dimensions of crossed helical gears
12.4 Helical gears Problem 4 Design of double helical gears
12.1 HELICAL GEARS PROBLEM 1
A 75 kW induction motor runs at 740 rpm in clock wise direction as shown in Fig.12.1. A
19 tooth helical pinion with 20o normal pressure angle, 10 mm normal module and a
helix angle of 23o is keyed to the motor shaft. Draw a 3-dimensional sketch of the motor
shaft and the pinion. Show the forces acting on the pinion and the bearing at A and B.
The thrust should be taken out at A.
Fig.12.1 Helical gear layout diagram

Data: W=75kW, n 1 =740rpm, Z 1 = 19, Z2 = 38, n =20o, = 23o, m n = 10 mm.
Machine Design II
Question: Find reactions at A&B.

Solution: Transverse Pressure angle
tan n = tan cos
tan1 (
tan1 (
tan n
)
cos
tan 20o
) 21.57o
o
cos 23
m = m n / cos = 10 / cos 23o = 10.864 mm

Pitch diameter of the pinion:
d 1 = mZ 1 = 10.864 x 19 = 206.4 mm
Pitch line velocity:
V = d 1 n 1 /60 = x 206.4 x 740 / 60000 = 8 m/s
Tangential force on the pinion: F t
F t = 1000W/V = 1000 x 7 5 / 8 = 9375 N
F r = F t tan = 9375 tan 21.57o = 3706 N
F a = F t tan = 9375 tan 23o = 3980 N
F n = F t / cos n cos = 9375 / cos20o x cos23o = 10838 N
3 forces, F r in the y direction, F a in the x direction, and F t in the +z direction are acting
at the pitch point c of the pinion as shown in the sketch.
Bearing at A is made to take the Axial reaction R A X = 3980 N
Taking moments about the z axis
-F r (950) + F a (206.4/2) + R B y (750) = 0, i.e.,
-3706 x 950 + 3980 x 103.2 + R B y (750) = 0
Machine Design II
Fig. 12.2 Reaction the shaft bearings due to forces at the pinion pitch point
R B y = 4146.7 N
FY = 0, from which R a y = 440.7 N
Taking moment about y axis,
R B z (750) - F t (950) = 0
i.e, 750 R B z - 9375x 950 = 0
R B z = 11875 N
Fz = 0, from which R A z = 2500 N

T = F t (206.4/2) = 9375 x (103.2) = 96750 Nmm = 96.75 Nm
Fig.12.3 Reaction on shaft bearings due to forces at the pinion pitch point from
calculation
----------------
Machine Design II
12.2 HELICAL GEARS - PROBLEM 2

A helical gear drive shown in Fig.12.4 transmits 20 kW power at 1440 rpm to a machine
input shaft running at 360rpm. The motor shaft pinion has 18 teeth, 20O normal pressure
angle and a normal module of 4mm and 30o right hand helix. Determine all dimensions
of the gear and the pinion. b=1.2 p a . Comment the chosen gears.
Fig.12.4 Helical gear layout diagram

The pinion material is made of C45 steel with hardness 380 Bhn and tensile strength
ut = 1240 MPa. The gear is made of ductile iron grade 120/90/02 of hardness 331 Bhn
and tensile strength ut = 974 MPa. Both gears are hobbed, HT and OQ&T and ground.
Given data:
W=20 kW, n 1 =1440 rpm, Z 1 = 18, m n = 4mm, n = 20o, b=1.2 p a , n 2 = 360 rpm, = 30o
RH Helix
The following assumptions are made:
(a) Tooth profiles are std. involutes.
(b) Gears mesh along their pitch circles
(c) All loads are transmitted at the pitch point and mid planes of the gears.
(d) All power losses are neglected.
Machine Design II
Solution:
tan n = tan . Cos
1. Transverse pressure angle = tan-1(tan n / Cos ) = tan-1(tan20o/cos 30o) = 22.8o
2. Transverse module: m = m n /cos
i.e., m = 4 / cos30o = 4.62 mm
3. Pinion pitch dia.:d 1 = Z 1 m = 18 x 4.62 = 83.2 mm
4. Gear, no. of teeth: Z 2 = Z 1 (n 1 /n 2 ) = 18(1440/360) = 72
5. Gear dia.: d 2 = Z 2 m = 72 x4.62 = 335.7mm
6. p = m = x4.62 = 14.51 mm
7. p a = p / tan = 14.51 / tan30o = 25.13 mm
8. b = 1.2p a = 1.2 x 25.13 = 30.16 mm
9. V = d 1 n 1 /60000= x83.2x1440 /60000 = 6.27 m/s
10. d b1 = d 1 cos = 83.2cos22.8o = 76.7 mm
d b2 = d 2 cos = 335.7cos22.8o =309.5 mm
11. Addendum: h a or a=1m n = 4.0 mm
12. Dedendum: h f = 1.25 m n = 1.25 x 4.0 = 5.00 mm
13. F t = 1000 W / V = 1000 x 20/6.27 = 3190 N
14. F r = F t tan = 3190x tan 22.8o = 1341 N
15. F a = F t tan = 3190x tan 30o = 1842 N
Machine Design II
Fig. 12.5 View of the forces acting on pitch cylinder of the helical drive pinion
Bending stress on the pinion:
b1
Ft
K v K o (0.93Km )
b mn J
J= 0.45 for Z V1 =Z 1 / cos3 = 18 / cos3 30o = 27.7 or 28 and = 30o from Fig.12.6
J-multiplication factor from Fig.12.7 = 1.013 from Fig.12.7
Z v2 = Z 2 / cos3 = 72/ cos3 30o = 110.9 or 111 teeth mating gear.
J = 0.45 x 1.013 = 0.4559
HELICAL GEAR - TOOTH BENDING STRESS
Fig.12.6 Geometry factor J for helical gear with n = 20o and mating with 75 tooth
gear
Machine Design II
Fig.12.7 J- factor multiplier when the mating gear has tooth other than 75
78 (200V) 0.5
Kv
78
0.5
78 (200x 6.27) 0.5
78
0.5
1.21
K o = 1.25 assuming uniform source of power and moderate shock from driven
machinery, Table 12.1
K m = 1.5 for b=30.16 mm & less rigid mountings, less accurate gears, contact across full
face, Table 12.2
HELICAL GEAR TOOTH BENDING STRESS (AGMA)
Driven Machinery
Uniform
1.00
1.25
1.75
Light shock
1.25
1.50
2.00
Medium shock
1.50
1.75
2.25
Machine Design II
Table 12. 2 Load distribution factor K m

Face width ( mm)
precision gears
0 - 50
150
b1
1.3
1.4
1.7
1.5
1.6
1.7
2.0
Over 2.0 Over 2.0
Ft
K K (0.93 K )
m
b mn J v o
3190
30.2 x 4.00 x 0.4559
x1.21x 1.25 (0.93 x 1.5)
122.2 MPa
For the gear J = 0.525, for Z V2 = 111 & =30o from Fig. 12.6
J-factor multiplier = 0.965 for Zv 1 =28 & =30o from Fig.12.7
For the gear, J = 0.525 x 0.965 = 0.5066

Bending stress for the gear is
Ft

K K (0.93K )
b2 b mn J v o
m
3190
x1.21x 1.25 (0.93 x 1.5)
30.2 x 4.0 x 0.5066
110 MPa
400 up
1.2
Bending stress in the pinion is
225
Over 2.0
Over 2.0
Machine Design II
Corrected bending fatigue strength of the pinion:

e = e k L k v k s k r k T k f k m
e = 0.5 ut =.0.5x1240 =620 MPa
k L = 1.0 for bending
k V = 1.0 for bending for m 5 module,
k s = 0.645 for ut = 1240 MPa from Fig.12.8
k r = 0.897 for 90% reliability from the Table 12.3
k T =1.0 with Temp. < 120oC,
k f = 1.0
k m = 1.33 for ut = 1240 MPa from the Fig.12.9
e = 620x1x1x0.645x1x1x0.897x1.33 = 477 MPa
SPUR GEAR PERMISSIBLE TOOTH BENDING STRESS (AGMA)
Fig. 12.8 Surface factor k s
Table 12.3 Reliability factor k r
Machine Design II
k f = fatigue stress concentration factor. As this factor is included in J factor, kf =1 is

taken.
k m = Factor for miscellaneous effects. For idler gears subjected to two way bending,
= 1. For other gears subjected to one way bending, the value is taken from the
Fig.12.9. Use k m = 1.33 for ut less than 1.4 GPa.
Fig.12.9 Miscellaneous effects factor, k m

Corrected fatigue strength of the gear:
e = e k L k v k s k r k T k f k m
e = 0.35 ut =.0.35x974 =340.9 MPa
k T = 1.0 with Temp. < 120oC,
k f = 1.0
k m = 1.33 for ut = 974 MPa from Fig.12.9
e = 340.9x1x1x0.673x0.897x1x1x1.33 = 273.7MPa
Machine Design II
Factor of safety for the pinion on bending:

s b1 = e / b1 = 477 / 122.2 = 3.9
Factor of safety for the gear on bending:
s b2 = e / b2 = 273.7/110 = 2.49
Table 12.4 Guidance on the necessary safety factor
As per Niemen Table 12.4, the minimum factor of safety for infinite life in bending
fatigue is 1.8. Since both the case the factor of safety exceeds this value, the gears will
have infinite life.
Ans: The gear is weaker among the two in bending fatigue as its factor of safety is
lower.
Contact stress on helical gears is given by:
H Cp
Ft cos
K v K o (0.93Km )
bdI 0.95CR
Cp = 166 (MPa) 0.5 for steel pinion vs cast iron gear from Table 12.5.
sin cos i
sin22.8o cos22.8o 4
I
0.143
2
i1
2
41
Machine Design II
Table 12.5 Elastic coefficient Cp for spur gears, in
Contact ratio is given by:

(r a)2 r 2 (r a)2 r 2 (r r ) sin
1
b1
2
b2
1
2
CR t
mcos
Using standard tooth system with a= 1m n , CR t :
( 41.6 4.0 )2 38.352
x
4.62
cos22.8
CR
t
(167.85 4.0)2 154.752
x 4.62 cos 22.8o
( 41.6 167.85 ) sin22.8o
x4.62cos22.8o
1.365
K v =1.21, K o = 1.25, K m =1.5
Ft cos
C
K K (0.93Km )
H
p b d I 0.95 CR v o
166
cos 30o
3190
1.21x 1.25 (0.93 x 1.5)

30.2 x 83.2 x 0.143 0.95 x1.365
587MPa
MPa
Machine Design II
Surface fatigue strength of pinion is:

sf = sf K L K H K R K T
sf = surface fatigue strength of the material
= 2.8 (Bhn) 69
from Table 12.6
= 2.8x 380 -69

= 995 MPa
K L = 0.9
K H = 1.005
for 108 cycles from Fig.12.10

for K = 380/331 = 1.14 & i= 4 from Fig.12.11
K R = 1.0
for 99% reliability from Table 12.7
K T = 1.0
assuming temp. < 1200C
For the pinion material,

sf1 = sf K L K H K R K T = 995 x 0.9 x 1 x1.005 x 1 = 900 MPa
(107 cycle life, 99% reliability and temperature <120oC)
Machine Design II
Fig.12.10 Life Factor K L
Fig. 12. 11 Hardness ratio factor, K H

K = Brinell hardness ratio of pinion and
gear, K H = 1.0 for values of K below 1.2
Reliability (%)
50
99
99.9
KR
1.25
1.00
0.80
K T (Temperature factor) = 1 for T 120oC based on Lubricant temperature.
Machine Design II

For gear: sf = 0.95[2.8(Bhn)-69] = 0.95[2.8x331-69] = 815 MPa
K L = 0.9
K H = 1.005
for K = 380/331 = 1.14 & i=4 from Fig.12.11
K R = 1.0
K T = 1.0
sf 2 = sf K L K H K R K T = 815 x 0.9 x 1.005 x1 x 1 = 795 MPa

[ H ] = Sf / s H
Factor of safety s H = 1.1 to 1.5
Design equation is:
H [ H ]
Factor of safety for the pinion against pitting:

s H1 =
Sf1
/ H = 900 /587 = 1.53
Factor of safety for gear against pitting:

s H2 =
Sf2
/ H = 795 /587 = 1.35
In both case the factor of safety is more than 1.3 against pitting (Table 12.4) and the
design is adequate. Among these, gear is slightly weaker than pinion and is likely to fail
first.
The factor of safety in surface fatigue is proportional to square root of load and that in
bending fatigue is directly proportional to load. Hence, the equivalent bending factor of
safety for corresponding surface fatigue (s H2 )2 =1.352 = 1.81 is compared with (S b2 ) and
is <2.49. So the gears are likely to fail due to surface fatigue and not due to bending
fatigue.
-----------------
Machine Design II

In a crossed helical gear drive, the shaft angle is 90o and the gear ratio is 1:1 with the
helix angle
= 2 = 45o. The normal module is 4 mm and the number of teeth in the
gears are Z 1 = Z 2 = 50. The above identical gears are to be so changed that the driven
gear has a pitch diameter of around 200 mm in the new arrangement.
Data: = 1 + 2 = 90o;
= 2 = 45o; m n = 4 mm;
Z 1 = Z 2 = 50 and d 2 ~ 200 mm.

Solution:
d1
mn z1
m z
m z
n 1 and d2 n 2
cos 1 sin 2
cos 2
Centre distance: C = 0.5 (d 1 +d 2 ) = 0.5m n (Z 1 +Z 2 ) /cos

= 0.5 x 4 x (2x50) / cos45o
= 282.84 mm
1
1 m Z
m Z m Z sin 2 cos 2
C (d d ) n 1 n 2 n
2
2 1
2 sin 2 cos 2
2 sin 2 cos 2
Also Z
d2 cos 2
mn
Therefore C
Or
cot 2
Hence, Z 2
mn d2 cos 2 sin 2 cos 2 d2

x
x
1 cot 2
mn
2
sin 2 cos 2 2
2C
2 x 282.84
1
1 1.828, 2 28.675o
d2
200
d2 cos 2 200 x cos 28.675o
43.86
4
mn
Machine Design II
Taking an integral value for Z = 44 and substituting
2C sin 2 cos 2
mn Z sin 2 cos 2
or
C
282.84 sin 2 cos 2
mn Z
4 x 44 2 sin 2 cos 2
Squaring:
2.5826
1 sin 2 2
sin2 2 2
Solving we get 2 = 28.9o

Final values d 1 = 4 x 44 / sin 28.85o = 364.75 mm
d 2 = 4 X 44 / cos 28.85o = 200.94 mm which is near to 200 mm
C = 0.5 (d 1 + d 2 ) = (364.75 +200.94) = 282.84 mm equal to original centre distance.
-------------------

In a turbine drive 300 kW power is transmitted using a pair of double helical gear. The
pinion speed is 2950 rpm and that of the gear is about 816.5 rpm. There are no space
constraints on the gear drive. Selecting suitable materials, design the pinion and the
gear to last for 108 cycles.
Data: W = 300kW; n 1 = 2950rpm; n 2 = 816.5 rpm; Life 108 cycles.
Machine Design II
Solution: Since there are no constraints for the drive design, the number of teeth on the
pinion is assumed as Z 1 = 29. Helix angle of 35o and normal pressure angle n = 20o
are taken for the gears and b = 1.2 p a is assumed.
2n1 2 x 2950
308.77 rad / s
60
60
i = n 1 / n 2 = 2950 / 816.5 = 3.612

Z 2 = i Z 1 = 3.612 x 29 = 104.8 rounded to 105
Torque:
1000W 1000x300
T1'
971.6Nm
308.77
The double helical gear is considered as two single helical gears coupled together
sharing the torque equally. Torque on each half is T 1 =971.6/2 =485.8 Nm=485800
Nmm.
The AGMA bending stress equation:
b
Ft
K v K o (0.93Km )
b mn J
p = m = m n /cos = m n /cos 35o = 3.833m n

p a = p / tan .
Assuming b = 1.2p a = 1.2 p /tan = 1.2 x 3.833m n / tan35o = 6.569m n
F t = 2T 1 / d 1 = 2T 1 / mZ 1 = 2T 1 cos / m n Z 1 = 2 x 485800 x cos35o/ m n x29
= 27444 / m n
J for the pinion with teeth Z v1 = Z 1 / cos3 =29 / cos335o = 82, =35o is: J=0.47 from
Fig. 12.6
J multiplier for mating with Zv2 = Z 2 /cos3 = 105/cos345o =297, is =1.015 from Fig.
12.7
For pinion J = 0.47 x 1.015 = 0.4771
Machine Design II
HELICAL GEAR - TOOTH BENDING STRESS
Fig.12.6 Geometry factor J for helical gear with n = 20o and mating with 75 tooth
gear.
Fig.12.7 J- factor multiplier when the mating gear has tooth other than 75
J factor for the gear with teeth Z v2 = 297 and =35o is J =0.495 from Fig. 12.6
J multiplier for mating with Z v1 = 82 is = 1.003 from Fig. 12.7
For gear J = 0.495 x 1.003 = 0.4965
78 (200V)
Kv
78
0.5
0.5
1.25
assumed sin ce V is not known.
K o = 1.25 assuming uniform source of power and moderate shock from driven
machinery, Table 12.1.
Machine Design II
K m = 1.3 expecting b=150 mm Accurate mountings, small bearing clearances, minimum

deflection, precision gears, Table 12.2.
Helical Gear Tooth Bending Stress (AGMA)
Driven Machinery
Uniform
1.00
1.25
1.75
Light shock
1.25
1.50
2.00
Medium shock
1.50
1.75
2.25

Face width ( mm)
precision gears
0 - 50
150
1.3
1.4
1.7
1.5
1.6
1.7
2.0
Over
2.0
Over 2.0
Ft
K K (0.93K )
b1 bmn J v o
m
=
27444
16542
x1.25x1.25x(0.93x1.3)
3
3
6.569mn x 0.4771
mn
400 up
1.2
For the pinion:
225
Over 2.0
Over 2.0
Machine Design II
For the gear:
b2
Ft
K K (0.93K )
m
b mn J v o
27444
x1.25x1.25x(0.93x1.3)
3 x 0.4965
6.569mn
15895
3
mn
The pinion material is made from C45 steel with hardness 380 Bhn and tensile strength
ut = 1240 MPa. The gear is made from ductile iron grade 120/90/02 of hardness 331
Bhn and tensile strength ut = 974 MPa. Both gears are hobbed, HT and OQ&T and
ground.
Corrected bending fatigue strength of the pinion:
e = 0.5 ut =.0.5x1240 =620 MPa
k T = 1.0 with Temp. < 120oC, k f = 1.0
e = 620x1x1x0.645x1x1x0.897x1.33 = 477 MPa
Corrected bending fatigue strength of the gear:
e = 0.35 ut =.0.35x974 =340.9 MPa
Machine Design II
k T = 1.0 with Temp. < 120oC, k f = 1.0

k m = 1.33 for ut = 974 MPa from Fig.12.95
e = 340.9x1x1x0.673x0.897x1x1x1.33 = 273.7MPa
Permissible stress for the pinion in bending fatigue with factor of safety 1.6 for finite life
gearing from Table 12.4:
[ b ] 1 = e / s b = 477/1.6 = 298 MPa
Permissible stress for the pinion in bending fatigue with factor of safety 1.6,
[ b ] 2 = e / s b = 273.7/1.6 = 171 MPa
For the pinion,
b2
16542
[] 298
2
3
mn
m n = 3.81 mm
For the gear,
b2
m n = 4.53 mm
15895
[] 171
2
3
mn
Take a standard value of 5 mm as given in Table 12.8.

Table 12.8 Standard modules in mm
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
1.0
1.25
1.5
1.75
2.0
2.25
2.5
3.5
4.5
5.5
6.5
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
33
36
39
42
45
50
Further increase is in terms of 5 mm
Machine Design II
m = m n / cos35o = 5 / cos35o = 6.104 mm

d 1 = mZ 1 = 6.104 x 29 = 177.01 mm
d 2 = mZ 2 = 6.104 x 105 = 640.92 mm
p = 3.833m n = 3.833x 5 = 19.165 mm
p a = p / tan . = 19.165 / tan 35o =27.37 mm
b = 1.2p a = 1.2 x 27.37 = 32.84 mm, take 35 mm
d a1 = d 1 + 2m n = 177.01 + 2x5 = 187.01 mm
d a2 = d 2 + 2m n = 640.92 + 2x5 = 650.92 mm
Transverse pressure angle: tan n = tan cos
tan1 (
tan n
tan 20o
) tan1 (
) 23.96o
cos
cos 35o
d b1 = d 1 cos = 177.01 cos23.96o = 161.76 mm

d b2 = d 2 cos = 640.92 cos23.96o = 585.69 mm
C = 0.5(d 1 +d 2 ) = 0.5(177.01+ 640.92) = 408.97mm
V = 0.5d 1 = 0.5 x 308.77x 177.01x10-3= 27.33 m/s
F t = 2T 1 /d 1 = 2x485800 /177.01 =5489N
Contact stress on the gears is given by:

Ft cos
K K (0.93Km )
C
H
p bdI 0.95CR v o
C p = 166 (MPa)0.5 for steel pinion vs cast iron gear from Table 12.5.
I
sin cos i
2
i1
sin 23.96o cos 23.96o
2
3.621
0.1454
3.621 1
Machine Design II
Table 12.5 Elastic coefficient Cp for spur gears, in
Contact ratio is given by:
(r1 a)2 rb12 (r2 a)2 rb22 (r1 r2 ) sin
CR
t
mcos
Using standard tooth system with a= 1m n , CR:
(93.512 80.882
CR
t
o
x6.104
cos
23.96
2
2
(325.46 292.85
x6.104 cos 23.96o
408.97 sin23.96o
x6.104 cos 23.96o
78 (200V)
Kv
0.5
78
0.5
1.3044
78 (200x 27.33)
0.5
78
0.5
1.396
K v =1.396, K o = 1.25, K m =1.

Ft cos
C
K K (0.93Km )
H
p bdI 0.95CR v o
166
(25)
cos 35o
5489
1.396 x 1.25 (0.93 x 1.5)

35 x 177.01x 0.1454 0.95 x1.3044
519.8 MPa
MPa
Machine Design II
Contact fatigue strength of pinion is:

sf = surface fatigue strength of the material = 2.8 (Bhn) 69
From Table 12.6
= 2.8x 380 -69

= 995 MPa
Table 12.6 Surface fatigue strength sf (MPa), for metallic spur gears,
(107 cycle life 99% reliability and temperature < 120o C)
K L = 0.9
K H = 1.005
for K = 380/331 = 1.14 & i=4 from Fig.12.11
K R = 1.0
K T = 1.0
sf = sf K L K H K R K T = 995 x 0.9 x 1.005 x1 x 1

= 900 MPa
Machine Design II
Fig.12.10 Life Factor K L
Fig.12.11 Hardness ratio factor, K H K = Brinell hardness

ratio of pinion and gear, K H = 1.0 for values of K below 1.2
Reliability (%)
KR
50
1.25
99
1.00
99.9
0.80
Machine Design II
K T = temperature factor,
= 1 for T 120oC based on Lubricant temperature.
[ H ] = Sf / s H
Design equation is:
H [ H ]
For gear: sf = 0.95[2.8(Bhn)-69] = 0.95[2.8x331-69] = 815 MPa

K L = 0.97
for 2.5x107 cycles from Fig.12.10
K H = 1.005
for K = 380/331 = 1.14 & i=4
K R = 1.0
K T = 1.0
from Fig.12.11
sf = sf K L K H K R K T = 815 x 0.97 x 1.005 x1 x 1 = 795 MPa

Factor of safety for the pinion against pitting:
s H1 =
Sf
/ H = 900 /519.8 = 1.73
Factor of safety for gear against pitting:

s H2 =
Sf
/ H = 795 /519.8 = 1.53
Table 12.4 Guidance on the necessary factor of safety
Machine Design II
As per the Niemen guidance for factor of safety given in Table 12.4, for long life gearing
the factor of safety has to be more than 1.3 in pitting. Since for both gear and pinion the
factor of safeties is more than 1.3, the design is adequate.
The final specifications of the pinion and gear are:
20o pressure angle involute teeth with helix angle of 35o, h a = 1m n , h f = 1.25m n
Z
mn
mm
d
mm
da
mm
db
mm
Pinion
29
177.01 187.01 161.76 164.51 6.104
Gear
105
640.92 650.92 585.69 628.42 6.104
b mm
p t mm
p a mm
Pinion 20o 23.96o
35
19.165
27.37
20o 23.96o
35
19.165
27.37
Gear
CR t
CR a
CR
FS s b FS s H
Pinion 1.3044 1.2787 2.583
1.99
1.73
Gear
1.89
1.53
1.3044 1.2787 2.583
dr
mm
mt
mm
Machine Design II
(a)
(b)
Fig. 12.12 Dimensional sketch of the pinion and the gear.
(All dimensions are in mm and not to scale.)
Fig. 12.13 Assembly drawing of the double helical gearbox

-------------------------------
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
Sub Module 2.13

Measurement of fluid velocity
Introduction:
We look at the measurement of fluid velocity in detail, in what follows. We will
discuss both intrusive and non-intrusive methods, as given below:
1. Velocity map using Pitot tube and Pitot static tube

Based on fluid mechanics principles
2. Hot wire anemometer
Thermal effect of flow
3. Doppler Velocimeter
Doppler effect due to scattering of waves by moving
particles
4. Time of Flight Velocimeter
Based on time of travel of sound wave through a moving
medium
Items 1 and 2 are intrusive methods while item 3 is a non-intrusive method.

However all these are capable of measuring local velocity of a fluid within
different limits. The size of the probe tends to average the measurement over
an area around the point of interest and also introduces a disturbance in the
measured quantity by modifying the flow that would exist in the absence of the
probe.
The size of the probe should be chosen such that there are no
blockage effects.
The term intrusive refers to this aspect!
The
measurements also are prone to errors due to errors ion alignment of the
probe with respect to the flow direction. For example, a Pitot tube should be
aligned with its axis facing the flow. If the flow direction is not known, it is
difficult to achieve this with any great precision. One way of circumventing
such a problem is to design a probe that is not very sensitive to its orientation.
1) Pitot and Pitot static tube

The basic principle of the Pitot and Pitot static tube is that the pressure of a
flowing fluid will increase when it is brought to rest at a stagnation point of the
probe. Figure 81 shows the streamlines in the vicinity of a blunt nosed body.
We assume that, if the flow is that of a gas, like air, the velocity of the fluid is
much smaller than the speed of sound in air such that density changes may
be ignored.
Basically the fluid behaves as an incompressible fluid.
The
stagnation point is located as shown. Streamlines bend past the body as

shown. The pressure at the stagnation point is the stagnation pressure.
Blunt nosed body
Flow
Stagnation point
Figure 97 Flow of a fluid in the vicinity of a blunt nosed body

If viscous effects are negligible the difference between the stagnation
pressure and the static pressure is related to the dynamic pressure which is
related to the square of the velocity.
Thus the velocity information is
converted to a pressure difference that may be measured by a pressure

measuring device such as a manometer.
The basic arrangement for measuring fluid velocity using a Pitot tube is shown
in Figure 98. The Pitot tube consists of bent tube of small diameter (small
compared to the diameter or size of the duct) with a rounded nose. The flow
is axi-symmetric and in the vicinity of the nose is like the flow depicted in
Figure 97. The Pitot tube is connected to one limb of a U tube manometer.
The other limb of the manometer is connected to a tap made on the tube wall
as indicated. The tube tap and the nose of the Pitot tube are roughly in the
same plane. It is assumed that the wall tap senses the static pressure p of
the fluid while the Pitot tube senses the stagnation pressure po of the fluid.
From Bernoulli principle we have (for low speed flow, fluid velocity much less
than sonic velocity in the fluid)
1
( po p ) = V 2
(101)
In Equation 101 is the density (constant in the case of low speed flow) of the
fluid whose velocity is being measured. We see that in case of gas flow the
temperature also needs to be measured since the density is a function of
static pressure and temperature. With m as the density of the manometer
liquid the pressure difference is given by
po p = ( m ) gh
(102)
Combining Equations 101 and 102, we get
V= 2
( m ) gh
(103)
Incompressible flow assumption is valid for liquid flows.
Incompressible flow assumption is also valid for gases if the flow velocity (V) is
much smaller than the speed of sound (a).
The Mach number is defined as M=V/a.

Generally density variations are important if M 0.3 or thereabout!
Manometric
liquid
h
Static tap
V
Pitot tube
Figure 98 Pitot tube arranged to measure fluid velocity
(a)
(b)
Figure 99 Measurement of speed of an aircraft using a Pitot tube
Visit http://www.aerospaceweb.org/question/instruments/q0251.shtml
A typical application of a Pitot tube is the measurement of velocity of an

aircraft. The principle of operation of the speedometer of an aircraft is shown
in Figure 99 (a). The stagnation pressure is obtained from the Pitot probe
mounted on the aircraft wing as shown in Figure 99 (b). The static pressure is
sensed by a static pressure hole elsewhere on the aircraft, as for example, on
the fuselage. The diaphragm element (we have already seen how pressure
can be converted to a displacement) with a dial indicator completes the
instrument.
Many a time a Pitot static tube is made use of. Pitot static tube senses both
the stagnation pressure and the static pressure in a single probe.
schematic of a Pitot static probe is shown in Figure 100. The proportions of

the probe are very important in order to have accurate measurement of the
velocity. Typically the probe diameter (D) would be 6 mm. The length of the
probe would then be around 10 cm or more.
Static Holes
4 to 8, 1mm
Diameter holes
Radius of
curvature =3D
V
8D
>4D
Typically 8D
Figure 100 Pitot static tube (or Prandtl tube) showing typical proportions
The static pressure holes are positioned more than 4D from the stagnation
point. A suitable monometer may be connected between the inner and outer
tubes to measure the fluid velocity. The probe is inserted through a hole in
the side of the duct or wind tunnel, as the case may be.
Example 34
~ A Pitot static tube is used to measure the velocity of an aircraft. If
the air temperature and pressure are 5C and 90 kPa respectively,
what is the aircraft velocity in km/h if the differential pressure is 250
mm water column?
~ We take density of water (manometric liquid) as 999.8 kg/m3.
~ We calculate first the density of air at
p = 90 103 Pa, T = 273 + 5 = 278 K

using ideal gas relation with gas constant of Rg = 287 J / kg K .
~ We have =
p
90000
=
= 1.128 kg / m3
Rg T 287 278
~ The pressure difference given in terms of head of water may now

be converted to SI units.
p = ( m ) gh = ( 999.8 1.128 ) 9.8 0.250 = 2446.75 Pa
~ The aircraft speed is thus given by
2p
2 2446.75
= 65.87 m / s
1.128
~ This may be specified in km/hr by noting that

V=
1000 m
1
=
m/s
3600 s 3.6
or 1 m / s = 3.6 km / h
1 km / h =
~ Thus the aircraft speed is
V = 65.87 3.6 = 237.1 km / h

~ We shall verify whether the incompressible assumption is good
enough. The speed of sound is calculated by assuming that the
ratio of specific heats = 1.4 for air. We then have the speed of
sound as
a = Rg T = 1.4 287 278 = 334.2 m / s

~ The corresponding Mach number is
V 65.87
M= =
= 0.197
a 334.2
~ Since M < 0.3 the incompressible flow assumption may not be too
bad.
Effect of compressibility
In Example 34 the Mach number of the aircraft is about 0.2. It was mentioned
that the incompressible assumption may not be too bad, for this case. Let us,
however, look at what will happen if the compressibility effects have to be
taken into account. We discuss here subsonic flows (M < 1) where it may be
necessary to consider the effect of density variations. In such a case we use
well known relations from gas dynamics to take into account the density
variations. We shall assume that the gas behaves as an ideal gas. The
stagnation process (what happens near the nose of the Pitot tube) is assumed
to be an isentropic process via which the flow is brought to rest from the
condition upstream of the Pitot tube. From gas dynamics we have
po 1 2 1
= 1+
M
2
p
(104)
Equation 102 will have to be replaced by
1 2 1
po p = p 1 +
M 1 = ( m ) gh
2
(105)
We may solve this for M and get

1
2 ( m ) gh
M=
1 +
1
1
p
(106)
In fact we solve for the Mach number first and then obtain the flow velocity.
We shall look at Example 34 again using Equation 105, a little later.
In order to appreciate the above we present a plot of pressure ratio recorded

by a Prandtl tube as a function of flow Mach number in Figure 101. The figure
indeed shows that the incompressible assumption may be alright up to a
Mach number of about 0.3. This may be appreciated better by looking at the
percentage difference between the two as a function of Mach number. Such
a plot is shown in Figure 102.
p 1 2 1
M . This may be rearranged
From Equation 104, we have o = 1 +
p
2
2 po
. Let us write p = p p . Then po = p + p = 1 + p .
1
as M =
1 p
p
p
p
Incompressible flow assumption is expected to be valid if p p . In that case

we have
po

p
p
= 1 +
1+
1 p
.
p
Correspondingly we have M 2
2 1 p 2p V
1+
1 =
=
1
p
With a 2 =
V=
p
we then have
2p p
2 p
=
p
(107)
This is the same as expression given by Equation 103!
P re ssu re ra tio
Incompressible
Compressible
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Mach number
% Ch a n g e in
p re s s u re ra tio
Figure 101 Pressure ratio recorded by a Prandtl tube as a function of

Flow Mach number
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Mach Number
Figure 102 Percent change in Pressure ratio with compressible and

incompressible assumptions recorded by a Prandtl tube as a function of
flow Mach number
Example 35
~ Rework Example 34 accounting for density variations of air.
~ We take density of water (manometric liquid) as 999.8 kg/m3.

~ We calculate first the density of air at
p = 90 103 Pa, T = 273 + 5 = 278 K

using ideal gas relation with gas constant of Rg = 287 J / kg K .
~ We have =
p
90000
=
= 1.128 kg / m3
Rg T 287 278
~ The pressure difference given in terms of head of water may now

be converted to SI units.
p = ( m ) gh = ( 999.8 1.128 ) 9.8 0.250 = 2446.75 Pa

~ The aircraft Mach number is given by
1
2 p
=
+
M=
1
1
p
1
(1.41)
2
2446.75 1.4
= 0.196
1 +
1.4
1
90000
(
)
~ With the speed of sound of 334.2 m/s (from Example 30), the
aircraft speed is given by
V = Ma = 0.196 334.2 = 65.55 m / s = 65.55 3.6 = 235.96 km / h

~ The error due to the neglect of compressibility effects is almost 1
km/h!
Example 36
~ A Pitot static tube is used to measure the velocity of water flowing in
a pipe. Water of density 1000 kg/m3 is known to have a velocity of
2.5 m/s at the position where the Pitot static tube has been
introduced. The static pressure is measured independently at the
tube wall and is 2 bars. What is the head developed by the Pitot
static tube if the manometric fluid is mercury with density equal to
13600 kg/m3?
~ From the given data, we have
p = 2 bars = 2 105 Pa, = 13600 kg / m3 , m = 2500 kg / m3

~ Velocity of water has been specified as V = 2.5 m / s
~ The dynamic pressure is given by
pd =
1
1
V 2 = 1000 2.52 = 3125 Pa
2
2
~ This is also the pressure sensed by the Pitot static probe. Hence
this must equal ( m ) gh . Thus the head developed is
h=
pd
3125
=
m = 0.02531 m = 25.31 mm Hg
13600
1000 ) 9.8
( m )g (
Impact probe in supersonic flow

Blunt nose impact probe:
Flow of a gas (for example air) at Mach number greater than 1 is referred to
as supersonic flow. The axisymmetric flow past an impact probe (Pitot tube)
in supersonic flow is very different from that in subsonic flow. Typically what
happens is shown in Figure 103.
Bow
Shock
M2<1, p2
M1>1, p1
Impact
probe
Stagnation
Point, p02
Locally flow is
normal to the shock
Figure 103 Supersonic flow past an impact probe

Stagnation process is more complex in the case of supersonic flow. A curved
shock (referred to as a bow shock because of its shape) is formed just ahead
of the probe and detached from it. As is clear from the sketch the flow across
the shock is normal to it just ahead of the stagnation point on the probe. The
flow transforms irreversibly to subsonic flow downstream of the shock (state
represented by subscript 2) from supersonic condition upstream (state
represented by subscript 1) of it. The stagnation process downstream of the
shock follows an isentropic process. The following expression can be derived
using the appropriate relations for flow across a normal shock followed by an
isentropic stagnation process (refer to a book on Gas Dynamics).
1 2 1
1+
M 1
po 2 2 M 12 1 1
2
=
+
1
2 M 2 1
p1 + 1 + 1
1
2
(108)
Equation 108 relates the ratio of stagnation pressure measured by the impact
probe to the static pressure of the flow upstream of the shock to the Mach
number of the flow upstream of the shock the quantity we are out to
measure, in the first place. A plot of expression 108 is shown in Figure 104
and helps in directly reading off M1 from the measured pressure ratio.
Wedge probe
A second type of probe that may be used for measurement of supersonic flow
P r e s s u r e r a tio , p 1 / p 0 2
is the wedge type probe shown in Figure 105.
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1
3
4
Mach Number, M1
Figure 104 Pressure ratio Mach number relation for supersonic flow
Oblique shock
p1
p2
Figure 105 Wedge probe in supersonic flow

The flow past the wedge is two dimensional with an oblique shock emanating
from the apex of the wedge as shown. The flow becomes parallel to the
wedge surface downstream of the oblique shock. The static pressure p2 may
be sensed by using a static pressure tap on the surface of the wedge some
distance away from the apex.
The relationship between the pressures
upstream and downstream of the oblique shock is given by
p2
2
-1
=
M 12 sin 2 p1 + 1
+1
(109)
The shock angle itself is a function of M1 and . Tables relating these are
available in books on Gas Dynamics. One may also use the web resource at
http://www.aero.lr.tudelft.nl/~bert/shocks.html to calculate these.
Example 37
~ A wedge probe has a wedge angle of = 8 and placed in a wind
tunnel where the flow is known be at M 1 = 1.5 . Calculate the static
pressure ratio that is expected from the probe.
~ We use the web resource and input M 1 = 1.5 and turn angle (weak
shock) as = 8 . The oblique shock calculator yields the following:
(The entries have been edited to show only three digits after the decimal point and angle
with two digits after the decimal point)
~ Oblique Shock Relations Perfect Gas, Gamma =
1.4
Angles in degrees.
INPUT: M1 =
1.5
Turn angle (w eak shock)
M2=
1.208
p2/p1=
1.489
2/1=
p02/p01=
0.994
M1n=
52.57
1.326
T2/T1=
1.122
1.191
M2n=
0.848
~ Thus we see that the oblique shock makes an angle of 52.57.

Substitute this in to Equation 109 to get
p2 2 1.4
2 1.4 -1
=
= 1.489
(1.5 sin 52.57 ) p1 1.4 + 1
1.4 + 1
~ This will correspond to the pressure ratio indicated by the probe.
More impact probes:

It should be clear by now that a probe in supersonic flow is a device that
produces a change in the pressure that may be measured. The wedge probe
is an example of this.
Another example is a probe having cone-cylinder
configuration as shown in Figure 106.
Figure 106 Cone-cylinder probe for supersonic flow

A.R. Porro, Pressure Probe Designs for Dynamic Pressure Measurements
in Supersonic Flow Field, NASA/TM-2001-211096
The probe diameter used was 0.4435 inch or 11.05 cm. Three different probe
tips were used, the one shown in the figure being for the measurement of
static pressure. Eight static pressure ports are positioned 10 D from the cone
shoulder. This design gives accurate flow field static pressure according to
the author.
Orientation effects:
The sensitivity to orientation is also a concern while using probes in subsonic
as well as supersonic flows. It is also possible that the flow direction may be
determined, when it not known, by using this sensitivity. A multiple hole probe
(multi-hole probe, for short) is used for this purpose. Examples of miniature
multi-hole probes for subsonic flow applications are shown in Figure 107 (size
is inferred by the built in scale).
(a)
(b)
Figure 107 Miniature (a) three hole and (b) five hole probes for subsonic
flow
Visit: http://www.ltt.ntua.gr/probes.html
These pictures have been sourced from the Laboratory of Turbo-machines,
National University of Athens
We shall explain the basic principle involved in multi-hole probes. Take, for
example, a three hole probe oriented such that the plane passing through the
three holes also contains the plane in which the two dimensional flow is taking
place. The state of affairs, in general, is as shown in Figure 108.
Flow, V
p1
p1
po
p2
Figure 108 Schematic of three hole probe oriented

at an angle to the oncoming flow
We know from fluid flow theory that the pressure is a function of angle the
static hole makes with respect to the direction of flow. Since the axis of the
probe is pitched at an angle as shown, the effective angle made by hole p1
is greater than the angle made by hole p2. The pressure difference ( po p1 ) is
different from the pressure difference ( po p2 ) . When the probe is aligned
with zero pitch the two are equal and thus helps to identify the flow direction.
Also the pressure difference
( p1 p2 ) is zero when the pitch angle is zero or
when the probe is facing the flow normally.
The argument may be extended to a five hole probe. There are two pressure
differences, ( p1 p4 ) and ( p2 p3 ) that may be monitored. These differences
will be functions of two angles, pitch angle (as in the case of the three hole
probe) and the roll angle as shown in Figure 109.
Calibration of three and five hole probes is done by changing the roll and pitch
angles systematically in a wind tunnel where the direction of flow is known,
collecting the pressure difference data and evolving a relationship between
these and the two angles.
It is usual to represent the data in terms of
pressure coefficients defined by
Cp =
(110)
2
V 2
2
It is seen that the pressure coefficient Cp is non-dimensional and the dynamic
pressure is used as the reference. Each and every multi-hole probe needs to
be calibrated because of small variations that are always there between
different probes during the manufacturing process. More details about multihole probes and their calibration may be obtained from specialized literature.
p2
p1
po
p3
p4
Figure 109 Schematic of a five hole probe showing the roll angle
2) Hot wire anemometer

A hot wire anemometer basically involves the power that is dissipated by a hot
wire to an ambient fluid that is moving past it. The larger the velocity of the
fluid, larger the heat dissipation from the wire for a fixed wire temperature.
Alternately - larger the velocity of the fluid, smaller the wire temperature for
a fixed heat dissipation rate from the wire. Thus a hot wire anemometer is a
thermal device and the velocity information is converted to thermal either
temperature change or change in the heat dissipation rate information.
Shaped supports
Flow
Tungsten wire
Copper coating
5 mm
Figure 110 Typical hot wire probe

Typical hot wire probe element is shown in Figure 110. It consists of a very
small diameter (a few m) and a couple of mm long tungsten wire tightly fixed
between supports that also act as electrical connections to external electrical
circuit.
The wire is heated by passing a current I through it.
Let the
resistance of the tungsten wire be Rw. We assume that the wire resistance is
a linear function of temperature and is given by
Rw = R 1 + b (Tw T )
(111)
In the above the subscript refers to a reference state, b is temperature

coefficient of resistance and R is the wire resistance at the reference
temperature. The temperature coefficient is 3.510-3/C for Platinum while it
is 5.23.510-3/C for tungsten. The heat dissipated by the wire is given by
I 2 Rw and
must
equal
the
heat
loss
from
the
wire
surface
given
by DLh (Tw T ) , under steady state. Thus
I 2 Rw = DLh (Tw T )
(112)
In the above expression D is the diameter of the wire, L is the effective length
of the wire and h is the heat transfer coefficient. The heat transfer coefficient
h (we assume that the hot wire element is like a cylinder in cross flow) follows
the so called Kings law which state that
DLh = A + BV n
(113)
Here A, B and index n are constants, usually determined by calibration and V

is the fluid velocity. The constant part of the heat transfer coefficient accounts
for natural convection and radiation even when the fluid is stationary. The
variable part accounts for forced convection heat transfer in the presence of a
moving fluid. The power law dependence is the observation of King. We
have seen earlier while discussing heat transfer to a thermometer well that the
power law form appears in the Zhukaskas correlation for flow normal to a
cylinder. From Equation 111 we have
Tw T =
Rw R
bR
(114)
Substituting these in Equation 112, we get I 2 Rw = A + BV n
( Rw R ) which
bR
may be rearranged to read

A + BV n =
I 2 Rw R b
( Rw R )
(115)
Equation 115 is the basic hot wire anemometer equation. There are two ways
of using the hot wire probe.
a) Constant Temperature or CT anemometer: The hot wire is operated at

constant temperature and constant Rw. The current I will respond to
changes in the velocity V.
b) Constant Current or CC anemometer The hot wire current is held fixed.

The resistance of the wire responds to change in the velocity V.
a) Constant Temperature or CT anemometer:

A bridge circuit (Figure 111) is used for the constant temperature operation of
a hot wire anemometer. The series resistance Rs is adjusted such that the
bridge is at balance at all times. Thus, if the fluid velocity increases more heat
will be dissipated by the hot wire at a given temperature and hence the
current needs to increase. This is brought about by decreasing Rs. The
opposite is the case when the fluid velocity decreases. We may write the
power dissipated by the hot wire element as I 2 Rw =
E2
. Here E is the voltage
Rw
across the hot wire that is measured by the voltmeter as shown in Figure 111.
Balance detecting
Galvanometer
R3
R4
R1
R2
Hot wire
sensor
Battery
RS
Figure 111 Hot wire bridge circuit for constant temperature operation
Equation 115 then takes the form

A + BV n =
E2
R b
Rw ( Rw R )
(116)
We note that, under CT operation, except E all other quantities on the right
hand side are constant. We may absorb these in to the constants A and B to
write the above equation in the form
E 2 = A + BV n
(117)
Let Eo be the output of the sensor when V = 0. The constant A is then nothing
but Eo2. Hence we have
E
B
E E = BV or 1 = 2 V n
Eo
Eo
2
2
o
(118)
If we take logarithms on both sides, the following equation results:

E 2
B
log 1 = log 2 + n log V
Eo
Eo
(119)
The above expression is a linear representation of the output, obtained by

suitable mathematical manipulations.
Example 38 demonstrates these
aspects.
Useful heat transfer correlation
The correlation due to Churchill and Bernstein is useful as long as the Peclet
number (product of Reynolds and Prandtl numbers) is greater than 0.2. We
shall assume a constant Prandtl number for air as 0.7. The above condition
means that the Reynolds number should be greater than about 0.3 for the
correlation to hold. We note that the wire diameter in a hot wire sensor is
such that this condition is quite a limitation in the use of the correlation. The
correlation itself is given by
1
Nu = 0.3 +
0.62 Pr 3
1 + 0.4
Pr
2
3
4
3
Re
(120)
With Pr = 0.7, this takes the form
Nu = 0.3 + 0.362 Re
(121)
Note that Nu is the Nusselt number based on wire diameter as the

characteristic dimension. In fact, King proposed a relation of the above form
based on empirical observations. The properties such as kinematic viscosity

and thermal conductivity of air are at the mean film temperature.
Example 38
~ A hot wire operates at a temperature of 200C while the air
temperature is 20C. The velocity of air may vary between 0 and 10
m/s. The hot wire element is a platinum wire of 4
m diameter and 1.2
mm length. What is the sensor output when the air velocity is 4 m/s?
~ Diameter and length of the hot wire element are:
D = 4 m = 4 106 m, L = 1.2 mm = 0.0012 m

~ We take electrical resistivity of Platinum at 20C as 20 = 10.5 108 m .
We also assume a value of b = 0.00385 / C as the temperature
coefficient of Platinum.
Platinum
Further, we assume that the resistivity of
varies
linearly
according
to
the
relation t = 20 1 + b ( t 20 ) where t is the temperature in C. Since

the sensor operates in the CT mode, the wire resistance is constant
and is given by
Rw = R20 1 + b ( t 20 ) =
20 L
1 + b ( t 20 )
2
4
10.5 108 0.0012
4 10
1 + 0.00385 ( 200 20 ) = 17.1
~ The heat transfer coefficient is estimated using the correlation due to

Churchill and Bernstein. The properties of air are taken at the film
temperature of Tm =
t + t 200 + 20
=
= 110C . The required properties
2
2
from air tables are m = 24.15 106 m 2 / s, km = 0.032 W / mC

~ The Reynolds number is calculated as
Re =
VD
4 4 106
= 0.663
24.15 106
~ With Pr = 0.7, the Nusselt number is calculated as

Nu = 0.3 + 0.362 0.663 = 0.595
~ The heat transfer coefficient is then given by
h=
Nu km 0.595 0.032
=
= 4758 W / m 2 C
4 106
D
~ Heat dissipation from the wire when exposed to an stream at 4 m/s is

then given by
Q = DLh ( t t ) = 4 106 0.0012 4758 ( 200 20 ) = 0.0129 W
~ This must equal
E2
and hence the output of the sensor is
Rw
E = QRw = 0.0129 17.1 = 0.470 V
We make a plot of sensor output as a function of the air velocity using the
range from 0 to 10 m/s for it.
The plot (Figure 112) indicates that the
response is indeed non-linear. However we linearise the output as indicated

earlier by making a log-log plot as shown in Figure 113. On both plots we
have shown the response at air velocity of 4 m/s corresponding to the case
considered in Example 38.
O u tp u t, V o lts
0.6
0.55
0.5
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0
10
Velocity, m/s
Figure 112 Response of hot wire sensor of Example 35 in CT mode
10
0.1
0.1
10
2
(E/Eo) -1
Figure 113 Linearised output of hot wire sensor of Example 35 in CT

mode
b) Constant Current or CC anemometer
In this mode of operation the current through the sensor wire is kept constant
by an arrangement schematically shown in Figure 114.
As the sensor
resistance changes the series resistance is adjusted such that the total
resistance and hence the current remains fixed. The potential drop across the
sensor thus changes in response to a change in its resistance. This voltage is
I
Hot wire probe
Series
resistance
Battery
amplified, if necessary, before being recorded.
Amplifier
E
Output to
recorder
Figure 114 Hot wire circuit for constant current operation

Referring to Figure 114 we see that the output of the circuit E is proportional
to IRw. Since I is constant in CC mode of operation, Rw may be replaced by
E, the voltage in the presence of fluid flowing at velocity V normal to the hot
wire. Similarly we may replace R by E. We also represent the output of the
sensor when the velocity of the fluid is zero as Eo. With these, Equation 115
takes the form
A + BV n =
bEE
I ( E E )
(122)
We also have
A=
bEo E
I ( Eo E )
(123)
Equation 123 helps in getting E as E =
AEo
. Introduce this in Equation
b
A + Eo
I
122 to get
AEo
E
b
A + Eo
AEEo
b
I
=b
A + BV n =
. The denominator on the
I
I
E A + I Eo AEo
AEo
A + Eo
I
right
hand
side
may
b
b b
as E A + Eo AEo = ( E Eo ) A + Eo + Eo2 .
I
I I
be
rewritten
Then the above equation
may be rearranged as
( E Eo ) A +
AEo2b
1
1
b b 2 AEob
Eo + Eo =
+
( E Eo )
n
I
N
I
I
A + BV
I A + BV n

N
N
K2
K1
K3
K4
This may further be rearranged as
( E Eo ) K1
K3
A + BV n
K4
= A + BV n K 2
Finally we get
=0
A1

P
n
n
K 2 BV ( K 4 K 2 A )
AV
a1V n
1
=
=
( Eo E ) =
K1 A K 3 ) + K1 BV n A2 + A3V n 1 + a2V n
(

N
= A2 = A2
A3
(124)
In the above expression a1 =
A
A1
and a2 = 3 .
A2
A2
The output response thus
involves two constants that may be determined by suitable calibration.
Response of a hot wire anemometer operating in the CC mode is typically like
(E o - E )
that shown in Figure 115.
0.2
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0
10
15
20
25
Velocity, m/s
Figure 115 Output of a typical micro machined hot wire probe in the CC
mode
Length of wire = 100 m, Resistance at room temperature = 2000
Practical aspects:
Hot wire probes are very delicate and need to be handled very carefully.
Rugged probes are made using a film of Platinum deposited on a substrate
rather than using a wire. Two such designs are shown in Figures 116 and
117 below.
The probe shown in Figure 116 is cylindrical while the probe shown in Figure
117 is in the shape of a wedge. A thin film of Platinum is used as the sensor.
It is usually protected by a layer of alumina or quartz. The substrate provides
ruggedness to the film while the protective coating provides abrasive
resistance.
The active length of the sensor is between the gold plated
portions. The leads are gold wires (Figure116) or gold film (Figure 117). In
the case of wire type probes it is advisable not to expose the wire to gusts of
fluid. The sensor must be handled gently without subjecting it to excessive
vibration.
A typical hot wire system that is supplied by topac has specifications given
in Table 18.
Platinum film coated

on quartz:
Thickness=0.06 mm,
Diameter=0.15 mm
Sensor substrate
made of glass tube
SS supporting
tubes
Gold wire taken out

through tube for
connection
Gold plating defines

sensor length
Figure 116 Hot film transducer in the form of a cylinder
Gold film lead

Alumina or quartz coated platinum
film 0.11mm on each face of bevel
Figure 117 Hot film wedge probe

Measurement of transients (velocity fluctuations)
Hot wire anemometer is routinely used for the measurement of velocity
fluctuations that occur, for example, in turbulent flows. The time constant of
the sensor plays an important role in determining the frequency response of
the hot wire. Take for example the hot wire that was considered in Example
38. Suppose the mean velocity at a certain location in the flow is 4 m/s. The
fluctuating component will be superposed on this mean velocity. Let us
assume that the fluctuation is small compared to the mean.
The time
constant may then be based on the conditions that prevail at the mean speed.
The heat transfer coefficient was obtained as h = 4758 W / m 2 C .
Thermal
conductivity of Platinum is k = 69 W / mC . With the diameter D = 4 m as the

characteristic
Bi =
dimension,
the
Biot
number
is
hD 4758 4 106
=
= 0.00028 . The hot wire element may be treated as
k
69
lumped system of first order. The time constant may now be estimated. The
density and specific heat of Platinum are taken as = 21380 kg / m3 and
c = 134 J / kg C .
The volume to surface area ratio for the wire is
V D2
D
L ( DL ) = = 106 m .
=
S 4
4
The first order time constant is then
obtained as
c V 21380 134
6
= =
10 = 0.0006 s
4758
h
S
(125)
The corresponding bandwidth may be calculated as

f =
1
2
1
= 265 Hz
2 0.0006
(126)
This may not be good enough for measurements of transients that occur in
turbulent flows. Literature reports hot wire probes with time constant as low
as 2 s (F. Jiang, Y. C. Tai, C. H. Ho, and W. J. Li. A Micromachined Polysilicon Hot-Wire
Anemometer. Solid-State Sensor and Actuator Workshop, Hilton Head, SC, pp. 264-267,
1994). Hot wire anemometer system AN-1003 supplied by A A Lab Systems
USA has a frequency response in excess of around 10 kHz (Visit http://www.labsystems.com/products/flow-mea/an1003/techspec.htm).
Table 18 Specifications of a typical hot wire anemometer

AF210 series Specifications: Hot Wire Anemometer
Accuracy
0.12 m/s 1% reading
(+5 to +45C)
0.20 m/s 2% reading -20C
to +5C & +45C to +70C
Range Flow
0.1 m/s 10.00 m/s
Operating temperature
0 to + 50 C
Operating temperature probe

-20 to + 80 C
tip
Probe length
300 mm plus handle
Probe Diameter
13 mm
Dimensions
140 x 79 x 46 mm
Weight
250 gm
From www.topac.com
3) Doppler Velocimeter
As mentioned earlier this is basically a non intrusive method of velocity
measurement. This method of velocity measurement requires the presence
of scattering particles in the flow. Most of the time these are naturally present
or they may be introduced by some means. The Doppler effect is the basis
for the measurement. Doppler effect may be used with waves of different
types electromagnetic waves: visible, IR, micro wave, ultrasound.
We
explain the Doppler effect by referring to Figure 118.
Scattered wave, f,
Incident wave, f,
Figure 118 Scattering of radiation by a moving particle

Let the particle move with a velocity V in a medium in which the wave
propagates at speed c. The incident wave is characterized by wavelength
and frequency f and is incident along a direction that is normal to the velocity
V of the scattering particle. We make observation of the wave scattered along
a direction that makes an angle with respect to the direction of V, as shown.
Incident wave wavelength and frequency are related through the well know
relation
f =
(127)
It has been observed that the frequency of the scattered wave is different from
the frequency of the incident wave because of the motion of the scattering
particle. The incident wave travels at the wave speed c while the scattered
wave travels at an enhanced speed due to the component of the particle
velocity that is added to it. The wavelength does not change. The frequency
of the wave alone undergoes a change. Hence, we have, for the scattered
wave
f '=
c + V cos
(128)
The difference between the two frequencies is referred to as the Doppler shift.
It is given by
f D = f ' f =
c + V cos
V cos
(129)
The general case where the wave is incident along a direction that makes an
angle i and is scattered along a direction that makes an angle s with the
direction of the particle velocity is shown in Figure 119. Note that the incident
and scattered waves need not be in the same plane even though Figures 118
and 119 have been drawn on this basis.
Incident
Wave
Scattered
Wave
i
Scattering particle
Figure 119 General case of scattering of an
incident wave by a moving particle
The Doppler shift in this case is easily seen to be
fD =
( cos s - cos i )
(130)
It is clear from these expressions that the Doppler shift will occur only if the
particle has non-zero component along the direction of travel of the wave.
We take an example of light wave of = 0.68 m . The speed of light in air

may be taken as c = 3 108 m / s . The light wave being considered is
actually laser light from a Helium-Neon laser. The frequency of the light
c
3 108
wave is f = =
= 4.412 1014 Hz . Consider the scattering of this
6
0.68 10
wave by a particle traveling with a velocity of 10 m/s as shown in Figure
101.
The
Doppler
shift
is
given
V cos
10 cos
by f D =
=
= 14.706 cos MHz . The Doppler shift follows a
0.68 106
cosine distribution. Doppler shift of 14.7 MHz occurs respectively for
= 0 (forward scatter) and = (backward scatter). The Doppler shift is
zero when = /2.
Ultrasonic Doppler velocity meter

The first device we shall consider is one that uses ultrasound (sound waves
above 20 kHz and typically 100 kHz) as the beam that undergoes Doppler
shift due to a moving particle. These are in very common use in medicine,
specifically for blood flow measurements in patients. The ultrasound waves
are produced by a piezoelectric crystal driven by an ac source at the desired
frequency.
This transducer may be used as a transmitter as well as a
receiver. The construction details of a transducer are shown in Figure 120.

The transducer consists of a small cylindrical piece of a piezoelectric crystal
that is mounted in a casing with a backing of absorbing material. The crystal
itself is backed by tungsten loaded resin as shown in the figure. When sound
waves are incident on the crystal the pressure variations generate voltage
variations across the crystal (receiver mode).
These are communicated
through lead wires. In case ac power is fed through the leads the crystal
oscillates and produces ultrasound waves (transmitter mode).
Casing
Absorbing
material
Piezoelectric
crystal
Power
leads
Tungsten
loaded resin
Figure 120 Piezoelectric transducer

Now we consider the arrangement shown in Figure 121. The illustration is
that of measurement of velocity of a fluid in a pipe using the Doppler Effect.
Two transducers are fixed on the walls as indicated. One of the transducers
is a transmitter of ultrasonic waves and the second acts as a receiver for the
scattered ultrasound wave. The illustration shows the transmitter and receiver
to be in contact with the flow.
Clamp on transducers are also possible
wherein the transducers are mounted outside but in contact with the pipe wall.
The latter arrangement is preferred with corrosive fluids and when it is not
desirable to make holes in the pipe.
In this case the ultrasound passes
through the pipe wall and undergoes a change in direction that will have to be
taken into account.
Transmitter
Receiver
Incident wave
Scattered wave
V
Moving particle
Figure 121 Measurement of fluid velocity by Doppler shift method
We assume that the particle or some naturally occurring disturbance like air
bubbles in the flow, which is moving at the same speed as that of the fluid,
scatters the incident wave. Figure 122 shows the schematic of the electronic
circuit that is used for signal conditioning. An oscillator drives the transmitter
at the desired or chosen ultrasonic frequency. Let the transmitted ultrasound
wave be given by ut = uto cos (t ) .
The scattered wave then is given
by ur = uro cos ( + D ) t + . Here u represents the signal in appropriate unit,

subscripts t and r represent respectively the transmitted and received waves,
represents the frequency of the source and D is the Doppler shift and
represents the phase shift. With reference to the circuit shown in Figure 105
the us may be taken in electrical units such as Volts or milli-volts. is the
circular frequency that is related to the frequency as f =
. If we multiply
2
the transmitted and reflected signals together, we get
s = ut ur = uto uro cos (t ) cos ( + D ) t +

From trigonometry, we have cos A cos B =
(131)
cos( A + B) + cos( A B)
.
2
Using this
identity Equation 131 may be recast as
s=
1
cos ( 2 + D ) t + + cos [D t + ]
2
(132)
The signal s thus contains a high frequency component at roughly twice the
input frequency (usually the Doppler shift is much smaller than the transmitted
frequency) and a low frequency component at the Doppler shift frequency.
Our interest lies with the latter and hence the former is removed by extracting
the latter by demodulation followed by passing the signal through a low pass
filter. The Doppler shift is in the audio frequency range while the transmitted
frequency is in the 100 kHz range.
In summary, the scattered radiation contains the signal at the Doppler shift
frequency riding over a high frequency roughly at double the frequency of the
input wave.
This wave is demodulated to extract the Doppler signal that
varies in the audio frequency range. A zero crossing detector, multi-vibrator

and a low pass filter yields an output that is proportional to flow.
Signal
waveforms at various positions are also shown in the figure.
Oscillator
RF Amplifier
Demodulator
Zero crossing detector

Transmitter
Receiver
One shot multi-vibrator
Low pass filter
Output
Figure 122 Circuit for measuring the Doppler shift and hence the flow
Typical performance figures for an ultrasonic Doppler flow meter are

given below:
1. Over the flow range 0 to 15 m/s a repeatability of 1% of full scale

2. For small pipes with well mixed slurries linearity of 21% for Re >
105
3. Measurements with clamp on meters is possible up to 120C
Consider an ultrasound system with a transmitted frequency of f = 100

kHz. Let the typical velocity of the fluid be V = 1 m/s. We shall assume
that the incident and transmitted waves are almost collinear. Let the
speed of the wave in the medium be a = 350 m/s. The wavelength of the
wave is then given by
a
350
=
= 0.0035 m
f 100 103
The Doppler shift is then given by
V
1
fD = =
= 285.7 Hz
0.0035
The signal thus consists of approximately 286 Hz low frequency
component riding over a wave at 200 kHz. Clearly the Doppler shifted
signal is in the audible range and may in fact be heard as a hum if it is
connected to a speaker via an amplifier.
Laser Doppler velocity meter

In fluid mechanics research the Laser Doppler Velocimeter (LDV) is used for
detailed mapping of fluid flow fields. As the name implies the radiation that is
used is a highly coherent laser source. The advantage of the laser based
measurement is that the beam may be focused to a very small volume thus
measuring almost truly the velocity at a point. Since the focused beam is
intense enough scattered energy is available to make measurements with
adequate signal to noise ratio.
Also high sensitivity photomultiplier tubes
(PMT) are available that allow work with very small amount of scattered light.
Two possible ways of operating an LDV are a) the fringe based system and b)
reference beam method. We describe these two in what follows.
a) Fringe system:
Schematic of a fringe based system is shown in Figure 123. A laser source

provides highly coherent light of fixed wavelength of very narrow line width.
Two beams traveling parallel to each other are obtained by passing it through
a partial mirror (beam splitter in figure) and then reflecting one of the beams
off a mirror. These two beams are focused at a point within the flow medium
as shown. A particle or some disturbance passing through the region close to
the focal point will scatter energy as shown. At the focal point the two beams
form an interference pattern that is in the form of a fringe system as shown as
an inset in the figure. When a particle in the medium passes through this
region the scattered radiation intensity is modulated by the fringes. If the

particle moves at a speed V across the fringe system, and if the fringe
spacing is d, the frequency of the burst signal is given by f =
shown that the fringe spacing is given by d =

2sin
2
V
. It can be
d
where is the
wavelength of the laser and is the angle between the two beams (see Figure
106). From these two expressions, we get
V=
f

2sin
2
(133)
The aperture helps to discard the main laser beam and collect only the
scattered burst of light to be sensed by the photomultiplier tube (PMT). The
burst signal has to be analyzed by suitable signal conditioning system to get
the burst frequency and hence the velocity of the particle. The particle (may
be smoke particles introduced in to the flow) should have very small size (and
hence the mass) so that it moves with the same velocity as the fluid, without
any slip.
Mirror
Beam Splitter
Aperture
Figure 123 Fringe based laser velocity measurement
Filtered signal
Burst signal
Figure 124 Scattered burst signal
We consider again light wave of = 0.68 m . The speed of light in air

may be taken as c = 3 108 m / s . Let the two beams cross at an angle of
0.68
10. The fringe spacing is d =
=
= 3.9 m . Note that the
2 sin(5)
2sin
2
particle should be much smaller than the fringe spacing so that the
burst signal is not smeared. Consider a scattering particle traveling
with a velocity of 10 m/s. The burst signal has a frequency given
10
V
by f = =
= 2.563 MHz .
d 3.9 106
b) Reference beam system:
Lens
Mirror
Reference beam
Lens
V
Scattered beam
Laser
Beam
Splitter
Aperture
PMT
Figure 125 Schematic of the reference beam system

The schematic of the reference beam system is shown in Figure 125. Here
again we cross a reference beam (weakened by a small reflectance of the
mirror) and a scattered beam at the focal point of a lens with an aperture. The
reference beam is directly collected by the lens and communicated to the
PMT. Radiation scattered by the scattered beam within the field of view of the
lens is also communicated to the PMT. The PMT responds to the incident
intensity which consists of a part that varies at the Doppler shift frequency.
This rides over a dc part that is related to the mean intensity of the two
beams. Again suitable electronic circuit is required to extract the Doppler shift
and hence the particle velocity. Table 19 below gives the specifications of a
typical laser Doppler system.
Table 19 Typical Laser Doppler systems

Specifications
Canon LV-20Z Canon LV-50Z
Measurement Range
-200
to -50
to
2000mm/sec. 5000mm/sec.
Focal Length
40mm
Depth of focus
5mm
Laser spot size
2.4 x 0.1mm (at focal point)
Velocity
fluctuation 0 to 300Hz
response frequency
Output Signal
Accuracy
less than 1% of full scale
Doppler pulse output
120 to 1000kHz 180
to
2200kHz
Measurement
<100mm/sec : 0.2mm/sec
Certainty
>100mm/sec : 0.2%
Optical shift frequency 200kHz, CMOS level
output
Velocity display
5digit
(mm/sec,
m/min.
selectable)
Light source
Semiconductor laser (680nm)
4) Time of Flight Velocimeter
Time of flight refers to the time it takes an acoustic beam to travel through a
certain length in a moving medium. Since the motion of the medium affects
the time of flight it is possible to use this as a means of measuring the velocity
of the medium. This method does not need the presence of any scattering
particles in the flow as in the case of the Doppler shift method. Consider the
scheme shown in Figure 126.
IN
OUT
TR
RE
L
IN
OUT
RE
TR
L
Figure 126 Schematic of the time of flight (TOF) method

An ultrasound wave pulse (of a short duration) is transmitted from 1 and
travels along the fluid and reaches the receiver at 2. Along this path (referred
to as the forward path) the sound wave travels at a speed of a f = a V . The
corresponding time of flight is T12 =
L
.
a V
However if the sound wave
traverses along path 2-1 (backward path) the speed of wave and the TOF are
respectively given by a f = a + V and T12 =
L
.
a +V
We then have the following:
T12 T21 =
L
L
2 LV
= 2
a V a +V a V 2
(134)
And also
T12T21 =
L2
a2 V 2
(135)
Division of Equation 135 by Equation 134 then yields the interesting result
L2
a V
L
T12T21
=
=
2
LV
T12 T21
2V
a2 V 2
2
(136)
We notice that the speed of the wave has dropped off and the velocity is given
by the ratio of path length and time. Thus
V=
L
T T
2 12 21
T12 T21
(137)
Scheme shown in Figure 126 is possible when one is allowed to make a

bypass arrangement so that a straight segment may be arranged as shown.
This way it is possible to choose a large L so that the accurate measurement
is possible. However, more often, we have the flow taking place in a pipe and
the arrangement shown in Figure 127 is a feasible arrangement. In this case,
as discussed earlier, it is not necessary to make any changes in the piping for
making the TOF measurement.
TR1/RE1
Flow
TR2/RE2
Figure 127 Clamp on type ultrasonic mean velocity meter

A variant of the above is when one is allowed to expose the ultrasound
transducer to the flowing medium (transducers are said to be wetted). The
schematic shown in Figure 128 also includes the schematic of the electronic
circuit that is needed for making the measurement.
TR1/RE1
Flow
TR2/RE2
Time
measurement
Pulse
generator
Multiplexer Amplifier
Output
Figure 128 Ultrasonic mean velocity meter
In this case the velocity of the fluid has a component in the direction 12 and
hence the equations given earlier are to be modified as under.
Let the diameter of the pipe be D. The path length is then given by L =
D
.
sin
Along the forward path the sound wave travels at a speed of a f = a V cos .
The corresponding time of flight is T12 =
sin . However if the sound wave

a V cos
traverses along path 2-1 (backward path) the speed of wave and the TOF are
respectively given by a f = a + V cos and T21 =
sin .
a + V cos
We then have the following:
sin
sin = 2 DV cot
T12 T21 = T =
a V cos a + V cos a 2 V 2 cos 2
(138)
If we assume that V << a, the second term in the denominator may be

dropped to get
T
2 DV cot
a2
(139)
Thus the difference in times of flight is directly proportional to the velocity. If

the angle is arranged to be 45 cotangent is 1 and the velocity is given by
V
a 2 T
2D
(140)
Again, we may take the ratio as earlier to get

T12T21
D
D
=
=
T12 T21 2V sin cos V sin ( 2 )
(141)
Again, if the angle is arranged to be 45, the above reduces to

T12T21
D
=
T12 T21 V
(142)
What is interesting again is that the wave speed has dropped off. In addition
the velocity of the fluid is given by the ratio of the diameter of the pipe to the
effective time that measured by the ratio. The velocity measured is the mean
velocity across the path traveled by the ultrasound wave in case the fluid
velocity varies across the pipe.
Consider water flowing in a pipe of 100 mm diameter at a velocity of 1

m/s. The angle is arranged to be 45.
The speed of sound in water is approximately a = 1500 m/s. The transit
times are calculated as:
0.1
D
sin =
sin 45
T12 =
= 94.325 s
a V cos 1500 1 cos 45
0.1
D
sin =
sin 45
T21 =
= 94.236 s
a + V cos 1500 + 1 cos 45
Thus the time difference is only about 89 ns! Measurement of such
small time differences is quite a challenge!
T T
D 0.1
From Equation 142, we however, have 12 21 = =
= 0.1 s !
1
T12 T21 V
We see from the above that the transit times are very small and some way of
increasing these are desirable.
shown in Figure 126.
One of these is to use the arrangement
Another arrangement is to provide for multiple
reflections as shown in Figure 129. The effective path is increased several

fold by this arrangement.
Transmitter
Receiver
Scattered wave
Figure 129 Method of increasing path length in TOF measurement

Simultaneous measurement of position and velocity:
We can combine TOF and Doppler shift measurements to study the velocity
and the position of a scattering particle in a flowing medium. This is referred
as pulsed echo technique and is commonly used in medical blood flow

measurement applications.
The principle of this may be understood by
referring to Figure 130.
TR/RE
Scatterer
Transmitted wave
Back-scattered wave
f
X=0
X=Xs
Figure 130 Simultaneous position and velocity measurement

Let us assume that a scatterer is present and is moving as shown in Figure
130. A short pulse of ultrasound is transmitted at t = 0 and the received pulse
is analyses for both the transit time and the Doppler shift. If the velocity is
small compared to a, the transit time is related to the position by the simple
relation
2Xs
. At the same time if the Doppler shift is measured it is directly
a
related to the velocity of the scatterer, as has been shown earlier. Thus both
the position and velocity may be measured simultaneously. An interesting
variant of this is to gate the measurement such that a reflected pulse received
after a certain time only is sampled. This will correspond to a certain location
of the scatterer. The corresponding Doppler shift will provide the velocity at
the location specified by the gated time.
Cross correlation type velocity meter

Another method of measurement which converts velocity measurement to a
time measurement if the cross correlation type of measurement.
The
schematic of the arrangement is shown in Figure 131. Two transmitters and

receivers are arranged distance L apart as shown in the figure. A disturbance
that is carried by the fluid at its own speed crosses the first transmitterreceiver pair at some time that may be taken as zero. After a certain delay
the same disturbance will pass the second transmitter-receiver pair. This is
schematically shown in Figure 132.
To ascertain the time accurately the product of the signal received by first
receiver is multiplied by the signal from the second receiver with a variable
delay time d. The product will be substantially zero till the delay time is equal
to the transit time. The product signal will show a non-zero blip when the
delay time is the same as the transit time of the disturbance.
velocity is then given by V =
. Thus the velocity measurement has been
reduced to its very definition the ratio of path length to transit time!
TR
Flow
RE
S1 Analyzer
S2
Figure 131 Cross correlation type velocity meter
The fluid
S1
S2(t)S1(t-td)
t
S2
td
td =
t
Figure 132 Cross correlation time measurement
Machine Design II
Module 2- GEARS
Lecture 14 BEVEL GEARS PROBLEMS
Contents
14.1 Bevel gear analysis
14.2 Bevel gear analysis
14.3 Bevel gear design
14.1 BEVEL GEARS PROBLEM 1
A pair of bevel gears is transmitting 10 kW from a pinion rotating at 600 rpm to gear
mounted on a shaft which intersects the pinion shaft at an angle of 60o. The pinion has
an outside pitch diameter of 200 mm, a pressure angle of 20o and a face width of 40
mm, and the gear shaft is rotating at 200 rpm. Determine ( a ) the pitch angles for the
gears, ( b ) the forces on the gear, and ( c ) the torque produced about the shaft axis
Fig.14.1 Intersecting shafts and semi pitch cone angles

Data:
W = 10 kW, n 1 = 600 rpm, n 2 = 200 rpm
Shaft angle: = 1 + 2 =60o , The semi pitch cone angles are shown in Fig.14.1.
d 1 = 200 mm, = 20o and b = 40mm.
Solution: (a)
n1 600
3
n2 200
Machine Design II
d 2 = i d 1 = 3 x 200 = 600 mm
r 1 = 0.5 d 1 = 0.5x200 = 100 mm
r 2 = 0.5 d 2 = 0.5x600 = 300 mm
tan 2 =
sin
1
+cos
i
2 = 46.1o
sin60o
1
+cos60o
3
=1.0392
1 = - 2 = 60 46.1 = 13.9o
r 2av = r 2 0.5bsin 2 = 300 - 0.5x40x sin46.1 = 285.59 mm
r 1av = r 1 0.5bsin 1 = 100 - 0.5x40x sin13.9 = 95.2 mm
Solution: (b)
V 1 = d 1av n 1 /60000 = x (2x95.2)x600 /60000
= 5.98 m/s
Ft
Fn
1000W 1000x10
1673N
V1av
5.979
Ft
1673
1780N
cos cos20o
F 2a = F n sin sin 2 = 1780x sin20o sin46.1o = 439 N

F 2r = F n sin cos 2 = 1780x sin20o cos46.1o = 422 N
Solution: (c)
Torque = F t x (0.5d 2av ) x 10-3
= 1673 x (0.5x 285.59) x 10-3
= 238.9 Nm
----------------------
Machine Design II

The bevel pinion shown in Fig.14.2 rotates at 960 rev/min in the clockwise direction,
viewing from the right side and transmits 5 kW to the gear. The mounting distances, the
location of all bearings, and the radii of the pitch circles of the pinion and gear are
shown in pitch cones in the figure. Bearings A and C should take the thrust loads. Find
the bearing forces on the gear shaft.
Fig.14.2 Bevel gear arrangement, (All dimensions are in mm)

Data:
n 1 = 960 rpm, W = 5 kW, Z 1 = 15, Z 2 = 45, m = 5 mm
d 1 = 75 mm, d 2 = 225 mm
Solution:
The pitch angles are
d
75
1 tan1 1 tan1
18.43o
225
d2
d
225
o
2 tan1 2 tan1
71.57
75
d1
d 1av = d 1 - b sin 1 = 75 30sin18.43o = 65.52 mm
Machine Design II
The pitch-line velocity corresponding to the average pitch radius is
Vav =
d1 n1 x 65.52x960
3.29 m / s
60000
60000
Transmitted tangential force:

Ft =
1000W 1000 x 5
=
=1519 N
v
3.29
(This acts in the +ve z direction as shown in Fig.3.)

F r = F t tan cos 2 =1519 tan 20ocos71.57o= 175 N
F a = F t tan cos 2 =1519tan 20o sin71.57o= 525 N
d 2av = d 2 - b cos 2 = 225-30sin71.57o=196.54mm.
r 2av = 0.5 d 2av = 0.5x196.54 = 98.27mm.
Where F r is acting - x direction and F a is in the y direction. All forces are acting at a
distance of 98.27 mm from the shaft centre line and 32.76 mm from the apex of the
pitch cones as in Fig.14.3.
Fig.14.3 Various forces acting on the bevel gear and the shaft reactions
Machine Design II
Torque: T = F t x r 2av =1519 x 98.27x10-3= 149.27 Nm

As per the given problem the bearing at C takes the entire thrust load. Hence, F c y = F a
= 525 N.
Taking moment about horizontal axis through D,
-F c zx 150 + F t x 92.76 = 0,
i.e, -F c zx 150 +1519 x 92.76 = 0,
F c z = 959.3 N
Fz = 0, from which F D z = 1519 959.3 = 559.7 N

Taking moment about vertical axis through D,
F c x x 150 F r x 92.76 F a x 98.27 = 0
i.e, F c x x150 175 x 92.76 525x98.27 = 0
F c x = 452.2 N
Taking moment about vertical axis through C,
F D x x 150 + F r x 90 - F a x 98.27 = 0
F D x x 150 + 175 x (90-32.76) - 525 x 98.27 = 0
F D x = 277.2 N
Fig.14.4 Calculated forces on bevel gear shaft
Machine Design II
Torque: T 1 = F t x r 1av = 1519x32.76 x 10-3=49.76 Nm

As per the given problem the bearing at A takes the entire thrust load. Hence, F A x = F a
= 175 N.
Taking moment about horizontal axis through B,
-F A zx 75 + F t x(75+ 61.73) = 0,
i.e, -F A zx 75 +1519 x 136.73 = 0,
F A z = 2769 N
Fz = 0, from which F B z = 1519 - 2769 = 1250 N

Taking moment about vertical axis through B,
F A y x 75 F r x 136.73 + F a x 32.76 = 0
i.e, F A y x75 525x 136.73 +175 x 32.76 = 0
F A y = 881 N
Fy = 0, from which F B y = 881 525 = 356 N
Fig.14.5 Forces acting on bevel pinion shaft
--------------------
Machine Design II

A bevel gear pair has to be designed to transmit 6 kW power at 750 rpm. The shaft
angle is 90o. Speed ratio desired is about 2.5. The prime mover is induction motor and
the driven side is connected to a belt conveyor.
Data: W = 6 kW, n 1 = 750 rpm, i 2.5 and = 90o
Prime mover is electric motor. Out put is linked to a conveyor.
Solution:
To solve the problem the following assumptions are made.
1. The gears are to be mounted on anti-friction bearings in a gear box and are subjected
to extensive shock due to sudden loading of the belt conveyor.
2. The conveyor gearbox has to last for 20 years for which hardened gears are
selected.
3. The gears are of continuous duty and are straddle mounted on antifriction ball
bearings.
4. The pinion material is made of C45 steel of hardness 380 Bhn and tensile strength
ut = 1240 MPa. The gear is made of ductile iron grade 120/90/02 of hardness 331 Bhn
and tensile strength ut = 974 MPa. Both gears are hobbed, HT and OQ&T and ground.
5. A factor of safety of 1.5 and 1.2 on bending and contact fatigue strengths of the
materials was assumed.
Solution:
We will first determine the allowable stresses for the pinion and gear materials.
For pinion material, ut = 1240 MPa,
Hardness=380 Bhn
sf = 2.8 (Bhn) 69 = 2.8x380-69=995 MPa
Corrected bending fatigue strength of the pinion material:
Machine Design II
e = 0.5 ut =.0.5x1240 =620 MPa

k T = 1.0 with Temp. < 120oC, k f = 1.0
e = 620x1x1x0.645x1x1x0.897x1.33 = 477 MPa
Fig.14.6 Surface factor, k S

Table 14.1 Reliability factor k r
k f = fatigue stress concentration factor. Since this factor is included in J factor, its value
is taken as 1.
Machine Design II
k m = Factor for miscellaneous effects. For idler gears subjected to two way bending,
= 1. For other gears subjected to one way bending, the value is taken from the Fig.14.7.
Use k m = 1.33 for ut less than 1.4 GPa.
Fig.14.7 Miscellaneous effects factor, k m

Corrected fatigue strength of the gear material:
e = 0.35 ut =.0.35x974 =340.9 MPa
k T = 1.0 with Temp. < 120oC, k f = 1.0
k m = 1.33 for ut = 974 MPa from Fig. 14.7
e = 340.9x1x1x0.673x0.897x1x1x1.33 = 273.7MPa
Surface fatigue strength of pinion is:
sf = surface fatigue strength of the material = 2.8 (Bhn) 69
= 2.8 x 380 -69 = 995 MPa
From Table 14.2
Machine Design II
(107 cycle life, 99% reliability and temperature <120oC)
K L = 0.9
K H = 1.005

for K = 380/331 = 1.14 & i=4 from Fig.14.9
K R = 1.0
K T = 1.0
For the pinion material,

sf1 = sf K L K H K R K T = 995 x 0.9 x 1 x1.005 x 1
= 900 MPa
Fig. 14.8 Life factor, K L
Machine Design II
Fig. 14.9 Hardness ratio factor, K H

K = Brinell hardness ratio of pinion and
gear, K H = 1.0 for values of K below 1.2

Reliability (%)
KR
50
99
99.9K R
1.25
1.0
0.80
K T = temperature factor, = 1 for T 120oC,
based on Lubricant temperature. Above
120oC, it is less than 1 to be taken from AGMA standards.

For gear: sf = 0.95[2.8(Bhn)-69]= 0.95[2.8x331-69] = 815 MPa
K L = 0.97
for 0 .39 x 108 cycles from Fig.14.8
K H = 1.005
for K = 380/331 = 1.14 & i=4 from Fig.14.9
K R = 1.0
K T = 1.0
sf 2 = sf K L K H K R K T = 815 x 0.97 x 1.005 x1 x 1 = 795 MPa

Permissible stresses in bending fatigue:
Pinion material: [ 1b ] = e / s = 477 /1.5 =218 MPa
Gear material: [ 2b ] = e / s = 273.7 /1.5 =182.5 MPa
Machine Design II
Permissible stresses in contact fatigue:

Pinion material: [ 1H ] = sf1 / 1.2= 900/1.2=750 MPa
Gear material: [ 2H ] = sf 2 /1.2 = 795/1.2=663 MPa
Z 1 = 20 assumed for 20o pressure angle gears.
z 2 = i z 1 = 2.5 x 20 = 50. To have hunting tooth action, the value of z 2 is taken to be 51.
Hence i = z 2 / z 1 = 51 / 20 = 2.55
n 2 = 750 /2.55 = 294 rpm
tan 1 = z 2 / z 1 20 / 51= 0.3922, Hence 1 = 21.4o
2 = - 1 = 90o - 21.4o = 69.6o
2n1 2x750
78.5rad / s
60
60
Torque:
T1
1000W 1000x6
76.43 Nm
1
78.5
Bending stress in pinion is given by:
F
2T1
b1 t K v K o Km
K v K o Km
bmJ
8m3 Z1J
Assuming b = 8m and putting F t = 2T 1 /d 1 where d 1 = m Z 1
Z v1
Z1
20
21.5
cos 1
cos 21.4o
Z v2
Z2
51
139.2
cos 2 cos 68.5o
J = 0.37 for Z v1 = 21.4 mating against Z v2 = 139.2 from Fig.14.10

K v = 1.25 assumed expecting the V to be 8 m/s from Fig.14.11
K o = 1.75 for induction motor and heavy shocks from Table 14.4.
K m = 1.25 from Table 14.5 for straddle mounted gears.
Machine Design II
Fig. 14.10 Number of teeth in gear for which geometry factor

J is desired, pressure angle 20o and shaft angle 90o
Fig. 14.11 Dynamic load factor, K v
Machine Design II

Driven Machinery
Uniform
1.00
1.25
1.75
Light shock
1.25
1.50
2.00
Medium shock
1.50
1.75
2.25
Table 14.5 BEVEL GEARS MOUNTING FACTOR K m
b1 =
2T1
2x(76.43x103 )
K
K
K
=
x1.25x1.75x1.25
v
o
m
8m3 Z1J
8m3 x20x0.37
b1 =
b1 =
7060.4
m3
7060.4
[ b1 ] 218MPa
m3
m = 3.2 mm
Similarly for the gear: J =0.375 for Z v2 = 139.2 mating with Z v1 =21.5 from Fig. 14.10
Machine Design II
b2 =
b2 =
2T2
2x(2.55x76.43x103 )
K
K
K
=
x1.25x1.75x1.25
v
o
m
8m3 Z2 J
8m3 x51x0.375
6966.3
[b2 ] 182.5
m3
m = 3.37 mm, Take a standard module of 4 mm

b = 8 m = 8 x 4 = 32 mm,
L = d 1 / sin 1 = 0.5x80/sin21.5o =109 mm
Bevel Gear Contact stress

b < L / 3 = 109/3 = 36.33mm. b= 32mm satisfies this requirement.
F t = T 1 / 0.5d 1 = 76.43 x 103 / 0.5x80 =1911 N
V 1 = 1 r 1 = 78.5 x (0.5x80) x 10-3= 3.14 m/s
Bevel gear contact stress is given by:
H =Cp
Ft
K V Ko Km
b dI
C p = 0.93x 166 = 154.38 from Table 14.6.

C p values of 1.23 times the values given in the table are taken to account for a
somewhat more localized contact area than spur gears.
Table 14.6 Elastic Coefficient Cp for spur gears, in MPa0.5
Machine Design II
Fig. 14.12 Geometry factor I for straight bevel gear pressure angle 20o and shaft
angle 90o
I = 0.107 from Fig.14.12. Other factors are same in bending fatigue stress equation.
K v = 1.11 for V = 3.14 m/s from Fig. 14.11, for quality 10 gears
H =Cp
Ft
b dI
K V K o K m =154.38
1911
1.11x1.75x1.25
32x80x0.107
[ H1 ] = 750 MPa , [ H2 ] = 663 MPa

H = 635 MPa < [ H1 ] or [ H2 ] , Hence the design is safe.
---------------------
Machine Design II
Module 2 - GEARS
Lecture 15 WORM GEARS
Contents
15.1 Worm gears an introduction
15.2 Worm gears - geometry and nomenclature
15.3 Worm gears- tooth force analysis
15.4 Worm gears-bending stress analysis
15.5 Worm gears-permissible bending stress
15.6 Worm gears- contact stress analysis
15.7 Worm gears- permissible contact stress
15.8 Worm gears -Thermal analysis
15.1 INTRODUCTION
Worm gears are used for transmitting power between two non-parallel, non-intersecting
shafts. High gear ratios of 200:1 can be got.
(b)
(a)
Fig.15.1 (a) Single enveloping worm gear, (b) Double enveloping worm gear.
Machine Design II
Fig.15.2 The cut section of a worm gearbox with fins and fan for cooling
15.2 GEOMETRY AND NOMENCLATURE
Fig. 15.3 Nomenclature of a single enveloping worm gear
Machine Design II
a. The geometry of a worm is similar to that of a power screw. Rotation of the worm
simulates a linearly advancing involute rack, Fig.15.3
b. The geometry of a worm gear is similar to that of a helical gear, except that the
teeth are curved to envelop the worm.
c. Enveloping the gear gives a greater area of contact but requires extremely
precise mounting.
1. As with a spur or helical gear, the pitch diameter of a worm gear is related to its
circular pitch and number of teeth Z by the formula
d2
Z2 p
(15.1)
2. When the angle is 90 between the nonintersecting shafts, the worm lead angle
is equal to the gear helix angle. Angles and have the same hand.
3. The pitch diameter of a worm is not a function of its number of threads, Z 1 .
4. This means that the velocity ratio of a worm gear set is determined by the ratio of
gear teeth to worm threads; it is not equal to the ratio of gear and worm
diameters.
1 Z2
=
2 Z1
(15.2)
5. Worm gears usually have at least 24 teeth, and the number of gear teeth plus
worm threads should be more than 40:
Z 1 + Z 2 > 40
(15.3)
6. A worm of any pitch diameter can be made with any number of threads and any
axial pitch.
7. For maximum power transmitting capacity, the pitch diameter of the worm should
normally be related to the shaft center distance by the following equation
C0.875
C0.875
d1
3.0
1.7
(15.4)
Machine Design II
8. Integral worms cut directly on the shaft can, of course, have a smaller diameter
than that of shell worms, which are made separately.
9. Shell worms are bored to slip over the shaft and are driven by splines, key, or
pin.
10. Strength considerations seldom permit a shell worm to have a pitch diameter less
than
d 1 = 2.4p + 1.1
(15.5)
11. The face width of the gear should not exceed half the worm outside diameter.
b 0.5 d a1
(15.6)
12. Lead angle , Lead L, and worm pitch diameter d 1 have the following relationship in connection with the screw threads.
tan =
L
d1
(15.7)
13. To avoid interference, pressure angles are commonly related to the worm lead
angle as indicated in Table 15.1.
Table 15.1 Maximum worm lead angle and worm gear Lewis form factor for
various pressure angles
Pressure Angle
Maximum Lead
Lewis form factor
Modified Lewis
Angle (degrees)
form factor Y
14.5
15
0.100
0.314
20
25
0.125
0.393
25
35
0.150
0.473
30
45
0.175
0.550
(Degrees)
Machine Design II
Table 15.2 Frequently used standard values of module and axial pitch of worm or
circular pitch of gear p in mm:
Module m mm
Axial pitch p mm
Module m mm
2.0
2.5
3.15
6.283
7.854
9.896
10
12.5
4.0
5.0
6.3
12.566 15.708 19.792

16
20
Axial pitch p mm 25.133 31.416 39.270 50.625 62.832

b) Values of addendum and tooth depth often conform generally to helical gear
practice but they may be strongly influenced by manufacturing considerations.
c) The load capacity and durability of worm gears can be significantly increased by
modifying the design to give predominantly recess action i.e. the angle of
approach would be made small or zero and the angle of recess larger.
d) The axial pitch for different standard modules are given Table 15.2
15.3 FORCE ANALYSIS
Fig. 15.4 Worm gear force analysis
Machine Design II
a) The tangential, axial, and radial force components acting on a worm and gear are
illustrated in the Fig. 15.4
b) For the usual 90 shaft angle, the worm tangential force is equal to the gear axial
force and vice versa.
F 1t = F 2a
(15.8)
F 2t = F 1a
(15.9)
c) The worm and gear radial or separating forces are also equal,
F 1r = F 2r
(15.10)
If the power and speed of either the input or output are known, the tangential force
acting on this member can be found from equation
F1t =
1000 W
V
(15.11)
1. In the Fig. 15.4, the driving member is a clockwise-rotating right hand worm.
2. The force directions shown can readily be visualized by thinking of the worm as a
right hand screw being turned so as to pull the nut (worm gear tooth) towards
the screw head.
3. Force directions for other combinations of worm hand and direction of rotation
can be similarly visualized.
15.3.1 Thrust Force Analysis.

The thrust force direction for various worm and worm wheel drive conditions are shown
in Fig. 15.6
Machine Design II
(a)
(b)
Fig.15.6 (a) and (b) Worm gears thrust force analysis
Machine Design II
The thread angle of a screw thread corresponds to the pressure angle n of the worm.
We can apply the force, efficiency, and self-locking equations of power screw directly to
a worm and gear set. These equations are derived below with reference to the worm
and gear geometry. Figs.15.7 to 15.9 show in detail the forces acting on the gear.
Components of the normal tooth force are shown solid. Components of the friction force
are shown with the dashed lines.
Fig. 15.7 Forces on the worm gear tooth
Fig. 15.8 Worm driving
Machine Design II
Fig. 15.9 illustrates the same directions of rotation but with the torque direction reversed
(i.e., gear driving). Then contact shifts to the other side of the gear tooth, and the normal
load reverses.
Fig.15.9 Gear driving (Same direction of rotation)

The friction force is always directed to oppose the sliding motion. The driving worm is
rotating clockwise:
F2t =F1a = Fn cos n cos -f Fn sin
(15.12)
F1t = F2a = Fn cos n sin +f F n cos
(15.13)
F2r = F1r = Fn sin n
(15.14)
Combining eqns. (15.12) with (15.13), we have:
F
2t = cos n cos - f sin
F
cos n sin + f cos
1t
(15.15)
Combining eqns. (15.12) with (15.14) and (15.13) with (15.14), we have:
Machine Design II
F2r =F1r =F2t
sin n
cos n cos - f sin
= F1t
sin n
cos n sin + f cos
(15.16)
15.4 KINEMATICS
The relationship between worm tangential velocity, gear tangential velocity, and sliding
velocity is,
V2
= tan
V1
(15.17)
15.5 EFFICIENCY
Efficiency is the ratio of work out to work in. For the usual case of the worm serving as
input member,
(15.18)
The overall efficiency of a worm gear is a little lower because of friction losses in the
bearings and shaft seals, and because of churning of the lubricating oil.
15.6 FRICTION ANALYSIS

The coefficient of friction, f, varies widely depending on variables such as the gear
materials, lubricant, temperature, surface finishes, accuracy of mounting, and sliding
velocity. The typical coefficient of friction of well lubricated worm gears is given in Fig.
15.10.
Machine Design II
Fig. 15.10 Friction of well lubricated worm gears, A for cast iron worm and gear
and B for case hardened steel worm and phosphor bronze worm gear
The sliding velocity Vs is related to the worm and gear pitch line velocities and to the
worm lead angle by
Vs =
V1
V
= 2
cos sin
(15.19)
Fig.15.11 Velocity components in worm gearing
F1 t F
cos
s in - f F
cos
(1 5 .2 0 )
Machine Design II
a) Eqn. 15.20 shows that with a sufficiently high coefficient of friction, the gear
tangential force becomes zero, and the gear set self-locks or does not overhaul.
b) With this condition, no amount of worm torque can produce motion.
c) Self-locking occurs, if at all, with the gear driving.
d) This is desirable in many cases and helps in holding the load from reversing,
similar to a self-locking power screw.
The worm gear set self-locks if this force goes to zero, which happens if
f cos n tan
(15.21)
A worm gear set can be always overhauling or never overhauling, depending on the
selected value coefficient of friction (i.e., and to a lesser extent on n ).
15.7 BENDING AND SURFACE FATIGUE STRENGTHS

Worm gear capacity is often limited not by fatigue strength but by cooling capacity. The
total gear tooth load F d is the product of nominal load F t and factors accounting for
impact from tooth inaccuracies and deflections, misalignment, etc.). F d must be less
than the strength the bending fatigue and surface fatigue strengths F b and F w The total
tooth load is called the dynamic load F d , the bending fatigue limiting load is called
strength capacity F b , and the surface fatigue limiting load is called the wear capacity F w .
For satisfactory performance,
Fb Fd
(15. 21)
and
Fw F d
(15.22)
The dynamic load is estimated by multiplying the nominal value of gear tangential
force by velocity factor K v given in the following Fig.15.
Machine Design II
6.1+ V2
(15.23)
6.1
Adapting the Lewis equation to the gear teeth, we have
Fd = F2t K v = F2t
Fb =[ b ] bpy = [ b ] bmY
(15.24)
Where, [ b ] is the permissible bending stress in bending fatigue, in MPa, Table 15.3
Table 15.3 Permissible stress in bending fatigue, in MPa0.5

Material of the gear
[ b ] MPa
Centrifugally cast Cu-Sn bronze
23.5
Aluminum alloys Al-Si alloy
11.3
Zn alloy
7.5
Cast iron
11.8
b is the face width in mm 0.5 d a1

p is the axial pitch in mm, Table 15.2
m is module in mm, Table 15.2
y is the Lewis form factor, Table 15.1
Y is modified Lewis form factor, Table 15.1
By assuming the presence of an adequate supply of appropriate lubricant, the following
equation suggested by Buckingham may be used for wear strength calculations
Fw =d 2 b K w
(15.25)
F w Maximum allowable value of dynamic load under surface fatigue condition.

d g - Pitch diameter of the gear.
b - Face width of the gear.
Machine Design II
K w - A material and geometry factor with values empirically determined from the Table
15.4.
Table 15.4 Worm Gear Wear Factors K w
Material
K w (MPa)
Worm
Gear
<10
<25
>25
Steel, 250 BHN
Bronze
0.414
0.518
0.621
Hardened steel
Bronze
0.552
0.690
0.828
Chill-cast Bronze
0.828
1.036
1.243
Bronze
1.036
1.277
1.553
(Surface 500
BHN)
Cast iron
15.8 THERMAL CAPACITY

The continuous rated capacity of a worm gear set is often limited by the ability of the
housing to dissipate friction heat without developing excessive gear and lubricant
temperatures. Normally, oil temperature must not exceed about 200F (93oC) for
satisfactory operation. The fundamental relationship between temperature rise and rate
of heat dissipation used for journal bearings does hold good for worm gearbox.
H = CH A T0 -Ta
(15.26)
Where H Time rate of heat dissipation (Nm/sec)

C H Heat transfer coefficient (Nm/sec/m2/C)
A Housing external surface area (m2)
T o Oil temperature ( C)
T a Ambiant air temperature ( C)
Machine Design II
Surface area of A for conventional housing designs may be roughly estimated from the
Eqn 15.27,
A =14.75 C1.7
(15.27)
Where A is in m2 and C (the distance between the shafts) is in m.

Housing surface area can be made far greater than the above equation value by
incorporating cooling fins. Rough estimates of C can be taken from the following
Fig.15.12.
Fig.15.12 Influence of worm speed on heat transfer
15.9 DESIGN GUIDELINES

The design guidelines for choosing the lead angle, pressure angle, addendum
dedendum, helix angle and the minimum number of teeth on the worm gear are given in
Tables 15.5 to 15.8.
Machine Design II
Table 15.5 Recommended pressure angles and tooth depths for worm gearing
Lead angle in
degrees
Pressure angle n
in degrees
Addendum h a in
mm
Dedendum h f in
mm
0-15
14.5
0.3683 p
0.3683 p
15-30
20
0.3683 p
0.3683
30-35
25
0.2865 p
0.331 p
35-40
25
0.2546 p
0.2947 p
40-45
30
0.2228 p
0.2578 p
Table 15.6 Efficiency of worm GEAR set for f = 0.05

Helix angle Efficiency Helix angle Efficiency Helix angle Efficiency
in O
in %
in O
in %
in O
in %
1.0
25.2
7.5
71.2
20.0
86.0
2.5
46.8
10.0
76.8
25.0
88.0
5.0
62.6
15.0
82.7
30.0
89.2
Table 15.7 Minimum number of teeth in the worm gear

Pressure angle n
14.5o 17.5o 20o
22.5o 25o
27.5o 30o
Z 2 minimum
40
17
12
27
21
14
Table 15.8 Maximum lead angle for normal pressure angle

Normal Pressure angle n
14.5o
20o
25o
30o
Maximum lead angle max
16 o
25 o
35 o
45 o
------------------------
10
Machine Design II
Module 2- GEARS
Lecture 16 WORM GEARS WORKED OUT PROBLEMS
Contents
16.1. Worm gears force analysis problem
16.2. Worm gearsdesign problem
16.3. Gearbox design procedure.
16.1 WORM GEARS- PROBLEM 1

A two tooth right hand worm transmits 2 kW at 2950 rpm to a 32 tooth worm gear. The
worm gear is of 4 mm module, 20o pressure and a face width of 30 mm. The worm is of
pitch diameter of 50 mm with a face width of 65 mm. The worm is made of steel case
carburized OQ and T and ground. The worm gear is made of phosphor bronze.
(a) Find the centre distance, the lead and the lead angle.
(b) Find the bearing reactions on the worm gear and worm shaft and the torque
output.
(c) Find the efficiency.
The general arrangement and isometric views are shown in Fig.16.1 and Fig.16.2.
Fig.1 General arrangement of the worm drive
Machine Design II
Fig.16.2 Isometric view of the worm gears in mesh

Data:
W = 2 kW, n 1 = 2950 rpm, Z 1 = 2, Z2 = 32, m = 4mm, = 20o, d 1 = 50 mm, b 1 = 65 mm,
b 2 = 28 mm. Pinion material case carburized steel and Gear material phosphor bronze.
Q (a) C =?, L=?, = ?, Q-(b) bearing reactions? T 2 =? and Q (c) = ?
Solution: (a)
d 2 = m Z 2 = 4 x 32 = 128 mm
Centre distance C= 0.5(d 1 + d 2 ) = 0.5(50+128) =79mm
Axial pitch: p = m = 3.14x4 = 12.56 mm
Lead: L = p Z 1 = 12.56 x 2 = 25.12 mm
Lead angle: = tan-1( L / d 1 ) = tan-1(25.12 / x 50) = 9.09o
Machine Design II
Solution: (b)
V 1 = V m = (d 1 n 1 /60000) = x 50 x 2950 / 60000 = 7.72 m/s
n 2 = n 1 / i = {n 1 (Z 2 /Z 1 )} = 2950 / (32/2) = 184.38 rpm
V 2 = (d 2 n 2 /60000) = x128x184.38/60000 =1.24m/s
V S = V 1 /cos = 7.72 / cos9.09o = 7.82 m/s
For V S = 7.82 m/s and the given materials f = 0.024 from Fig.16.3.
Since the helix angle of the gear is the same as the lead angle of the worm,
n = tan-1( tan 1 cos ) = tan-1(tan20o cos 9.09o) = 19.77o
F t1 = W / V 1 = 2000/ 7.72 = 259 N
Fig.16.3 Friction of well lubricated worm gears, A for cast iron worm and worm
gear and B for case hardened steel worm and phosphor bronze worm gear.
Fn
Ft
cos n sin f cos
259
1503N
cos19.77 sin9.09o 0.024 cos 9.09o
o
F r1 = Fy = F n sin n = 1503 sin19.77o = 508 N

F a1 = Fz = F n (cos n cos - f sin ) = 1503 (cos 19.77o cos 9.09o - 0.024 sin 9.09o) =
1391 N
Machine Design II
Worm Gears Force Analysis
Fig.16.4 Forces on the worm gear tooth on the pitch cylinder.

Referring to the Fig.16.4, we can now write down the forces acting on the worm gear
tooth.
F t2 = F a1 = 1391 N
F r2
F a2 = F t1 = 259 N
F r2 = F r1 = 508 N
F a2
i.e.,
F t2
Fig.16.5 Sketch showing the forces acting on worm gear shaft
Machine Design II
Since Bearing B takes the entire thrust load,
F B x = F a2 = 259 N
Taking moment about z axis through A, we get

F B y x 105 F a2 x 64 F r2 x 40 = 0
i.e., 105 F B y - 259 x 64 508 x 40 = 0
F B y = 351 N
Fy = 0, from which F a y = 508-351 = 157 N
By taking moment about y axis through A, we have
F t2 x 40 F B z x 105 = 0
i.e., 1391 x 40 105 F B z = 0
F B z = 530 N
Fz = 0 from which F A z = 1391 530 = 861 N
T = F t2 x r 2 = 1391 x 64 x10-3 = 89.02 Nm
Fig.16.6 Sketch showing the calculated value of forces acting on worm gear shaft
Machine Design II
Fig.16.7 Forces acting on pinion shaft and bearing reactions.

Since the bearing at C takes the entire thrust,
F C z = F a1 = 1391 N.
Taking moment about y (vertical) axis through D,
F C x x 80 F t1 x40 = 0,
80 F C x 259x40 =0
F c x = 129.5 N
F D x = 129.5 N
since Fx = 0
Taking moment about x (horizontal) axis through D,

F c y x 80 F a1 x 25 - F r1 x 40 = 0
80 F c y - 1391 x 25 508 x 40 = 0
F C y = 689 N
From Fy = 0, F D y = -181 N
Machine Design II
Fig.16.8 Calculated values of forces acting on pinion shaft and bearing reactions.
Solution: (C) Efficiency of the gearbox
The efficiency of the gearbox is given by
cos n - f tan
cos n f cot
cos19.77o - 0.024 tan9.09o

cos19.77o 0.024 cot 9.09o
0.859
-----------------------
Machine Design II
16.2 WORM GEARS- PROBLEM 2

Design a worm gear set to deliver 12 kW from a shaft rotating at 1500 rpm to another
rotating at 75 rpm.
Solution:
20o normal pressure angle worm gear is assumed for which the lead angle should not
exceed 25o (Table 1) and Z 2 minimum is 21 (Table 2). Allowing 6o lead per thread of the
worm, the worm could have 4 or less teeth. Z 1 = 4 or quadruple threaded worm is
assumed
Table 16.1 Maximum Worm Lead Angle and Worm Gear Lewis Form Factor for
Various Pressure angles
Pressure Angle
n
(Degrees)
Maximum
Lead Angle
(degrees)
Lewis form
factor y
Modified
Lewis form
factor Y
14.5
15
0.100
0.314
20
25
0.125
0.393
25
35
0.150
0.473
30
45
0.175
0.550
From the worm gearsdesign guidelines we have,

Table 16.2 Minimum number of teeth in the worm gear
Pressure angle
n
14.5o
17.5o
20o
22.5o
25o
27.5o
30o
Z 2 minimum
40
27
21
17
14
12
10
Machine Design II
i = n 1 / n 2 = 1500 /75 = 20 = Z 2 / Z 1
1 = 2n 1 /60 = 2x3.14x1500 /60 =157 rad/s
Z 2 = i x Z 1 = 20 x 4 = 80
A centre distance of 250 mm (as per R10 series) is assumed.
C0.875
C0.875
d1
3.0
1.7
d 1 C 0.875 /3 = 2500.875 /3 42 mm and
d 1 C 0.875 /1.7=75 mm.
d 1 = 72 mm is taken.
Since d 1 4p 2 or circular pitch,
p 2 = d 1 /4 = 72 / 4= 18 mm
m = p / = 18/3.14 = 5.73 mm take standard module of 6mm.
Hence, d 2 = m Z 2 = 6 x 80 = 480 mm.
Actual centre distance: C = 0.5 (d 1 + d 2 )
= 0.5(72+480) = 276 mm.
Check for d 1 C 0.875/1.7 80.4 mm, d 1 = 80 mm is taken.
C = 0.5(d 1 + d 2 ) = 0.5(80+480) = 280 mm
Lead = N tw x p a = 4 x 18.84 = 75.36 mm
tan = L / d 1 = 75.36 / 3.14x72 = 0.3333
= 18.43o =
2 = (2n 2 /60) = (2x3.14x75/60) = 7.85 rad/s
V 2 = 2 r 2 = 7.85 x (0.5 x 480) x 10-3 = 1.884 m/s
F t = 1000W/ V = 1000 x 12/ 1.884 = 6370 N
b 0.5 d a1 , b 0.5(d 1 + 2m) 0.5 x (80+2x6) 46
b = 45 mm is assumed.
Y = 0.393 from Table 1 for n = 20o
Machine Design II
Table 16.1 Maximum Worm Lead Angle and Worm Gear Lewis Form Factor for
Various Pressure angles which is reproduced below for convenience of selection.
Maximum
Lewis form Modified
Pressure Angle n
(Degrees)
Lead Angle
factor y
Lewis form
(degrees)
factor Y
14.5
15
0.100
0.314
20
25
0.125
0.393
25
35
0.150
0.473
30
45
0.175
0.550
6.1+ V2
6.1+1.884
6370x
8133N
6.1
6.1
Fd =F2t
Choosing phosphor bronze for the gear and heat treated C45 steel for the ground worm,
[ b ] = 80 MPa from Table 16.3
Beam strength of the worm gear
Fb = [ b ] bmY = 80x45x6x0.393 = 8489 N

Worm gears bending and surface fatigue strengths are given Table 16.3
Table 16.3 Permissible stress in bending fatigue
Material of the gear
Centrifugally cast Cu-Sn bronze
Phosphor bronze
[ b ] MPa
23.5
80
Aluminium alloys Al-Si
11.3
Zn Alloy
7.5
Cast iron
11.8
Machine Design II
F b ( 8489) > F d ( 8133) Hence the design is safe from bending fatigue consideration.
Check for the wear strength.
Fw =d2 bK w 480x 45x 0.518 11189 N
K w = 0.518 for steel worm vs bronze worm gear with < 25o from Table 16.4.
F w (11189) > F d (8133), the design is safe from wear strength consideration.
Table 16.4 Worm Gear Wear Factors K w
K w (MPa)
Material
Worm
Gear
<10
<25
>25
Steel, 250 BHN
Bronze
0.414
0.518
0.621
Hardened steel
Bronze
(Surface 500 BHN)
Chill-cast
Bronze
0.552
0.690
0.828
0.828
1.036
1.243
Cast iron
1.036
1.277
1.553
Bronze
AGMA recommendation for the axial length of the Worm is, L w

L w p a (4.5
Z2
80
) 18.84x(4.5 ) 115mm
50
50
Worm Velocity V 1 = 1 r 1 = 157 x 0.04= 6.28 m/s
Vs
V1
6.28
6.62 m / s
cos cos18.43o
From the Fig. 16.9 worm gear friction characteristics, for V s = 6.62 m/s f = 0.025
Machine Design II
Fig. 16.9 Friction of well lubricated worm gears, A for cast iron worm and gear
and B for case hardened steel worm and phosphor bronze worm gear
Fn
Ft2
6370
7145N
o
cosn cos cos20 cos18.43o
cos n - f tan
cos n f cot
cos 20o - 0.025 tan18.43o

cos 20o 0.025 cot 18.43o
0.918
Heat generated during operation: H g = (1-)W = (1-0.918)12000= 984 Nm

Surface area A for conventional housing designs may be roughly estimated from the
equation:
A =14.75 C1.7
Where A is in m2 and C (the distance between the shafts) is in m.
A =14.75 x0.281.7 1.694m2

Heat generated during operation: H g
From Fig. 16.10 the C H = 32 Nm/s/m2/oC for n 1 =1500rpm
Machine Design II
H d = C H A (T o T a ) assuming T a = 35oC
= 32 x 1.694x (T o 35o) = 54.21 (T o 35o)
H g = 984 Nm
T 0 = 53.2o C < 93o C permissible for oil.
Hence the design is OK from thermal considerations.
Fig.16.10 Influence of worm speed on heat transfer.
--------------------------
Machine Design II
16.3 GEARBOX DESIGN

1. Design of gears is based on beam strength, pitting and scuffing (high speed gears)
considerations. The minimum pitch diameter of the pinion should be
d 1min = 2 x bore + 0.25 m
(16.1)
where d is the bore diameter and m is the module expressed in mm.

2. As per Nuttall Works of the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing company, the
minimum thickness of metal t min between the keyway and the root circle shall be:
t min m
Z
5
(16.2)
3. The outside diameter of the hubs in larger gears should be 1.8 times the bore for
steel, 2 times for CI and 1.65 times for the forged steel. The hub length should be at
least 1.25 times the bore and never less than the width of the gear.
4. Design of the shaft is based on fatigue strength and rigidity considerations. (At the
contact region the deflection of the shaft should be less than 0.01 module, the slope of
the shaft at the radial bearing should be less than 0.008 radians and for self-aligning
bearings it should be less than 0.05 radians.
5. Bearings selection is based on 90% reliability for the following life:
8 hrs. operation per day life = 20,000 to 30,000 hrs.
8-16 hrs. operations per day life= 40,000-50,000 hrs.
16-24 hrs. operations per day life = 50,000-60,000 hrs.
6. Selection of lubricant is based on peripheral velocity, load, type of application and
operating temperature etc.
SAE 30, 40, 50, 60, 80, 90 are being recommended.
For low friction and high temperature operation synthetic oils are used.
Machine Design II
7. Selection of method of lubrication is based on the peripheral speed.
Up to a
peripheral speed of 15 m/s oil bath (oil immersion / splash) lubrication is used. Higher
depth of immersion is recommended for slow speed application. The maximum depth
should not exceed 100 mm. At higher speed the depth of immersion is reduced to cut
the churning losses. 0.7 tooth height or a minimum of 1 module is taken. However, the
depth of immersion should not be less than 10 mm. Generally recommended depth of
immersion is 3 to 4 times the module and a maximum of 6 modules. Above a peripheral
velocity of 15 m/s stream (jet) lubrication is used. Oil is delivered by a pump through a
filter and if necessary through a cooler directly to the teeth of gears as they are coming
out of mesh.
8. Quantity of oil required is given below by the thumb rule:
For splash lubrication Q = ( 2.5 - 8 ) L t litres
Q = ( 0.35 - 0.7 ) W litres
or
(16.3)
For spray lubrication rate of supply should be

Q e = 30 ( L t /T)
lpm
(16.4)
where
L t - loss of power at the teeth contact ( kW )
W - is the power transmitted ( kW )
T is the difference in oil temperature at the outlet and inlet in oC .
Q
Oil circulation timet ' Q
e
min.
(16.5)
t = 1 - 2.5 for splash lubrication with no external circulation where lack of space is
there in compact design.
t = 4 - 30 for oil circulation with cooling or reservoir.
9. Gear box housing design is based on thumb rule and thermal consideration.
The wall thickness of the CI housing can be found from the empirical formula:
s = 2 (0.1 T)0.25 6 mm
(16.6)
Machine Design II
and that of the cover from: s c = 0.9 s
(16.7)
where the T is torque on the slow speed shaft in Nm.

The diameter d of the bolts for securing the cover should be: d = (T)1/3 10 mm
(16.8)
and that of foundation bolts:
d f =(2T)1/3 12 mm (16.9)
The thickness of the foundation flange should be:
s ff 1.5 d f .
(16.10)
The width of the flanges at the base and at the two halves of the housing should be:
w f = (2.1 to 2.5 )d
(16.11)
Table 16.5 Alternate approach for wall thickness s in mm for the gearboxes
Non-case hardened
gears
Case hardened gears
CI castings
0.007L + 6 mm
0.010 L + 6 mm
Steel castings
0.005L + 4 mm
0.007L + 4 mm
Welded construction
0.004L + 4 mm
0.005L + 4 mm
where L is the largest dimension of the housing in mm.

Wall thickness of the load carrying upper half of the housing is taken as 0.8s, and that
for the non-load carrying upper half of the housing 0.5s.
Flange thickness is taken as 1.5s for castings and 2s for welded construction.
Outside dimension of the bearing housing is kept 1.2 times outside diameter of the
bearing.
Flange screw/bolt diameter = 1.2s casting & 1.5s for welded construction.
Bolt spacing 6-10 times the bolt diameter.
Machine Design II
In designing reducing gear housing simple geometric shapes are to be preferred with
the outside as plain as possible. In order to reduce the air draft noises, the gap between
the gear and the side wall should be at least 15 mm.
Losses in gear boxes :

Total power loss
L = L t + L ch + L b
(16.12)
L t - power loss at tooth engagement.

L ch - churning power losses &
L b - bearing power losses
1 1
L t 2.3 f W
Z1 Z 2
kW
0.1
0.3
Lt W
Z1 cos V 2
(16.13)
kW
or
(16.14)
f - is the coefficient of friction between the teeth

Z 1 and Z 2 are number of teeth on the pinion and the gear,
V - peripheral velocity m/s and
- helix angle
Table 16.6 Coefficient of friction for 20o pressure angle gears
V m/s
0.7
14
21
42
0.08
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.025
200V
Lch cb V
Z1 Z 2
0.5
x 10 3 kW (16.15)
Where
V - peripheral speed ( m/s)
Machine Design II
b - face width of the gear
( mm )
c - factor equal to 0.009 for splash lubrication,
0.006 for stream lubrication
- viscosity of oil at the operating temperature
( cP )
L b = 5.23 x 10-8 F f b d n
kW (16.16)
where
F - radial load on the bearing ( N )
f b - coefficient of friction at the bearing reduced to the shaft diameter 0.005 - 0.01
d - shaft diameter ( mm )
n - shaft speed ( rpm )
The heat generated by the total power loss will raise the temperature of the oil and the
housing. The housing will dissipate heat H by radiation, convection and by conduction
through the foundation plate or the frame. When equilibrium conditions are set in the
heat generated and the heat dissipated will be the same. This equilibrium temperature
should be less that the maximum operating temperature for the oil otherwise the oil will
be getting oxidized. If the temperature exceeds then additional heat has to be dissipated
by separate cooling arrangement.
H = k t (T o T a ) A (1+U)
kcal/h
(16.17)
where A - free surface of the housing from which heat is removed to cool the drive
(included is the 50% of the surface of the fins) m2.
T o & T a - temperature of the oil and the surrounding air, oC
k t - heat transfer coefficient, equal to 10 to 16 kcal / (m2 .oC .h) , larger values are
used under favourable conditions of air circulation; in new standard reducing gears, k t
=14 kcal/(m2. oC .h)
Machine Design II
U - factor taking into account heat transfer to the foundation plate or frame of the
machine and amounting up to 0.3 when the housing seating surface is large.
Heat generated per hour, H g = 3600000 L / J
Where J is the mechanical equivalent of heat
J = 4270 Nm / kcal
And L is the total power loss in kW
H g = 843 L
Hd Hg
(16.18)
(16.19)
And T o 93o C, otherwise provide heat exchanger for cooling the oil.
-------------------------
Machine Design II
Module 2 - GEARS
Lecture 17 DESIGN OF GEARBOX
Contents
17.1 Commercial gearboxes
17.2 Gearbox design.
17.1 COMMERCIAL GEARBOXES
Various commercial gearbox designs are depicted in Fig. 17.1 to 17.10. These include
single to multistage ranging from spur, helical, bevel to worm gears.
Fig.17.1 Commercial Gearbox Design
Fig. 17.2 Two stage helical gearbox
Machine Design II
Fig.17.3 A single stage bevel gearbox
Fig.17.4 Worm gearbox
Machine Design II
Fig.17.5 Worm gearbox, sectional front and side views
Fig.17.6 Worm gearbox, without cooling fins, sectional front and side views
Machine Design II
Fig.17.7 Helical gear lubrication with idler gear
Fig.17.8 Spur gear lubrication

with stream by nozzles
Fig.17.9 A double reduction spur gear box
Machine Design II
Fig.17.10 Bevel gear Spur gear transmission

17.2 HELICAL GEARBOX DESIGN - PROBLEM 1
In a turbine drive 300 kW power is transmitted using a pair of double helical gear. The
pinion speed is 2950 rpm and that of the gear is about 816.5 rpm. There are no space
constraints on the gear drive. Selecting suitable materials, design the pinion and the
gear to last for 108 cycles. Design the gearbox completely.
Data: W = 300kW; n1 = 2950rpm; n2 816.5 rpm; Desired Life 108 cycles.
Solution:
1. Angular speed of the input shaft
2n1 2 x 2950
308.77 rad / s
60
60
1000W 1000x300
971.6Nm
308.77
2. Torque:T1
3. The details of the gear design carried out are given in Table 1 and 2.
Machine Design II
The final specifications of the pinion and gear are:

20o pressure angle involute teeth with helix angle of 35o, ha =1mn, hf =1.25mn.
i= Z2 / Z1 =105/29= 3.62
Table 17.1 Gear dimensions
Element Z
mn
mm
d mm
da mm db mm
dr mm
mt mm
Pinion
29
177.01
187.01
161.76
164.51
6.104
Gear
105
640.92
650.92
585.69
628.42
6.104
Table 17.2a Gear specifications

Element
Pinion
20o
23.96o
Gear
20o
23.96o
mm
pt mm
pa
mm
70
19.165
27.37
70
19.165
27.37
Table 17.2b Gear specifications

Element
CRt
CRa
CR
FS sb
FS sH
Pinion
1.3044
1.2787
2.583
1.99
1.73
Gear
1.3044
1.2787
2.583
1.89
1.53
Machine Design II
Fig.17.11 (a) Pinion
Fig.17.11 (b) Gear
All dimensions are in mm and not to scale
Fig.17.12 A commercial double helical gearbox
Machine Design II
Fig.17.13 Gear box outer

dimensions (tentative)
Fig.17.14 Pinion shaft layout diagram
All dimensions are in mm

4. Shaft design is based on the ASME equation:
Tangential load on the shaft: Ft = T/r = 971.6/0.088.5 = 11kN
Fr =Ft tan =11tan23.96o= 4.89kN
F = (Ft2 + Fr2)0.5
= (112 + 4.892)0.5=15.42kN
Bending moment at C
M = Fl /4 =15.42x0.15/4=0.58 kNm
Fig.17.15 Shaft Loading
By ASME code equation for shaft design we have,
16
(Kb M)2 (K t T)2
(1 k)[ ]
Machine Design II
k = 0.2 i.e, 20% reduction in strength due to keyway is assumed. From Table 17.3, for
rotating shaft with minor shock loads, Kb = 1.5 and Kt = 1.0.
Taking C45 steel for the shaft, yp = 360 MPa
yp = yp /2 = 360/2 = 180 MPa and taking factor of safety of [] = yp /2 = 180/2 =90 MPa
Table17. 3 Combined shock and fatigue factors for ASME code shaft design
equation
Type of loading
Kb
Kt
Gradually applied load
1.0
1.0
Suddenly applied load
1.5-2.0
1.5-2.0
1.5
1.0
With minor shocks
1.5-2.0
1.0-1.5
With heavy shocks
2.0-3.0
1.5-3.0
Stationary shaft
Rotating shaft
Gradually applied load
Suddenly applied load
16
(KmM)2 (K t T)2
(1 k)[ ]
16 x 106
d
(1.5x0.58)2 (1x0.9716)2 46mm
(1 0.2)x90
Take d = 50 mm. Check for deflection at the pinion centre.
Deflection at C:
Fl3
48EI
15420 x150
0.017mm
x504
48 X2.1x105 (
)
64
Since < 0.01m = 0.01x5 = 0.05 mm, the design is OK.

Check for slope at the bearing at A.
Machine Design II
2
Slope: FL
16EI
15420x1502
0.00034 rad.
x504
5
16x2.1x10 x(
)
64
< 0.0008 rad. Hence the design is OK.
5. Check for the pinion size. The minimum pitch diameter of the pinion should be
d1min 2 x bore + 0.25 m
where d is the bore diameter and m is the module expressed in mm.
D1min 2bore +0.1m= 2x50 + 0.1x5 = 100.5 mm
Since d1 = 177.01 mm > D1min. The design is satisfactory. Pinion drawing is shown in
Fig.17.16 with full dimensions.
6. The outside diameter of the hubs in larger gears should be 1.8 times the bore for
steel. The hub length should be at least 1.25 times the bore and never less than the
width of the gear.
Gear shaft diameter = d (i)1/3 = 50 (3.62)1/3 = 77 mm.
Gear shaft diameter of 80 mm is taken.
The hub diameter: dH = 1.8 x 80 = 144 mm, 150 mm is taken.
Hub length is taken as L =1.25d =1.25 x80 100 mm
Other dimensions of the gear are given in Fig. 17.17.
In view of the dimensions of the pinion and the gear, the dimensions of the shaft layout
is revised as shown in Fig.17.18 When the calculations are redone, there is no change
in shaft diameters. The same diameters are adopted for further computations.
Machine Design II
Fig.17.16. Pinion blank drawing
Fig.17.17. Gear blank drawing
Table 17.4 Dimensions of pinion and gear blank

Parameters
Pinion
Gear
50 mm
80 mm
d1
1.8d 90 mm
1.8d 150 mm
70 mm
70 mm
0.3B 22 mm
0.3 B 22 mm
De
187.01 mm
650.92 mm
5 mm
5 mm
Do
De 10m = 137 mm
De 10m = 600 mm
0.5 m = 2.5 mm
0.5 m = 2.5 mm
D1
(Do + d1) / 2 = 114 mm
(Do + d1) / 2 = 375 mm
d2
(Do d1) / 5 = 10 mm
(Do d1) / 5 = 90 mm
1.25 d = 70 mm
1.25d 100 mm
0.25 d = 12.5 mm
0.25d = 20 mm
Keyway
0.125d 6 mm
0.125d 10 mm
depth
Machine Design II
Fig 17.18 Pinion shaft layout diagram
7. Bearings selection is based on 90% reliability for the following life:

8 hrs. Operation per day life= 20,000- 30,000 hrs.
Consider the bearings at A & B with Life = 30,000 hrs,
P = 15420 / 2 = 7710 N,
fn = 0.224 for n = 2950 rpm from FAG catalog.
fL = 3.91 for 30000 hrs life assuming 16 hrs/day working from FAG catalog.
C = (fL/ fn) P = (3.91/0.224)x7710 =134581N =134.6kN
Giving 2.5 mm abutment for the bearings, shaft diameter of the bearing should be 45
mm.
Roller bearing NJ 2309 satisfies this requirement
C = 137 kN, Co = 153 kN, do =100 mm, di = 45mm, b = 36mm.
For the gear shaft of diameter 80mm, giving abutment of 2.5 mm, bearing bore diameter
should be 75mm.
P = 7710 N,
fn = 0.345 for shaft speed of 815 rpm.
Machine Design II
f L = 3.91 for Life of 30,000 hrs.

C= (f L / fn) x P = (3.91 / 0.345)x 7710 = 87,380 = 87.38 kN
Deep groove ball bearing 6315 with C=114kN, Co=67kN; do = 160 mm; di = 75mm;
b=37mm.
8. Gearbox dimensions are fixed based on thumb rule given in Table 17.5.
Table 17.5 Wall thickness s in mm of the gearboxes
Material
Non-case hardened
gears
Case hardened gears
CI castings
0.007L + 6 mm
0.010 L + 6 mm
Steel castings
0.005L + 4 mm
0.007L + 4 mm
Welded construction
0.004L + 4 mm
0.005L + 4 mm
Where L is the largest dimension of the housing in mm.

s = 0.005L + 4 mm =0.005x 900 + 4 10 mm
Top cover thickness: Sc = 0.8s =8 mm.
Flange thickness: sf = 2s = 2x10 = 20 mm
Flange cover bolt diameter: dcb = 1.5s 16 mm M16 bolts.
Bolt spacing: 6d = 6x16 100 mm
Foundation bolt diameter: dfb= (2T)1/3 12 mm
dfb = (2x3.62x971.6)1/3 = 19.2, Take M20 bolts.
The thickness of the foundation flange should be:
Sff 1.5 dfb = 1.5x20 = 30 mm
Machine Design II
The width of the flange at the base: wb = 2.5d
= 2.5 x 20 = 50 mm
The width of the flanges at the two halves of the housing should be:
wf = 2.5d = 2.5 x 16 = 40
With welding bead of 5mm, wf = 45 mm is taken.
Outside dimension of the bearing housing 1.2-1.5 times outside diameter of the bearing.
Bearing housing diameters are: 1.5x100 = 150mm and: 1.3x160 = 210 mm taking 6
Nos. M10 bolts for the bearing covers.
The views of the bottom and top half of the gearbox are shown in Fig. 17.19 and
Fig.17.20.
Fig.17.19 View of bottom half of the gearbox
Machine Design II
Fig.17.20 View of top cover of the gearbox

RECOMMENDED OIL FOR VARIOUS SLIDING SPEEDS
Table 17.6 Recommended oil viscosity V50 [cSt at 50oC] for different sliding
speeds
v(m/s)
0.25
0.4
0.63
1.0
1.6
2.5
V50 min
175
145
120
100
83
69
V50 max
350
290
240
200
166
138
v(m/s)
4.0
6.3
10
16
25
40
63
V50 min
57
47
39
32
27
22
18
V50 max
114
94
78
64
54
44
36
Machine Design II
The gears are operating at a sliding speed of v = r = 308.77x0.0885 = 27.33 m/s.

From the Table 17.6, the recommended oil viscosity at 50oC for this operation is V50
between 25 to 51 cSt (interpolated values). ISO VG 100 satisfies this, see Fig. 17.21
The equivalent grade from chart in Fig. 17.22, SAE 30 oil comes under this range and is
recommended for the operation.
ISO VG GRADE LUBRICANTS
Fig.17.21 Viscosity Temperature curve for ISO VG graded oils
Machine Design II
SAE OIL VISCOSITY CHART
Fig.17.22 Viscosity Temperature curves of SAE graded oils

9. Losses in gear boxes :
Total power loss
L = Lt + Lch + Lb + Ls
Lt - power loss at tooth engagement.

Lch - churning power losses
Machine Design II
Lb - bearing power losses & Ls-seal frictional power loss.
0.1
0.3
Lt W
Z1 cos V 2
kW
0.1
0.3
L t 300
4.33kW
O
27.3 2
29 cos 35
200V
Lch cb V
Z1 Z 2
0.5
x 10 3 kW
Where
V - peripheral speed (m/s)
b - face width of the gear
(mm)
c - factor equal to 0.009 for splash lubrication,
0.006 for stream lubrication
- Viscosity of oil at the operating temperature
(cP)
200V
Lch cb V
Z1 Z 2
0.5
x10 3 kW
200x27.3x35
Lch 0.006x70x27.3x
29 105
Lb = 5.23 x 10-8 F fb d n
0.5
x10 3 0.433 kW
kW
where
F - radial load on the bearing (N)
fb - coefficient of friction at the bearing reduced to the shaft diameter 0.005 - 0.01 for
rough estimation or refer to catalog.
d - shaft diameter (mm)
n - shaft speed (rpm)
From the catalog fB = 0.002 for roller bearings and 0.003 for ball bearings.
Bearings at A & B
Lb = 5.23 x 10-8 F fb d n
= 5.33x10-8x 15420x0.002 x 45x2950 =0.218 kW
Machine Design II
Bearings at D & E
Lb = 5.23 x 10-8 F fb d n
= 5.33x10-8x 15420x0.003 x75x814.92= 0.151kW
LB = 0.369 kW
Seal frictional power loss:
Ls = Ts x10-3 kW
Where Ts seal friction torque
angular velocity of the shaft.
Fig. 17.23 Friction torque at various temperature for nitrile rubber

S type oil seal, Shaft diameter 50mm, speed 1000 rpm
Ts = f Pr r
Where r = radius of the shaft [m]
f seal friction
Pr Radial lip load [N]
Coefficient of friction: f
f= ( v b / Pr) 1/3
= Characteristic Number
= Oil Viscosity [N.s/cm2]
v = Linear Speed [m/s]
Machine Design II
b = Lip Contact Width [m]

Fig. 17.23 gives the torque vs temperature chart for seal. Let the outlet oil temperature
be 65oC
At 65oC, Ts =0.17Nm from Fig.17.23a
V = dn/60000 = x50x1000/60000 = 2.36 m/s
The operating Velocity V = x45x2950/60000 = 6.95 m/s
Ts at operating speed of pinion shaft speed = 0.17 x (6.95/2.36)1/3 =0.244 Nm
Graph 17.23a Friction torque at various temperatures for nitrile rubber

S type oil seal, Shaft diameter 50 mm, speed 1000 rpm
Pinion shaft seals power loss
Ls = Ts x10-3 = 0.244x308.77 x 2 x10-3 = 0.151 kW
Gear shaft seal power loss
V = x 75x814.92/60000 = 3.2 m/s
Ts = 0.17 (3.2/2.36) 1/3 = 0.188 Nm
Ls = Ts x10-3 = 0.188 (308.77/3.62)x2x10-3 = 0.032 kW
Total seal friction = 0.151 + 0.032 = 0.183 kW.
Machine Design II
Total power loss in the gearbox:

L = Lt + Lch + Lb + Ls
= 4.33 + 0.433 + 0.369 + 0.183 = 5.315 kW
For the operating speed of the gear 27.33 m/s, the suggested type of lubrication is oil jet
lubrication.
Assuming inlet oil temperature of 40oC and outlet oil temperature of 65oC, the oil supply
rate has to be:
Qe = L x 103 / c T = (5.315x103 / 0.88x1670x25) =0.1447 lps =0.01447x60=8.68 lpm.
Based on the details of the gearbox, the shaft details are worked out. The detailed
pinion shaft drawing is shown in Fig.17.24 and that of the gear shaft in Fig.17.25. The
corresponding revised dimensions of the pinion and gears are shown in Fig.17.26 and
17.27.
Fig.17.24 Pinion shaft drawing material C 45 hardened and tempered to 380 Bhn
Machine Design II
Fig.17.25 Gear shaft drawing material ductile iron 120/90/02 hardened to 331 Bhn
Fig.17.26 Pinion blank revised drawing showing all the dimensions
Machine Design II
Fig.17.27 Gear blank revised drawing showing all the dimensions.
Table 17.6 Details of the gearbox

Gearbox size & wt
745x260x1020 mm
330 kg
MS welded
construction
Pinion C45 steel with
Gear ductile iron grade
Shafts C-45 hardened
hardness 380 Bhn
120/90/02 of hardness 331
and tempered and
Hobbed and ground
Bhn
ground
Hobbed and ground
Lubricant SAE 30
Oil jet lubrication 10 lpm
= 98.2%
Machine Design II
The gearbox is of split type with radial assembly. Gears and bearings are mounted on
the shafts separately outside and assembled radially in the gearbox and the top cover is
bolted in position. The oil jet and the outlet connections are made subsequently. 8 lpm
oil is directed at the gear mesh and 2 lpm is directed at the bearings and seals.
The gearbox assembly views are shown in Fig. 17.28 to 17.30. The front view
separately and end view are shown separately in Fig 17.28 and Fig. 17.29 for clarity.
The assembly view front and side together is shown in Fig.17.30.
Fig.17.28 Front view of the assembly of the gearbox
Machine Design II
Fig.17.29 End view of the gearbox
Fig.17.30 Assembled view of the helical gearbox

---------------------------------
Machine Design II
MODULE III
Brakes, Clutches and Flywheel,
Brakes
A brake is a device by means of which artificial resistance is applied on
to a moving machine member in order to retard or stop the motion of the
member or machine
Types of Brakes
Different types of brakes are used in different applications
Based on the working principle used brakes can be classified as
mechanical brakes, hydraulic brakes, electrical (eddy current) magnetic
and electro-magnetic types.
Mechanical Brakes
Mechanical brakes are invariably based on the frictional resistance principles
In mechanical brakes artificial resistances created using frictional contact
between the moving member and a stationary member, to retard or stop the
motion of the moving member.
Basic mechanism of braking

The illustration below explains the working of mechanical brakes. An element
dA of the stationary member is shown with the braked body moving past at
velocity v. When the brake is actuated contact is established between the
stationary and moving member and a normal pressure is developed in the
contact region. The elemental normal force dN is equal to the product of contact
pressure p and area of contact dA. As one member is stationary and the other is
in relative motion, a frictional force dF is developed between the members. The
Machine Design II
magnitude of the frictional force is equal to the co-efficient of friction times the
normal force dN
dN=p.dA
dA
v
dFf =.dN=.p.dA
Figue 3.1.1
The moment of the frictional force relative to the point of motion contributes to the
retardation of motion and braking. The basic mechanism of braking is illustrated
above.
Design and Analysis

To design, select or analyze the performance of these devices knowledge on the
following are required.
The braking torque

The actuating force needed
The energy loss and temperature rise
At this beginning stage attention will be focused mainly on some preliminary

analysis related to these aspects, namely torque, actuating force, energy
absorbed and temperature rise. Torque induced is related to the actuating force,
the geometry of
the member and other contact conditions. Most mechanical
brakes that work on the frictional contact basis are
classified
based on the
geometry.
There are two major classes of brakes, namely drum brakes and disc brakes.
Design and analysis of drum brakes will be considered in detail in following
Machine Design II
sections, the discussion that follow on disc or plate clutches will from the basis
for design of disc type of brakes.
Drum brakes basically consists of a rotating body called drum whose motion is
braked together with a shoe mounted on a lever which can swing freely about a
fixed hinge H. A lining is attached to the shoe and contacts the braked body. The
actuation force P applied to the shoe gives rise to a normal contact pressure
distributed over the contact area between the lining and the braked body. A
corresponding friction force is developed between the stationary shoe and the
rotating body which manifest as retarding torque about the axis of the braked
body.
Brakes Classification
Short Shoe
Lining
Shoe
Stationary member
Rigid
Rotating body
(drum)
Long shoe
Pivoted
Figure 3.1.2
Various geometric configurations of drum brakes are illustrated above.
Drum Brakes are classified based on the shoe geometry. Shoes are classified as
being either short or long. A short shoe is one whose lining dimension in the
direction of motion is so small that contact pressure variation is negligible, i.e. the
pressure is uniform everywhere.
Machine Design II
When the area of contact becomes larger, the contact may no longer be with a
uniform pressure, in which case the shoe is termed as long shoe. The shoes are
either rigid or pivoted, pivoted shoes are also some times known as hinged
shoes. The shoe is termed rigid because the shoes with attached linings are
rigidly connected to the pivoted posts. In a
hinged shoe brake - the shoes are
not rigidly fixed but hinged or pivoted to the posts. The hinged shoe is connected
to the actuating post by the hinge, G, which introduces another degree of
freedom
Preliminary Analysis
The figure shows a brake shoe mounted on a lever, hinged at O, having an
actuating force Fa, applied at the end of the lever. On the application of an
actuating force, a normal force Fn is created when the shoe contacts the rotating
drum. And a frictional force Ff of magnitude f.Fn, f being the coefficient of friction,
develops between the shoe and the drum. Moment of this frictional force about
the drum center constitutes the braking torque.
Machine Design II
F
a
Fa
shoe
drum
Ry
Ff c
Rx
Fn
b
(a) Brake assembly
(b) Free-body diagram
T
Rx
Ry
Figure 3.1.3
Short Shoe Analysis

For a short
shoe we assume that the pressure is uniformly distributed over the
contact area. Consequently the equivalent normal force Fn = p .A, where = p is

the contact pressure and .A is the surface area of the shoe. Consequently the
friction force Ff = f.Fn where f is the co-efficient of friction between the shoe
lining material and the drum material.
The torque on the brake drum is then,
T = f Fn. r = f.p.A.r
A quasi static analysis is used to determine the other parameters of braking.
Applying the equilibrium condition by taking moment about the pivot O we can
write
M O = Fa a Fn b + f Fn c = 0
Substituting for Fn and solving for the actuating force, we get,
Machine Design II
Fa = Fn(b+-fc)/a
The reaction forces on the hinge pin (pivot) are found from a summation of
forces,
i.e.
Fx = 0, R x = fpa A
F = 0, R = p A F
y
y
a
a
Self- energizing
The principle of self energizing and leading and trailing shoes
With the shown direction of the drum rotation (CCW), the moment of the frictional
force f. Fn c adds to the moment of the actuating force, Fa
As a consequence, the required actuation force needed to create a known
contact pressure p is much smaller than that if this effect is not present. This
phenomenon of frictional force aiding the brake actuation is referred to as selfenergization.
Leading and trailing shoe

For a given direction of rotation the shoe in which self energization is present is
known as the leading shoe
When the direction of rotation is changed, the moment of frictional force now
will be opposing the actuation force and hence greater magnitude of force is
needed to create the same contact pressure. The shoe on which this is prevailing
is known as a trailing shoe
Machine Design II
Self Locking
At certain critical value of f.c the term (b-fc) becomes zero. i.e no actuation force
need to be applied for braking. This is the condition for self-locking. Self-locking
will not occur unless it is specifically desired.
Short and Long Shoe Analysis

Foregoing analysis is based on a constant contact pressure p.
In reality constant or uniform constant pressure may not prevail at all points of
contact on the shoe.
In such case the following general procedure of analysis can be adopted
General Procedure of Analysis

Estimate or determine the distribution of pressure on the frictional surfaces
Find the relation between the maximum pressure and the pressure at any point
For the given geometry, apply the condition of static equilibrium to
actuating force, torque and reactions on support pins etc.
find the
Machine Design II
Drum Brakes
Among the various types of devices to be studied, based on their practical use,
the discussion will be limited to Drum brakes of the following types which are
mainly used in automotive vehicles and cranes and elevators.
Drum Brake Types:

Rim types with internal expanding shoes
Rim types with external contracting shoes
Internal expanding Shoe

The rim type internal expanding shoe is widely used for braking systems in
automotive applications and is generally referred as internal shoe drum brake.
The basic approach applied for its analysis is known as long-rigid shoe brake
analysis.
Long rigid Shoe Analysis
A schematic sketch of a single shoe located inside a rotating drum with relevant
notations, is shown in the figure below. In this analysis, the pressure at any point
is assumed to be proportional to the vertical distance from the hinge pin, the
vertical distance from the hinge pin, which in this case is proportional to sine of
the angle and thus,
p d sin sin
Since the distance d is constant, the normal pressure at any point is just
proportional to sin. Call this constant of proportionality as K
Machine Design II
f d N cos
f dN
d N sin
dN
dN cos
f dNsin
FX
F
d
FY
RX
d
<
>
>
RY
Figure 3.1.4
Thus
p = K sin
It the maximum allowable pressure for the lining material is pmax then the constant
K can be defined as
K=
p max
p
=
sin sin max
p=
p max
sin
sin max
Machine Design II
The normal force dN is computed as the product of pressure and area and the
frictional force as the product of normal force and frictional coefficient i.e. f dN.
By integrating these over the shoe length in terms of its angle the braking torque
T, and other brake parameters are computed.
To determine the actuating force F, the moment equilibrium about the pivot point
is applied. For this we need to determine the moment of the normal force MN and
moment of the frictional force about the pivot point. Moment of the normal force
is equal to the normal force times its moment arm about the pivot point. From
the figure it is clear that the moment arm in this case is equal to d sin where d
is the distance between the drum center and pivot center
MN =
p.b.r.d.d sin = b.p.r.d.sin .d
= b.d.r.
2
p max
sin 2 d
sin
p
b.d.r 1
1
2 1 (sin 22 sin 21 )
M N = max
sin a 2
4
On similar lines the moment of friction force is computed

MF =
f .p.b.r.d ( r d sin )
2
1
= f .b.r.
2
Mf =
p max
sin ( r d sin ) d
sin max
f.p max. b.r

d
r cos 2 cos 1 sin 2 2 sin 2 1
sin a
2
Machine Design II
The actuating force F is determined by the summation of the moments of normal

and frictional forces about the hinge pin and equating it to zero.
Summing the moment about point O gives
F=
M N Mf
c
where,
MN and Mf are the moment of the normal and frictional forces respectively,
about the shoe pivot point.
The sign depends upon the direction of drum rotation,
(- sign for self energizing and + sign for non self energizing shoe)Where the
lower sigh is for a self energizing shoe and the upper one for a self deenergizing
shoe.
The reaction forces are determined by applying force summation and equilibrium
R x = dN.cos + dF.sin
=
b.r.p cos d + f b.r.p sin d
2
p
p
b.r. max sin cos d + f b.r. max sin 2 d
sin max
sin max
p max.b r
sin max
The equations can be simplified and put as

Rx =
Ry =
pa br
sin a
pa br
sin a
(A fB)
(B fA) Fx
Where
A=
1
1
1 1
2
2
2 2 (2 1 ) 4 sin 22 sin 21 f 2 sin 2 sin 1
1
sin 2 2 sin 2 1
2
Machine Design II
B=
1 1
1
( ) sin 2 sin 2
2 2 2 1 4
2
1
The braking torque T on the drum by the shoe is of the frictional forces f.dN times
the radius of the drum and resulting equation is,
T=
f .b.p.r.d.r
1
1
= fbr 2
1
T=
p max
sin max
sin d
fdpa r 2 (cos 1 cos 2 )

sin a
Double Shoe Brakes Twin Shoe Brakes

Behavior
such
two
of
shoes
being
a
are
used
single
shoe
has
been
combined
into
to
maximum
cover
discussed
complete
area
at
practical
and
to
length.
Two
brake
unit,
minimize
the
unbalanced forces on the drum, shaft and bearings.
If both the shoes are arranged such that both are leading shoes in which
self energizing are prevailing, then all the other parameters will remain
same and the total braking torque on the drum will be twice the value
obtained in the analysis.
However in most practical applications the shoes are arranged such that
one will be leading and the other will be trailing for a given direction of
drum rotation
Machine Design II
If the direction of drum rotation changes then the leading shoe will
become trailing and vice versa.
Thus this type of arrangement will be equally effective for either direction
of drum rotation. Further the shoes can be operated upon using a single
cam or hydraulic cylinder thus provide for ease of operation
One leading shoe

& one trailing
Two Leading shoe

Figure 3.1.5
However the total braking torque will not be the twice the value of a single
shoe, if the same normal force is applied or created at the point of force
application on both the brake shoes which is the normal practice as they
are actuated using a common cam or hydraulic cylinder.
This is because the effective contact pressure (force) on the trailing shoe
will not be the same, as the moment of the friction force opposes the
normal force, there by reducing its actual value as in most applications
Machine Design II
the same normal force is applied or created at the point of force

application on the brake shoe as noted above
Consequently we may write the actual or effective pressure prevailing on
a trailing shoe
F.a
p'a = pa .
(M n + M f )
Resulting equation for the braking torque
p
TB = f .w.r 2 . a (cos 1 - cos 2 )(pa + pa ')
sin a
Some pictorial illustrations of the automotive drum brakes are presented

below
Figure 3.1.6
Machine Design II
Figure 3.1.7
Oblong Cam Actuator

Leading shoe
Trailing shoe
Rotating Drum
Pivot point(Fixed axis)
The anatomy of the single leading shoe drum Brake
Animation
Machine Design II
Figure 3.1.9
Figure 3.1.10
Machine Design II
External Contracting Shoe

The same analysis can be extended to a drum brake with external contracting
type of shoes, typically used in elevators and cranes.
A schematic sketch of as single shoe located external to the rotating drum is with
all relevant notations is shown in the figure below.
Figure 3.1.11
Corresponding contact geometry is shown in the figure

The resulting equations for moment of normal and frictional force as well as the
actuating force and braking torque are same as seen earlier.
For convenience they are reproduced here again
fbp r 2 cos cos

a
1
2
T=
sin
a
Machine Design II
F=
M N Mf
c
p bra 1
1
2 1 (sin 22 sin 21 )
MN = a
sin a 2
4
Mf =
fpa br
sin a
2
2
r cos 1 cos 2 2 (sin 2 sin 1 )
TWIN SHOE BRAKES

As noted earlier for the internal expanding shoes, for the double shoe brake the
braking torque for one leading and one trailing shoe acted upon a common cam
or actuating force the torque equation developed earlier can be applied.
i.e
p
TB = f .w.r 2 . a (cos 1 - cos 2 )(pa + pa ')
sin a
Machine Design II
Brake with a pivoted long shoe
When
the
frictional
shoe
force
lever.
This
is
rigidly
(f.Fn)
is
is
fixed
to
eliminated
to
the
lever,
the
tendency
of
the
unseat
the
block
with
respect
to
the
in
the case of pivoted or hinged shoe
brake and it also provides some additional advantages.
Long Hinged Shoe

In
hinged
shoe
brake
the
shoes
are
not
rigidly
fixed
but
hinged or pivoted to the posts. The hinged shoe is connected to

the
actuating
degree
of
position
in
post
by
freedom
which
the
the
so
hinge,
G,
which
shoe
tends
to
the
pressure
distribution
introduces
assume
over
it
is
another
an
optimum
less
peaked
than in a rigid shoe.
G
BG
OH=a
OG=b
Fy
Fx
Figure 3.1.12
As
wear
proceeds
the
extra
degree
of
freedom
allows
the
linings
to conform more closely to the drum than would be the case to
Machine Design II
rigid
shoes.
This
permits
the
linings
to
act
more
effectively
and
also reduces the need for wear adjustment.

The
extra
expense
the
grounds
of
of
providing
more
another
uniform
lining
hinge
wear
is
thus
and
justified
on
consequently
longer life. This is the main advantage of the pivoted shoe brake
This is possible only if the shoe is in equilibrium.
For
equilibrium
of
the
shoe
moments
of
the
forces
about the hinge pin should balance i.e
MG=T+Fxby-Fybx=0 where bx
by
This
needs
(and
due
to
the
normal
force)
zero,
so
that
no
rotation
of
point.
To
that
the
facilitate
resultant
this
= b.cos G
= b.sinG
moment
about
the
location
shoe
of
due
to
the
pivot
will
occur
the
pivot
the
is
frictional
point
should
about
to
force
the
be
be
pivot
selected
carefully.
The actuating force P is applied to the post HG so the shoe itself
is subject to actual and ideal contacts only - the (ideal) at pin G
and the actual as distributed contact with the drum.
The location is in such a way that the moment of frictional force
(and
the
normal
force)
about
distributed
contact
leads
to
the
the
pivot
ideal
is
zero.
i.e
the
(concentrated)contact
actual
at
the
hinge or pivot.
i.e the actual distributed contact leads to the ideal contact at the
hinge or pivot Further it is desirable to minimize the effect of pin
reaction for which the shoe pivot and post pivot points are made
con current.
Machine Design II
Let us now look how this can be met, satisfying the conditions set above and
consequently the derive the equations relating the location of the pivot from the
center of the drum
A schematic sketch of a single shoe is shown in the figure
fdN sin
fdN cos
fdN
(hcos r)
dN
dN cos
rcos
Rx
Ry
Force acting on shoe

An
element
of
friction
lining
subtending to a small angle

the
element
is ( r.d.b ) ,
located
is
the
parallel to the axis of the brake drum.

at
the
element
is
p,
the
normal
width
angle
of
and
The area if
the
friction
lining
If the intensity of pressure
reaction
dN
given by
dN = (rdb)p
an
is shown in figure.
where
at
(a)
on
the
element
is
Machine Design II
Distribution of pressure
If the shoe is long then the pressure will not be uniform
We
need
lining;
to
the
determine
pressure
the
distribution
distribution
of
should
pressure
be
along
the
conducive
for
maintaining a uniform wear

Since the brake drum is made of a hard material like cast iron or
steel,
the
wear
the shoe.
shape
of
occurs
on
the
friction
lining,
which
is
attached
to
As shown in fig the lining need to retain the cylindrical

the
brake
drum
when
wear
occurs.
After
the
radial
wear has take place, a point such as X moves to X in order to

maintain contact on the lining with the brake drum.
the
wear
in
direction.
towards
the
direction
and
is
the
wear
In figure x is
in
the
radial
If it is assumed that the shoe is constrained to move

the
brake
drum
to
compensate
to
wear,
should
be
constant because it need to be same for all points. Therefore,

x =
r
= constant
cos
(b)
x
x
x'
X
wear
wear of friction lining
Machine Design II
The
radial
frictional
upon
wear
force.
the
r
The
frictional
is
proportional
work
force
done
( fdN )
to
by
and
the
the
the
work
done
by
frictional
force
depends
rubbing
velocity.
Since
the
the
rubbing velocity is constant for all points on friction lining,
r fdN
Or r ( frdbp )
Therefore r p
(c)
From the expression (b) and (c)

p
= cons tan t or p = C1 cos
cos
Where C1
is
the
constant
of
proportionality.
(d)
The
pressure
is
maximum when = 0 .
Substituting,
(e)
p max = C1
From Eqs (d) and (e),
p = p max cos
Substituting this value in Eq. (a
dN = (rdb)p max cos
The
forces
acting
on
the
element
(f)
of the friction lining are shown
in figure. The distance h of the pivot is selected in such a manner

that the moment of frictional force about it is zero.
Therefore,
M f == 0
dMf=f.dN moment arm

moment arm in this case = (h cos r)
Machine Design II
Mf =
fdN(h cos r) = 0
Mf =
fpmax rd cos (h r cos )
Substituting dN from Eq. (f),
( h cos
r cos d = 0
1 + cos 2
h
d r cos d = 0
2
0
0
or
+ 2 sin 2
h
R ( sin )0 = 0
2
0
4R sin
h=
2 + sin 2
or
The
elemental
torque
of
frictional
force
fdN about
the
brake drum is fdNR . Therefore
TB = 2 fdNr
Substituting the value of dN from Eq.(f)
TB = 2fr 2 bp max
cos d
TB = 2fr bp max sin

2
The reaction R X can be determined by considering two components
( dN cos )
and
( fdN sin )
axis
of
Machine Design II
Due
to
symmetry,
the
other
two
vertical
components
of
the
force
considering
two
balances
i.e
fdN sin = 0
dN sin = 0
Therefore,
Rx =
dN cos
= rbp max
cos
Note that R x is also = Fn

The
reaction
Ry
2 + sin 2
= 2rbp max
1
or R x = rbp max (2 + sin 2)
2
can
components ( dN sin ) and
( fdN cos )
Due to symmetry,
dN sin =0
Therefore,
be
determined
by
Machine Design II
Ry =
fdN cos
= frbp max
cos
Ry =
or
As noted earlier,
1
frbp max (2 + sin 2)
2
TB = 2fr 2 bp max sin

Rewriting it,
TB = frbp max
2 + sin 4r sin
.
2
2 + sin
= fFn h
DOUBLE BRAKE SHOE

A double block brake with two symmetrical and pivoted shoes is show in
figure.
If the same magnitude of actuating forces are acted upon the posts, then
TB = f .(Fn1 + Fn2 ).h = 2f .Fn. h
Pivoted double block brake
Machine Design II
Pivoted shoe brakes are mainly used in hoists and cranes.

applications
are
limited
because
locating pivot so close to the drum surface.
of
the
physical
problem
Their
in
Machine Design II
Energy Consideration
It has been noted that the most common brakes employ friction to transform
the braked system's mechanical energy, irreversibly into heat which is then
transferred to the surrounding environment Kinetic energy is absorbed during slippage of either a clutch or brake, and this
energy appears as heat.
If the heat generated is faster than it is dissipated, then the temperature rises.
Thorough design of a brake therefore requires a detailed transient thermal
analysis of the interplay between heat generated by friction, heat transferred
through the lining and the surrounding metalwork to the environment, and the
instantaneous temperature of the surface of the drum as well as the lining. For
a given size of brake there is a limit to the mechanical power that can be
transformed into heat and dissipated without lthe temperatures reaching
damaging levels. Temperature of the lining is more critical and the brake size is
characterized by lining contact area, A.
The capacity of a clutch or brake is therefore limited by two factors:
1. The characteristics of the material and,
2. The ability of the brake to dissipate heat.
Heat Generated In Braking

During deceleration, the system is subjected to an essentially constant torque
T exerted by the brake, and in the usual situation this constancy implies constant
deceleration too.
Application of the work or energy principle to the system enables the torque
exerted by the brake and the work done by the brake, U, to be calculated from:-
Machine Design II
U = E = T
(2)
Where E is the loss of system total energy which is absorbed by the brake
during deceleration, transformed into heat, and eventually dissipated.
The elementary equations of constant rotational deceleration apply, thus when
the brake drum is brought to rest from an initial speed o :Deceleration =
o2/ 2
(1)
m.t
; m =
o/2
/t where m is the mean drum speed over the deceleration period.

The mean rate of power transformation by the brake over the braking period is
:Pm
= U / t = T m
( 3 ) which forms a basis for the selection or
the design of the necessary brake dimensions.

The rise in temperature in the lining material is also important as rate of wear is
also a function of the temperature. Further for any lining material, the maximum
allowable temperature is also another performance criteria.
Temperature Rise
The temperature rise of the brake assembly can be approximated by the classic
expression,,
E
C.m
Where is temperature T is rise in temperature in oC,C is the specific heat of
T =
the brake drum material (500J/Kg for steel or Cast Iron) and m is the mass
(kg) of the brake parts dissipating the heat into the surroundings.
Though the equation appears to be simple, there are so many variables involved
that it would be most unlikely that such an analysis would even approximate
experimental results.
Machine Design II
On the other hand the temperature-rise equations can be used to explain what
happens when a clutch or brake is operated frequently. For this reason such
analysis are most useful, for repetitive cycling, in pin pointing those design
parameters that have the greatest effect on performance.
An object heated to a temperature T1 cools to an ambient temperature Ta
according to the exponential relation
Time-temperature relation
Ti Ta = (T1 Ta )e(AU / WC)t
Where T1 = instantaneous temperature at
time t, C
A= heat transfer area, m2

U= Heat Transfer coefficient, W/(m2.s. C)
T1 = Initial temperature, C
Ta = Ambient temperature, C
C - Specific heat
t - time of operation, s
Machine Design II
T2
A
T1
T
T
B
C
Ta
tA
tC
tB
Time t
Figure 3.1.16
Figure shows an application of Eq. (a).
At time tA
a clutching or braking
operation causes the temperature to rise to T1 at A. Though the rise occurs in a

finite time interval, it is assumed to occur instantaneously. The temperature then
drops along the decay line ABC unless interrupted by another braking operation.
If a second operation occurs at time tB, the temperature will rise along the dashed
line to T2 and then begin an exponential drop as before.
About 5 -10 % of the
heat generated at the sliding interface of a friction brake must be transferred

through the lining to the surrounding environment without allowing the lining to
reach excessive temperatures,
since high temperatures lead to hot spots and
distortion, to fade (the fall-off in friction coefficient) or, worse, to degradation and
charring of the lining which often incorporates organic constituents
Machine Design II
In order to determine the brake dimensions the energy need to be absorbed

during critical braking conditions is to be estimated.
Energy to be Absorbed
If t is the time of brake application and m the mean or average angular velocity
then the energy to be absorbed in braking E
E = T. m .t = Ek+ Ep+ Ei
where Ek is the kinetic energy of the rotating system
Ep is the potential energy of the moving system
Ei is the inertial energy of the system
Energy to be absorbed
1
2g
1
= mv 2
2
1 2
v 2 v12
=
2g
Ek =
E p = mgh = h
1 2
I
2
1
= I 22 12
2
Ei =
Frictional Material
A brake or clutch friction material should have the following characteristics to a
degree, which is dependent upon the severity of the service.
A high and uniform coefficient of friction.
Imperviousness to environmental conditions, such as moisture.
The ability to withstand high temperatures together with good thermal
conductivity.
Good resiliency.
High resistance to wear, scoring, and galling.
Machine Design II
Linings
The choice of lining material for a given application is based upon criteria such as
the expected coefficient of friction; fade resistance, wear resistance, ease of
attachment, rigidity or formability, cost, abrasive tendencies on drum, etc. The
lining is sacrificial - it is worn away. The necessary thickness of the lining is
therefore dictated by the volume of material lost - this in turn is the product of the
total energy dissipated by the lining throughout its life, and the specific wear rate
Rw (volume sacrificed per unit energy dissipated) which is a material property
and strongly temperature dependent. The characteristics of a typical moulded
asbestos lining material is illustrated in the figure below. The coefficient of
friction, which may be taken as 0.39 for design purposes, is not much affected by
pressure or by velocity - which should not exceed 18 m/s. The maximum
allowable temperature is 400C. However at this temperature the wear is very
high. From a lower wear or higher life point, the maximum temperature should
not exceed about 200 oC
0.5
0
0
Temperature ( C )
Figure 3.1.17
400
Machine Design II
Linings traditionally were made from asbestos fibers bound in an organic matrix,
however the health risks posed by asbestos have led to the decline of its use.
Non-asbestos linings generally consist of three components - metal fibers for
strength, modifiers to improve heat conduction, and a phenolic matrix to bind
everything together.
Brake Design Section

The braked system is first examined to find out the required brake capacity that is
the torque and average power developed over the braking period. - The brake
is then either selected from a commercially available range or designed from
scratch ff a drum brake has to be designed for a particular system (rather than
chosen from an available range) then the salient brake dimensions may be
estimated from the necessary lining area, A, together with a drum diameter- tolining width ratio somewhere between 3:1 and 10:1, and an angular extent of 100
C say for each of the two shoes.
Worked out Example 1

An improved lining material is being tried on an existing passenger car drum
brake shown in Figure. Quality tests on the material indicated permissible
pressure of 1.0 MPa and friction co-efficient of 0.32. Determine what maximum
actuating force can be applied for a lining width of 40 mm and the corresponding
braking torque that could be developed. While cruising on level road at 100
kmph, if it is to decelerated at 0.5g and brought to rest, how much energy is
absorbed and what is the expected stopping distance?
Machine Design II
While cruising on level road at 100 kmph, if it is to decelerated at 0.5g and

brought to rest, how much energy is absorbed and what is the expected stopping
distance?
300
30
100.9
R=125
120
Pin
120
Pin
86.6
300
50
30
50
30
AUTOMOTIVE DOUBLE SHOE BRAKE
Figure 3.1.18
Analysis based on leading shoe
Pa = 1 MPa
b
= 40 mm
= 0.32
max = 900
a = 187.5 mm
d = 1002 +86.12
= 99.99 100mm
1 = 50 2 = 1200
r =125 mm
Machine Design II
p a brd 2 1
Mn =
=
sin a
1
4
(sin 22 sin 21 )
106 *40*10-3 *125 *103 * 0.1 115
=40*125*0.1 1.003-
1
4
180
1
4
( sin 240 sin10 )
( 1.03)
M n = 631.459 N.m
Mf =
f .b.rpm
d
r(cos 1 - cos 2 ) - sin 2 2 - sin 2 1
sin a
2
= 0.32 * 40 *10-3 *125*10-3 *106 0.125(cos5 - cos120) - 0.04(sin 2 120 - sin 2 5)
M f = 224.85 N - m
F*a= M N M f
F=
T = fbr
B
M n M f 631.459 224.85
=
=
a
0.187
2174.3N

Max. actutating force
p
F
( cos cos ) ) 1 +
sin
M +M
a
406.609
T = 0.32 * 40 *10 * (0.125) *10 (Cos5 Cos120) 1 +
856.36
T = 441.329 N-m
3
Running at 100 kmph
=100*5/8
= 27.7 m/s
Machine Design II
U= 27.7 m/s
Deceleration =0.5*9.8=4.9
V 2 U 2 = 2aS
0 (27.7) 2 = 2 * (4.9) *S
S=
27.7 2
= 78.29 m
2 * 4.9
E = T.av .t
1 27.7 78.24
= 441.329
.
2 0.125 27.7
= 138206
= 138.2KJ
Worked out example 2

A spring set, hydraulically released double shoe drum brake, schematically
shown at Fig 2 is to be designed to have a torque capacity of 600 N.m under
almost continuous duty when the brake drum is rotating at 400 rpm in either
direction.
Assume that the brake lining is to be molded asbestos having a
friction coefficient of 0.3 and permissible pressure of 0.8 MPa. The width of the
brake shoe is to be third of drum diameter and the remaining proportion's are as
shown in figure.
a = 1.4 D
1
b= D
3
0.6 D
d=
= 0.693 D
cos 300
Machine Design II
1.4 D
90
0.6 D
30
Double block brake

Figure 3.1.19
Determine the required brake drum diameter, width of the lining and the spring
force required to be set.
a = 1.4D
1
b= D
3
0.6D
d=
= 0.693D
cos 300
Machine Design II
1
D
sin(210) sin 30
= 0.8 *106 * D * * 0.6028D.
3
2
4
4
M N = 92373.3D3 *1.035
P brf
MJ = a
1
( r a cos ) sin d
= Pa brf r ( cos 1 cos 2 ) sin 2 2 sin 2 1

2
D D
0.6928
D
= 0.8 *106 * * * 0.3 (1.225 )
( 0.866 )
3 2
2
2
= 12500D3
Pa 'for the trailing shoe

M MF
Pa' = Pa N
M N + MF
95606.36 12500
= Pa
95606.36 + 12500
= 0.7687Pa
Torque due to trailing and leading shoe=
= fdN.r
= f .r
Pa sin
.rd.b
sin a
fbr 2 2
=
Pa sin d + Pa ' sin d
sin a
1
1
0.3*
fbr 2
. ( Pa + Pa ') . ( cos 1 cos 2 )
sin a
D D2
*
3 4 1.7687 * 0.8 *106 ( cos15 cos1.5 )
= 43324 D3
Ttotal = 600 Nm
Therefore
D = 240.14mm
Machine Design II
Actuating force due to spring
F=
M N M F 83106 * 0.2402
=
= 3423.22N
1.4 * D
1.4
Actuating force =3423.22 N
Living width =
D
3
= 80.04 mm
Machine Design II
CLUTCH
Clutch Introduction
A Clutch is ia machine member used to connect the driving shaft to a driven
shaft, so that the driven shaft may be started or stopped at will, without stopping
the driving shaft. A clutch thus provides an interruptible connection between two
rotating shafts
Clutches allow a high inertia load to be stated with a small power.
A popularly known application of clutch is in automotive vehicles where it is used
to connect the engine and the gear box. Here the clutch enables to crank and
start the engine disengaging the transmission Disengage the transmission and
change the gear to alter the torque on the wheels.
Clutches are also used
extensively in production machinery of all types
Mechanical Model
Two inertias I1and I2
and 2,
and
and traveling at the respective angular velocities
one of which may be zero, are to be brought to the same speed
by engaging. Slippage occurs because the two elements are running at different
speeds and energy is dissipated during actuation, resulting in temperature rise.
Clutch or brake
1
1
1
Dynamic Representation of Clutch or Brake
Figure 3.2.1
Machine Design II
Animated
Figure 3.2.2
To
design analyze the performance of these devices, a knowledge on the
following are required.

1. The torque transmitted
2. The actuating force.
3. The energy loss
4. The temperature rise
FRICTION CLUTCHES
As in brakes a wide range of clutches are in use wherein they vary in their are in
use their working principle as well the method of actuation and application of
normal forces. The discussion here will be limited to mechanical type friction
Machine Design II
clutches or more specifically to the plate or disc clutches also known as axial
clutches
Frictional Contact axial or Disc Clutches

An axial clutch is one in which the mating frictional members are moved in a
direction parallel to the shaft. A typical clutch is illustrated in the figure below. It
consist of a driving disc connected to the drive shaft and a driven disc
co9nnected to the driven shaft.
members.
A friction plate is attached to one of the
Actuating spring keeps both the members in contact and
power/motion is transmitted from one member to the other. When the power of
motion is to be interrupted the driven disc is moved axially creating a gap
between the members as shown in the figure.
Figure 3.2.3
Machine Design II
Flywheel
Clutch cover
Clutch plate
Diaphragm
spring
to transmission
Throw out
Bearing
Pressure plate
Animated
Figure 3.2.4
METHOD OF ANALYSIS
The torque that can be transmitted by a clutch is a function of its geometry and
the magnitude of the actuating force applied as well the condition of contact
prevailing between the members.
The applied force can keep the members
together with a uniform pressure all over its contact area and the consequent
analysis is based on uniform pressure condition
Machine Design II
Uniform Pressure and wear

However as the time progresses some wear takes place between the contacting
members and this may alter or vary the contact pressure appropriately and
uniform pressure condition may no longer prevail. Hence the analysis here is
based on uniform wear condition
Elementary Analysis
Assuming uniform pressure and considering an elemental area dA
dA = 2.r dr
The normal force on this elemental area is
dN = 2.r.dr.p
The frictional force dF on this area is therefore
dF = f .2.r.dr.p
Machine Design II
lining
dr
F
<
di
do
<
>
A single-Surface Axial Disk Clutch

Figure 3.2.5
Now the torque that can be transmitted by this elemental are is equal to the
frictional force times the moment arm about the axis that is the radius r
i.e. T = dF. r = f.dN. r = f.p.A.r
= f.p.2..r. dr .r
The total torque that could be transmitted is obtained by integrating this equation
between the limits of inner radius ri to the outer radius ro
ro
2
T = 2pfr 2 dr = pf (ro3 ri3 )
3
ri
Integrating the normal force between the same limits we get the actuating force
that need to be applied to transmit this torque.
Machine Design II
ro
Fa = 2prdr
ri
Fa = ro2 ri2 .p
Equation 1 and 2 can be combined together to give equation for the torque
T = fFa .
2 (ro3 ri3 )
3 (ro2 ri2 )
Uniform Wear Condition

According to some established theories the wear in a mechanical system is
proportional to the PV factor where P refers the contact pressure and V the
sliding velocity. Based on this for the case of a plate clutch we can state
The constant-wear rate Rw is assumed to be proportional to the

product of pressure p and velocity V.
Rw= pV= constant
And the velocity at any point on the face of the clutch is
V = r.
Combining these equation, assuming a constant angular velocity

pr = constant = K
The largest pressure pmax must then occur at the smallest radius ri ,
K = p max ri
Hence pressure at any point in the contact region
p = p max
ri
r
Machine Design II
In the previous equations substituting this value for the pressure term p and
integrating between the limits as done earlier we get the equation for the torque
transmitted and the actuating force to be applied.
I.e The axial force Fa is found by substituting
and integrating equation
p = p max
ri
for p.
r
dN = 2prdr
ro
ro
r
F = 2prdr = 2 pmax i rdr = 2p max ri (ro ri )

r
ri
ri
Similarly the Torque
ro
T = f 2pmax ri rdr = fp max ri (ro2 ri2 )
ri
Substituting the values of actuating force Fa
The equation can be given as
(r + r )
T = fFa . o i
2
Single plate dry Clutch Automotive application

The clutch used in automotive applications is generally a single plate dry clutch.
In this type the clutch plate is interposed between the flywheel surface of the
engine and pressure plate.
Machine Design II
Clutch plate
(driven disk)
Flywheel
Friction
planes
Pressure plate
Pressure spring
Release
bearing
Engine
crankshaft
Housing
To
transmission
To release
Figure 3.2.6
Single Clutch and Multiple Disk Clutch

Basically, the clutch needs three parts. These are the engine flywheel, a friction
disc called the clutch plate and a pressure plate. When the engine is running
and the flywheel is rotating, the pressure plate also rotates as the pressure plate
is attached to the flywheel. The friction disc is located between the two. When
Machine Design II
the driver has pushed down the clutch pedal the clutch is released. This action
forces the pressure plate to move away from the friction disc. There are now air
gaps between the flywheel and the friction disc, and between the friction disc and
the pressure plate. No power can be transmitted through the clutch.
Operation Of Clutch
When the driver releases the clutch pedal, power can flow through the clutch.
Springs in the clutch force the pressure plate against the friction disc. This action
clamps the friction disk tightly between the flywheel and the pressure plate. Now,
the pressure plate and friction disc rotate with the flywheel.
As both side surfaces of the clutch plate is used for transmitting the torque, a
term N is added to include the number of surfaces used for transmitting the
torque
By rearranging the terms the equations can be modified and a more general form
of the equation can be written as
T = N.f .Fa .R m
T is the torque (Nm).

N is the number of frictional discs in contact.
f is the coefficient of friction
Fa
Rm
is the actuating force (N).

is the mean or equivalent radius (m).
Note that N = n1 + n2 -1
Where n1= number of driving discs
n2 = number of driven discs
Values of the actuating force F and the mean radius rm for the two conditions of
analysis are summarized and shown in the table
Machine Design II
Clutch Construction
Two basic types of clutch are the coil-spring clutch and the diaphragm-spring
clutch. The difference between them is in the type of spring used. The coil
spring clutch shown in left Fig 3.2.6 uses coil springs as pressure springs (only
two pressure spring is shown). The clutch shown in right figure 3.2.6 uses a
diaphragm spring.
Figure 3.2.6
The coil-spring clutch has a series of coil springs set in a circle.
At high rotational speeds, problems can arise with multi coil spring clutches
owing to the effects of centrifugal forces both on the spring themselves and the
lever of the release mechanism.
These problems are obviated when diaphragm type springs are used, and a
number of other advantages are also experienced
Machine Design II
Clutch or Driven Plate

More complex arrangements are used on the driven or clutch plate to facilitate
smooth function of the clutch
The friction disc, more generally known as the clutch plate, is shown partly cut
away in Fig. It consists of a hub and a plate, with facings attached to the plate.
Figure 3.2.7
First to ensure that the drive is taken up progressively, the centre plate, on which
the friction facings are mounted, consists of a series of cushion springs which is
crimped radially so that as the clamping force is applied to the facings the
crimping is progressively squeezed flat, enabling gradual transfer of the force
On the release of the clamping force, the plate springs back to its original
position crimped (wavy) state
Machine Design II
This plate is also slotted so that the heat generated does not cause distortion that
would be liable to occur if it were a plain plate. This plate is of course thin to keep
rotational inertia to a minimum.
Plate to hub Connection

Secondly the plate and its hub are entirely separate components, the drive being
transmitted from one to the other through coil springs interposed between them.
These springs are carried within rectangular holes or slots in the hub and plate
and arranged with their axes aligned appropriately for transmitting the drive.
These dampening springs are heavy coil springs set in a circle around the hub.
The hub is driven through these springs. They help to smooth out the torsional
vibration (the power pulses from the engine) so that the power flow to the
transmission is smooth.
In a simple design all the springs may be identical, but in more sophisticated
designs the are arranged in pairs located diametrically opposite, each pair having
a different rate and different end clearances so that their role is progressive
providing increasing spring rate to cater to wider torsional damping
The clutch plate is assembled on a splined shaft that carries the rotary motion to
the transmission. This shaft is called the clutch shaft, or transmission input shaft.
This shaft is connected to the gear box or forms a part of the gear box.
Friction Facings or Pads

It is the friction pads or facings which actually transmit the power from the fly
wheel to hub in the clutch plate and from there to the out put shaft. There are
Machine Design II
grooves in both sides of the friction-disc facings. These grooves prevent the
facings from sticking to the flywheel face and pressure plate when the clutch is
disengaged. The grooves break any vacuum that might form and cause the
facings to stick to the flywheel or pressure plate. The facings on many friction
discs are made of cotton and asbestos fibers woven or molded together and
impregnated with resins or other binding agents.
In many friction discs, copper
wires are woven or pressed into the facings to give them added strength.
However, asbestos is being replaced with other materials in many clutches.
Some friction discs have ceramic-metallic facings.
Such discs are widely used in multiple plate clutches
The minimize the wear problems, all the plates will be enclosed in a covered
chamber and immersed in an oil medium
Such clutches are called wet clutches
Multiple Plate Clutches
Figure 3.2.8
The properties of the frictional lining are important factors in the design of the
clutches
Machine Design II
Typical characteristics of some widely used friction linings are given in the table
Table
Properties of common clutch/ Brake lining materials

Maximum
Maximum Pressure
Temprerature
KPa
oC
Friction Material
Against Steel or Cl
Dynamic Coefficient
of Friction
in oil
dry
Molded
0.25-0.45
0.06-0.09
1030-2070
204-260
Woven
0.25-0.45
0.08-0.10
345-690
204-260
Sintered metal
0.15-0.45
0.05-0.08
1030-2070
232-677
Cast iron of hard steel
0.15-0.25
0.03-0.06
690-720
260
Table 3.2.1
Machine Design II
Energy considerations
Kinetic energy is absorbed during slippage of a clutch and this energy appears
as heat.
The clutch or brake operation is completed at the instance in which the two
angular velocities 1 and 2 become equal. Let the time required for the entire
operation be t1, then,
(
(
I I 2
t1 = 1 2 1
T I1 + I2
This is derived by writing the equations of motion involving inertia

i.e
I1 1 = T
I 2 2 = T
T
1 = t + 1
I1
T
2 = t + 2
I2
T
= 1 2 = t + 1 t + 2
I1
I2
I +I
= 1 2 T 1 2 t
I1I 2
from which
t=
I1I2 ( 1 2 )
T ( I1 + I 2 )
as at the instance of completion of clutching
operation 1-2 = 0
Assuming the torque to be constant, the rate of energy dissipation during the
operation is then,
I +I
U = T = T 1 2 T 1 2 .t
I1I 2
Machine Design II
The total energy dissipated during the clutching operation or braking cycle is
obtained by integrating the above equation from t=0 to t = t1 . The result can be
summed up as,
E=
I1I 2 ( 1 2 )2
2 ( I1 + I 2 )
I +I
U = T = T 1 2 T 1 2 .t
I1I 2
t1
t1
I +I
E = udt = T 1 2 T 1 2 t dt
I1I 2
0
0
2
I1I2 1 2
E=
2 I1 + I2
(
(
Thus the energy absorbed during clutch slip is a function of the magnitude of the
inertia and the angular velocities only. This energy compared to the brake
energy may be negligible. Heat dissipation and temperature rise are governed
by the same equations presented during brakes. To contain the temperature rise
when very frequent clutching operations, wet clutches rather than dry clutches
are often use
WORKED OUT EXAMPLE 1

Design an automotive plate clutch to transmit a torque of 550 N-m.
The
coefficient of friction is 0.25 and the permissible intensity of pressure is 0.5

N/mm2. Due to space limitations, the outer diameter of the friction disc is fixed as
250 mm.
Using the uniform wear theory, calculate:
The inner diameter of the friction disc
the spring force required to keep the
clutch in engaged position
Machine Design II
Solution: As noted the friction disc of the automotive clutch is fixed between the
flywheel on one side and the pressure plate on the other. The friction lining is
provided on both sides of the friction disc.
Therefore two pairs of contacting surfaces-one between the fly wheel and the
friction disc and the other between the friction disc and the pressure plate.
Therefore, the torque transmitted by one pair of contacting surfaces is (550/2) or
275 N-m
( M t )f = pa ri ( ro2 ri2 )
( 275 103 ) = ( 0.25)( 0.5) ri (1252 ri2 )
From the Eqr 8ri 1252 ri 2 = 5602254

Rearranging the terms, we have
The above equation is solved by the trial and error method. It is a cubic equation,
with following three roots:
(i) ri = 87.08 mm
(ii) ri = 56.145 mm
(iii) ri =-143.23 mm
Mathematically, all the three answer are correct. The inner radius cannot be
negative. As a design engineer, one should select the inner radius as 87.08 mm,
which results in a minimum area of friction lining compared with 56.145. For
minimum cost of friction lining.
ri=87 mm
Actuating force needed can be determined using the equation
Fa = 2pa ri ro ri = 2(0.5)(87) (125 87 ) = 10390.28N
Machine Design II

A multiple-disc wet clutch is to be designed for transmitting a torque of 85 N.m.
Space restriction limit the outside disk diameter to 100 mm. Design values for the
molded friction material and steel disks to be used are f=0.06(wet) and pmax
=1400 kPa. Determine appropriate values for the disc inside diameter, the total
number of discs, and the clamping force.
Solution
Known: A multiple disc with outside disc diameter, d0 100 mm,
dynamic friction coefficient, f=0.06(wet)
and maximum disc allowable pressure, pmax =1400 kPa,
To transmits a torque, T= 85 N.m
Find: Determine the disc inside diameter di, the total number of disks N, and the
clamping force Fa.
Decisions and Assumptions
Use the largest allowable outside disc diameter, do=100 mm (ro =50 mm).
Select ri =29 mm (based on the optimum d/D ratio of 0.577)
The coefficient of friction f is a constant.
The wear rate is uniform at the interface.
The torque load is shared equally among the disc.
Design Analysis:
Using design equation for torque under constant wear gives
N = T / pmax ri f ro2 ri2 = 6.69
Since N must be an even integer, use N= 8. It is evident that this requires a total
of 4+5, or nine discs, remembering that the outer disks have friction surfaces on
one side only. 3. With no other changes, this will give a clutch that is over
designed by a factor of 8/6.69= 1.19. Possible alternatives include (a) accepting
Machine Design II
the 19 percent over design, (b) increasing ri, (c) decreasing ro, and (d) leaving
both radii unchanged and reducing both pmax and F by a factor of 1.19
4. With the choice of alternative d, the clamping force is computed to be just
sufficient to produce the desired torque:
r +r
T = Ff o i
2
F = 4483 N
0.050 + 0.029
m 8,
N = 85 N.m = F(0.06)
2
Rounding up the calculated value of F, we

Find that the final proposed answers are (a) inside diameter= 58 mm, (b)
clamping force= 4500 N and (C) a total of nine discs.
Machine Design II
Flywheel
flywheel
energy
when
it
is
and
the
during
an
inertial
serves
supply
the
as
of
energy-storage
energy
period
when
device.
reservoir,
storing
is
than
more
the
absorbs
energy
the
requirement
It
of
during
requirement
energy
is
mechanical
the
and
more
period
releases
than
the
supply.
Flywheels-Function need and Operation

The main function of a fly wheel is to smoothen out variations in the
speed
of
shaft
caused
by
torque
fluctuations.
If
the
source
of
the
driving torque or load torque is fluctuating in nature, then a flywheel is

usually
called
torque
time
engines
for.
Many
function
with
compressors,
one
punch
to
or
machines
vary
two
presses,
have
over
the
cylinders
rock
load
patterns
cycle.
are
crushers
etc.
that
cause
Internal
typical
are
combustion
example.
the
the
Piston
other
systems
its
angular
that have fly wheel.

Flywheel
absorbs
mechanical
energy
by
increasing
velocity and delivers the stored energy by decreasing its velocity

1 CYCLE
T2
Tm
T1
C D
max
min
Figure 3.3.1
Machine Design II
Design Approach
There are two stages to the design of a flywheel.
First,
the
smoothening
amount
must
of
be
energy
found
required
and
the
for
(mass)
the
desired
moment
of
degree
of
inertia
needed
caters
the
required
and
safe
to absorb that energy determined.

Then
flywheel
moment
of
geometry
inertia
in
must
be
reasonably
defined
sized
that
package
is
against
failure at the designed speeds of operation.
Design Parameters
Flywheel
inertia
(size)
needed
directly
depends
upon
the
acceptable
changes in the speed.
Speed fluctuation
The
change
in
the
shaft
speed
during
cycle
is
called
the
dividing
it
speed
fluctuation and is equal to max- min
Fl = max min
We
can
normalize
this
to
dimensionless
ratio
by
by
average or nominal shaft speed (ave) .

Cf =
max min
Where avg is nominal angular velocity
Co-efficient of speed fluctuation
The above ratio is termed as coefficient of speed fluctuation Cf and it is defined as

Cf =
max min
the
Machine Design II
Where
shaft
is
speed
nominal
angular
desired.
This
velocity,
and
coefficient
is
ave
a
the
design
average
parameter
or
mean
to
be
chosen by the designer.

The smaller this chosen value, the larger the flywheel have to be and
more
the
cost
and
weight
to
be
added
to
the
system.
However
the
smaller this value more smoother the operation of the device

It
is
typically
machinery
set
and
as
to
value
high
as
between
0.20
0.01
for
to
0.05
applications
for
precision
like
crusher
entire
rotating
hammering machinery.
Design Equation
The kinetic energy Ek in a rotating system
=
( )
1
I 2
2
Hence the change in kinetic energy of a system can be given as,

EK =
Im 2max 2min
2
E K = E 2 E1
avg =
( max + min )
2
1
I 2avg
2 s
E 2 E1 = Cf I2
Ek
Is =
2
Cf avg
EK =
Thus
system
the
in
mass
moment
order
to
obtain
determined using the relation
of
inertia
selected
)( Cf avg )
Im
needed
coefficient
in
of
the
speed
fluctuation
is
Machine Design II
EK =
Is =
The
Im
above
equation
corresponding
can
to
the
1
I 2avg
2 s
Ek
)( Cf avg )
2
Cf avg
be
used
known
to
obtain
appropriate
energy
change
energy
Ek
Ek
for
flywheel
a
specific
inertia
value
coefficient of speed fluctuation Cf,
Torque Variation and Energy

The
required
change
in
kinetic
is
obtained
from
the
known
torque time relation or curve by integrating it for one cycle.
@ max
Tl Tavg d = E K
@ min
Computing the kinetic energy Ek needed is illustrated in the following example
Torque Time Relation without Flywheel

A
typical
torque
time
relation
for
example
of
mechanical
punching
press without a fly wheel in shown in the figure.

In
the
initially
during
absence
and
can
fly
intermedialty
punching
fluctuation
of
and
be
wheel
and
stripping
noted.
surplus
or
positive
enery
absorbtion
operations.
large
out
the
To
smoothen
enregy
or
is
avalible
negative
energy
magitidue
speed
of
speed
fluctuation
fly
wheel is to be added and the fly wheel energy needed is computed as

illustrated below
Machine Design II
Torque
Area
+20 073
34 200
Area
+15 388
D
rms
Average
7 020
0
Shaft angle
time t
max
min
Area
-26 105
-34 200
Area
-9 202
360
Figure 3.3.2
Accumulation of Energy pulses under a Torque- Time curve
From
Area= E
Accumulated sum =E
Min & max
A to B
+20 073
+20 073
B to C
-26 105
-6 032
C to D
+15 388
D to A
-9 202
min
@B
max
@C
+9 356
+154
Total Energy= E @min- E@min
=(-6 032)-(+20 073)= 26 105 Nmm2
Figure 3.3.3
Machine Design II
Torque Time Relation with Flywheel
Torque
Cf =0.05
8730
Average
7020
Time t
Shaft angle
360
Figure 3.3.4
Geometry of Flywheel
The geometry of a flywheel may be as simple as a cylindrical disc of
solid
material,
wheels
with
wheels
are
to
may
hub
solid
requirements
changes
or
discs
and
disc
and
be
of
rim
connected
of
size
of
central
hollow
of
circular
the
hub
and to hollow wheels with multiple arms.
spoked
and
construction
by
spokes
cross
flywheel
peripheral
or
section.
increases
rim
like
conventional
arms
As
Small
the
the
connected
fly
energy
geometry
by
webs
Machine Design II
D
D0
do
Figure 3.3.5
D0
Arm Type Flywheel

Figure 3.3.6
The
latter
arrangement
is
more
efficient
of
material
especially
for
large flywheels, as it concentrates the bulk of its mass in the rim which
is
at
the
largest
radius.
Mass
at
largest
radius
since the mass moment of inertia is proportional to mr2
contributes
much
more
Machine Design II
For a solid disc geometry with inside radius ri and out side radius ro,
the mass moment of inertia I is
Im = mk 2 =
m 2 2
(r + r )
2 o i
The mass of a hollow circular disc of constant thickness t is
m=
= ro2 ri2 t
g
g
Combing the two equations we can write
Im =
4 4
r r t
2g o i
Where is materials weight density

The
equation
is
better
solved
by
geometric
proportions
i.e
by
upon
its
similar
to
assuming inside to out side radius ratio and radius to thickness ratio.
Stresses in Flywheel
Flywheel
being
rotating
distributed
mass
and
attempts
disc,
to
centrifugal
pull
it
apart.
stresses
Its
acts
effect
is
those caused by an internally pressurized cylinder
t =
2 3 + v 2 2 1 + 3v 2

r
ri + ro
g 8
3+ v
r =
2 3 + v 2 2 ri2 ro2
2

+
r
r
r
o
i
g 8
r2
= material weight density, = angular velocity in rad/sec. = Poissons ratio, is the

radius to a point of interest, ri and ro are inside and outside radii of the solid disc
flywheel.
Analogous
to
thick
cylinder
under
internal
pressure
the
tangential
and radial stress in a solid disc flywheel as a function of its radius r is

given by:
Machine Design II
Radius
t
Tang. stress
Radial stress
r
Radius
The
point
of
most
maximum.
What
stress
at
that
fragments
can
Since
forces
speed
the
also,
interest
causes
point
failure
from
explode
the
inside
in
where
the
of
flywheel
for
where
is
are
the
typically
originated
extremely
stresses
checking
radius
fracture
resulting
causing
instead
is
and
stress
the
is
tangential
upon
fracture
dangerous
consequences,
function
the
stresses,
the
of
maximum
rotational
speed
at
which the stresses reach the critical value can be determined and safe
operating
factor.
speed
Generally
can
some
be
calculated
means
to
or
specified
preclude
its
speed is desirable, for example like a governor.

Consequently
F.O.S (N) = Nos =

yield
based
operation
on
beyond
safety
this
Machine Design II

A 2.2 kw, 960 rpm motor powers the cam driven ram of a press through a gearing of 6:1
ratio. The rated capacity of the press is 20 kN and has a stroke of 200 mm. Assuming
that the cam driven ram is capable of delivering the rated load at a constant velocity
during the last 15% of a constant velocity stroke. Design a suitable flywheel that can
maintain a coefficient of Speed fluctuation of 0.02. Assume that the maximum diameter
of the flywheel is not to exceed 0.6m.
Work done by the press=
U = 20 *103 * 0.2 * 0.15

= 600Nm
Energy absorbed= work done= 600 Nm

Mean torque on the shaft:
2.2 *103
= 21.88Nm
960
2**
60
Energy supplied= work don per cycle
= 2 * 21.88 * 6
= 825 Nm
Thus the mechanical efficiency of the system is =
600
=
= 0.727 = 72%
825
There fore the fluctuation in energy is =
E k = Energy absorbed - Energy supplied
Machine Design II
600 825 * 0.075 ( 21.88 * 6 * * 0.15 )

538.125Nm
Ek
I=
Cf avg
538.125
960
0.02 2 *
60
= 2.6622 kg m2
r 2 2
. r ri .t
2 g o
r
Assuming i = 0.8
ro
78500
2.6622 = *
0.304 0.244 t
2 9.86
= 59.805t
I=
t=
2 .6622
= 0.0445
59.805
or
45 mm
t =
r 2 3 + 2 2 1 + 3 2
r

r + ro
g
3+
8 i
78500 2 3 + 0.3
2
2 1.9 * 0.242
.
0.24 + 0.3
9.81
3.3
8
960 2
t = 0.543* 2 *
60
= 55667N / m 2
t =
= 0.556MPa
or if t = 150 MPa
150 *106 = 7961.42 ( 0.4125 )( 0.0376 )( 0.090 )( 0.0331)
= 0.5482
= 16544 rad / sec2
N OS =
yield
= 164.65
16544
32
Machine Design II
MODULE 4
MECHANICAL SPRINGS
INTRODUCTION
A spring is a resilient member capable of providing large elastic deformation. A spring is
basically defined as an elastic body whose function is to distort when loaded and to
recover its original shape when the load is removed. Mechanical springs are used in
machines and other applications mainly
to exert force,
to provide flexibility
to store or absorb energy.
In general, springs may be classified as

either wire springs, flat springs, or
special-shaped springs, and there are
variations within these divisions. Wire
Figure 4.1
springs include helical springs of round

or square wire that are cylindrical or
conical in shape and are made to resist
tensile, compressive, or torsional loads.
Torsion springs. Twist round or rectangular wire
Figure 4.3
Figure 4.2
Machine Design II
Under flat springs are included the

cantilever
and
elliptical
type
(leaf)
springs, the wound motor-or clock type

power springs and the flat spring
washers,
usually
called
Belleville
springs.
Figure 4.4
EYE
2L
MASTER LEAF
TWO EXTRA
FULL LENGTH LEAVES
GRADUATE LEAVES
U- BOLT
CENTER CLIP
2P
Semi-elliptic leaf spring
Figure 4.6
Figure 4.5
Belleville
Figure 4.7
Machine Design II
COIL SPRINGS
Among the various springs helical or coil
compression springs are the widely
used ones and hence discussions will
be
confined
to
the
helical
(coil)
basic
compression
springs
The
nomenclature
of
springs
this
are
illustrated below.
Figure 4.8
Nomenclature
A Material constant
y Deflection
C Spring index=D/d
Density
d Wire diameter
Shear stress in spring
D Mean coil diameter

f Natural frequency of the spring
F Force/Load
number of coils=N t
G Shear Modulus (of Rigidity)

d
J Polar Moment of Inertia

k Spring rate or spring stiffness
K Stress correction factor
Di
p
D
D0
L Length
N Number of coils
T Torsional Moment
U Strain energy
Helix angle
Figure 4.9
Lf
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Design of Coil Springs

The design of a new spring involves the following considerations:-Space into which the
spring must fit and operate. -Values of working forces and deflections. -Accuracy and
reliability needed
Design Consideration
The primary consideration in the design of the coil springs are that the induced stresses
are below the permissible limits while subjected to or exerting the external force F
capable of providing the needed deflection or maintaining the spring rate desired.
Stresses In Helical Springs

The flexing of a helical spring creates
torsion in the wire and the force applied
D
2
induces a direct stress. The maximum

stress in the wire may be computed by
T
super position. The result is:
t max = +
Tr F
+
J A
d
F
Replacing the terms,
T=
FD
d
d 4
d 4
,r = ,J =
and A=
2
2
32
4
Figure 4.10
Machine Design II
And re-arranging,
= Ks
8FD
8FC
or = Ks
d3
d 2
(a) direct shear

stress distribution
across section
Where Ks is the shear-stress correction

factor and is defined by the equation:
Ks =
2C + 1
2C
(b) Torsional shear

stress distribution
(c) combined direct

shear and torsional stress
Figure 4.11
Machine Design II
Curvature Effect
The curvature of the wire increases the
stress on the inside of the spring, an
effect
very
similar
to
stress
concentration but due to shifting of the

neutral axis away from the geometric
(c) combined direct

shear and torsional stress
center, as could be observed in curved

beams. Consequently the stress on the
inside surface of the wire of the spring,
increases but decreases it only slightly
on the outside. The curvature stress is
highly localized that it is very important
(d) effects of stress

concentration
only fatigue if is present.

Figure 4.12
This effect can be neglected for static loading, because local yielding with the first
application of the load will relieve it. The combined effect of direct shear and curvature
correction is accounted by Wahls correction factor and is given as:
Whals correction factor
The combined effect of direct shear and curvature correction is accounted by Wahls
correction factor and is given as:
Kw =
4C 1 0.615
+
4C 4
C
Machine Design II
Pre-Setting Or Set Removal

Pre-setting or set removal is a process used in the manufacture of compression
springs to induce useful residual stresses. It is done by making the spring longer
than needed and compressing it to its solid height. This operation sets the spring
to the required final length and, since the torsional yield strength has been
exceeded, induces residual stresses opposite in direction to those induced in
service. Thus, this set removal increases the strength of the springs and so is
especially useful when the spring is used for energy storage purposes. However,
this should not be used when springs are subjected to fatigue.
Deflection and Stiffness of the spring

A systems strain energy is related to its force deflection behaviour and using the
Castiglianos theorem the deflection of a spring can be estimated using the strain
energy stored in it. The total strain energy for a helical spring is composed of
torsional component and a shear component. The shear component is quite
negligible, and the final equation is,
u=
T 2 l F2 l
+
2G J 2A G
The spring rate and hence,

d 2
D
d4
T = F ; 1 = .D.N; J = .
and A =
2
32
4
U=
4 F 2 D 3 N F 2D N
+
4
G. d
Gd2
Machine Design II
Where N is the number of active coils. The deflection in the spring, using
Castiglianos theorem
y=
U 8FD 3 N 4FDN
=
+
4
F
Gd
Gd 2
Substituting C=D/d and rearranging
y=
8 F D 3N
1
1 +
Gd 4 2C 2
For normal range of C, the term within bracket (contribution of direct shear) is so
negligible we can write
y=
8FD3 N
Gd 4
or
8FC3 N
Gd
F
G.d
Gd 4
k= =
=
y 8C3 N 8D3 N
The spring stiffness or springs rate,
k=
F
G.d
Gd 4
=
=
y 8C3 N 8D3 N
Using the equation the number of active coils needed to maintain the desired
deflection or spring stiffness will be determined. In order to maintain proper
contact and align the force along the spring axis the ends are to be properly
shaped.
Machine Design II
End Construction
Coil compression springs generally use four different types of ends. These are
illustrated in Fig. 4.13. and Table shows how the type of end used affects the
number of coils and the spring length. Foe important applications the ends of
springs should always be of both squared and ground, because a better or even
transfer of the load is obtained.
Na= Nt -2
Na = Nt
(a) plain ends
Na = Nt -1
(b) plain-ground ends
(c) squared ends
Na= Nt -2
(d) squared-ground ends Fi
Figure 4.13
Machine Design II
preload
no load
maximum
working
load
initial
indefinite
load
La
Lm
min working length
assembled length
free length
Ls
Figure 4.14
load, F
yield limit
Fs
hi
F
k
lo
definition,
working
range
solid
length
Ls
clash
allowance
free length L0
Figure 4.15
Animate
shut height
Machine Design II
Design of Helical Springs

The design of a new spring involves the following considerations:
Space into which the spring must fit and operate.
Values of working forces and deflections.
Accuracy and reliability needed.
Tolerances and permissible variations in specifications.
Environmental conditions such as temperature, presence of a corrosive atmosphere.
Cost and qualities needed.
The designers use these factors to select a material and specify suitable values for the
wire size, the number of turns, the coil diameter and the free length, type of ends and
the spring rate needed to satisfy working force deflection requirements. The primary
design constraints are that the wire size should be commercially available and that the
stress at the solid length be no longer greater than the torsional yield strength. Further
functioning of the spring should be stable.
Stability of the spring (Buckling)

Buckling of column is a familiar phenomenon. Buckling of column is a familiar
phenomenon. We have noted earlier that a slender member or column subjected to
compressive loading will buckle when the load exceeds a critical value. Similarly
compression coil springs will buckle when the free length of the spring is larger and the
end conditions are not proper to evenly distribute the load all along the circumference of
the coil.
The coil compression springs will have a tendency to buckle when the
deflection (for a given free length) becomes too large.

Buckling can be prevented by limiting the deflection of the spring or the free length of
the spring.
Machine Design II
The behavior can be characterized by
free to tip
using two dimensionless parameters,

critical length and critical deflection.
Critical deflection can be defined as the
ratio of deflection (y) to the free length
(Lf) of the spring . The critical length is
the ratio of free length (Lf) to mean coil
fixed end
(a) Non parallel ends
diameter (D)
constrained parallel
The critical deflection is a function of

critical length and has to be below a
certain limit. As could be noticed from
the figure absolute stability can be
ensured if the critical length can be
limited below a limit.
fixed end
(b) parallel ends
Figure 4.16
Machine Design II
0.70
0.60
stable
unstable
0.50
stable
0.40
unstable
parallel ends
0.30
0.20
nonparallel ends
(b)
0.10
(a)
2
10
ratio of free length/mean diameter Lf/D

Figure 4.17
Similarly compression coil springs will buckle when the deflection (for a given
free length) becomes too large. The condition for absolute stability can be given
as:
1
D 2(E G) 2
Lo <
2G + E
For steels this can be simplified as:
Lo < 2.63
Where is a constant related to the nature of support of the ends simply referred
as end constant
Machine Design II
Spring Surge and Critical Frequency

If one end of a compression spring is held against a flat surface and the other
end is disturbed, a compression wave is created that travels back and forth from
one end to the other exactly like the swimming pool wave. Under certain
conditions, a resonance may occur resulting in a very violent motion, with the
spring actually jumping out of contact with the end plates, often resulting in
damaging stresses. This is quite true if the internal damping of the spring
material is quite low. This phenomenon is called spring surge or merely surging.
When helical springs are used in applications requiring a rapid reciprocating
motion, the designer must be certain that the physical dimensions of the spring
are not such as to create a natural vibratory frequency close to the frequency of
the applied force. The final equation for the natural frequency, derived from the
governing equation of the wave motion, for a spring placed between two flat
parallel plates is given by:
f=
d
D2 Na
G.g
32.
For steels this can be simplified as:
f = 38.5 104
d
Na D2
The fundamental critical frequency should be from 15 to 20 times the frequency

of the force or motion of the spring in order to avoid resonance with harmonics. If
Machine Design II
the natural frequency is not high enough, the spring should be redesigned to
increase k or decrease the weight W.
Fatigue Loading
The springs have to sustain millions of cycles of operation without failure, so it
must be designed for infinite life. Helical springs are never used as both
compression and extension springs. They are usually assembled with a preload
so that the working load is additional. Thus, their stress-time diagram is of
fluctuating nature.
Now, for design we define,
Fmin
F
Fa = max
2
F
+ Fmin
Fa = max
2
Certain applications like the valve spring of an automotive engine, the springs
have to sustain millions of cycles of operation without failure, so it must be
designed for infinite life. Unlike other elements like shafts, helical springs are
never used as both compression and extension springs. In fact they are usually
assembled with a preload so that the working load is additional. Thus, their
stress-time diagram is of fluctuating nature. Now, for design we define,
Then the stress amplitude and mean stress values are given by: if we employ the
Goodman criterion, then
The best data on torsional endurance limits of spring steels are those reported by
Zimmerli. He discovered the surprising fact that the size, material and tensile
strength have no effect on the endurance limits (infinite life only) of spring steels
in sizes under 10mm(3/8 inches). For all the spring steels in table the corrected
Machine Design II
values of torsional endurance limit can be taken as: = 310 Mpa (45.0 kpsi) for
unpeened
springs= 465 Mpa (67.5 kpsi) for peened springs.
The stress amplitude and mean stress values are given by:
a = K c
8Fa D
d3
and
m = K s
8Fm D
d3
If we employ the Goodman criterion, then

a
1
+ m =
Sse Ssu n
or
n=
Sse .Ssu
a .Ssu + m .Ssu
The design or resulting factor of safety will depend on the spring material
selected and their endurance strength. In the absence of data on the endurance
limit, the best data on torsional endurance limits of spring steels are those
reported by Zimmerli. He discovered the surprising fact that the size, material
and tensile strength have no effect on the endurance limits (infinite life only) of
spring steels in sizes under 10mm(3/8 inches). For all the spring steels the
corrected values of torsional endurance limit can be taken as:
= 310 MPa for unpeened springs
= 465 MPa for peened springs.
Machine Design II
Helical Extension Springs

Extension
springs
must
necessarily
have some means of transferring the

load from the support to the body of the
spring, so one of the methods shown in
figure 4.19 is usually employed. In
designing the spring with a hook end,
the stress concentration effect must be
considered as failure, predominantly
occurs here. Tests as well as analysis
show
that
the
stress-concentration
factor is given approximately by which

holds good for bending stress and
occurs when the hook is off set, and for
Figure 4.18
torsional stress.
In designing the spring with a hook end, the stress concentration effect must be
considered as failure, predominantly occurs here. Further as the spring elongates when
loaded, no built in safety is available, as in coil compression springs and very often
spring
fails
or
loses
its
resilience
when
the
extension
exceeds
limit.
Machine Design II
To mitigate this problem, the springs are initially wound with certain pre-stressing
and consequently will have closed coils. The initial pre stress and the stress due
to external loading should not exceed the permissible strength. The stress
concentration effect further limits the useful load range for a given size. The
stresses in the coils are found from the same formulas used for compression
springs. However the standard hooks or loops have two locations of high
stresses as shown in the figure below.
F
ri
d
rm
rm
ri
ri
rm
d
rm
ri
Figure 4.19
Machine Design II
The maximum torsional stress occurs at point B where the bend radius is
smallest.
There is also bending stress in the hook or loop at point A
A = K b
16DF 4F
+
3
d
d 2
Kb =
4C12 C1 1
4C1 ( C1 1)
C1 =
2rm
d
The torsional stress point B is
B = K w
K w2 =
C2 =
8DF
d3
4C2 1
4C2 4
2ri
d
Tests as well as analysis show that the stress-concentration factor is given

approximately by
r
K= m
ri
The springs are designed such that the maximum stresses at these points are
well below the permissible limits.
All coils in the body are considered to be active coils, but one is typically added
to obtain the body length.
Machine Design II
The free length is measured from the inside of one loop to the other end, and can
be varied by changing the end configuration without changing the number of
coils. While deciding the number of coils needed, the spring rate for a known
magnitude of deflection is to be determined and number of active coils needed is
calculated.
This is because the preload in the coils must be overcome to separate them as
they are closely wound by pre stressing
i.e
k=
F Fi
d4G
=
y
8D3 N a
Spring Materials
A great variety of spring materials are available to the designer, including plain
carbon steels, alloy steels, and corrosion resisting steels, as well as non-ferrous
materials such as phosphor bronze, spring brass, beryllium copper, and various
nickel alloys.
Commonly used spring steel materials are listed in Table 4.1. For designing hotworked, heavy coil springs as well as flat springs, leaf springs, and torsion bar
springs. The UNS steels listed in Appendix should be used.
The materials and its processing, also, of course have an effect on tensile
strength. It turns out that the graph of tensile strength versus wire diameter is
almost a straight line for some materials when plotted on the log-log paper.
Hence their tensile strength can be determined, writing the equation of this line
as,
Machine Design II
A
Sut =
dm
Constants for computing their minimum tensile strengths are given in Table 105Springs are manufactured by hot or cold-working process, depending upon the
size of the material, the spring index, and the properties desired.
NAME OF
MATERIAL
SIMILAR
SPECIFICATION
DESCRIPTION
Music wire,
UNS G10850
AISI 1085
ASTM A228-51
This is the best, toughest, and most widely

used of all spring materials for small springs.
It has the highest tensile strength and can
withstand higher stresses under repeated
loading than any other spring material. Available
in diameters 0.12 to 3mm( 0.005 to 0.125 in).
Do not use above 120 C (250 F) or at subzero
temperature
Oil-tempered wire,
0.60-0.70C
UNS G10650
AISI 1065
ASTM 229-41
This general-purpose spring steel is used for many

types of coil springs where the cost of music wire is
prohibitive and in sizes larger thena available in
music wire. Not for shock or impact loading. Available
in diameters 3 to 12 mm (0.125 to 0.5000 in),but larger
and smaller sizes may be obtained. Not for use above
180 C (350 F) or at sub-zero temperatures
Hard-drawn wire,
0.60-0.70
UNS G10660
AISI 1066
ASTM 227-47
This is the cheapest general purpose spring steel

and should be used only where life, accuracy, and
deflection are not too important. Available in diametes
0.8 to 12 mm (0.031 to 0.500 in). Not for use above
120 C (250 F) or at subzero temperatures
Chrome Vanadium
UNS G61500
AISI 6150
ASTM 231-41
Chrome silicon
UNS G92540
AISI 9254
This is the most popular allowy spring steel for conditions

involving higher stresses than cn be used with the
high- carbon steels and for use wherefatigue resistanceand
long endureance are needed. Aslo good for shock
and impact loads. Widely used iforaircraft engine valve
springs and for temperaturesto 220 C (425 F) Available
in annealed or pretemperedsizes 0.r to 12mm(0.031 to
0.500 in ) in diameter
This alloy is an excellent material for highly stressed
springs that requrire long lfe and are subjected
to shock loading. Rockwell hardnesses of C50
to C53 are quite common, and the material may
be used up to 250 C(475 F). Available form 0.8 to 12 mim
(0.031 to 0.500 in) in diameter
Table 4.1
Machine Design II
Material
EXPONENT
m
ASTM
NO.
INTERCEPT
A, kpsi A,MPa
Music wire
A228
0.163
186
2060
Oil tempered wire
A229
0.193
146
1610
Hard-drawn wire
A227
0.201
137
1510
Chrome vanadium
A232
0.155
173
1790
Chrome silicon
A401
0.091
218
1960
Table 4.2
Hard and Soft Springs

Soft springs are pre-hardened wires and are cold wound, have better finish and
strength. In general, pre-hardened wires should not be used if C (D/d) <4 or id
d>1/4 inches. Such hard springs are hot wound, then hardened are tempered
and normalized. Winding of the spring induces residual stresses through
bending, but these are normal to the direction of the torsional working stresses in
a coil spring. Quite frequently in spring manufacture they are relieved, after
winding, by a mild thermal treatment.
Helical Torsion Springs

The torsion springs illustrated in Fig.4.19 is used in door hinges and automobile
starters and in fact, for any application where torque is required. There is wound
in the same manner as extension or compression springs but have the ends
shaped to transmit torque.
Machine Design II
Belleville Springs
The inset of Fig-4.7 shows a coned-disc spring, commonly called a Belleville
spring. Although the mathematical treatment is beyond the scope, one should at
least be familiar with the remarkable characteristics of these springs.
Miscellaneous springs
Flat stocks are used for a great variety of springs, such as clock springs, power
springs, torsion springs, cantilever springs and hair springs; frequently is
specially shaped to create certain spring actions for fuse chips, relay springs,
spring washers, snap rings and retainers. They may be analyzed and designed
by using the above and the other fundamental concepts discussed earlier.
Machine Design II
MULTI-LEAF SPRINGS
Multi-leaf springs are widely used for automobile and rail road suspensions. It consists
of a series of flat plates, usually of semi- elliptical shape as shown in fig. 4.20. The
leaves are held together by means of two U-bolts and a centre clip. Rebound clips are
provided to keep the leaves in alignment and prevent lateral shifting of the plates during
the operation. The longest leaf, called the master leaf, is bent at both ends to form the
spring eye. At the center, the spring is fixed to the axle of the car. Multi- leaf springs are
provided with one or two extra full length leaves in addition to the master leaf. These
extra full-length leaves are stacked between the master leaf and the graduated-length
leaves. The extra full-length are provided to support the transverse shear force.
2F
L
2F
2F
Figure 4.20
For the purpose of analysis, the leaves are divided into two groups namely master leaf
along with graduated-length leaves forming one group and extra full-length leaves
forming the other. The following notations are used in the analysis:
nf = number of extra full-length leaves
ng =number of graduated-length leaves including master leaf
n= total number of leaves
b= width of each leaf (mm)
t= thickness of each leaf (mm)
L=length of the cantilever or half the length of semi- elliptic spring (mm)
F= force applied at the end of the spring (N)
Ff=portion of F taken by the extra full-length leaves (N)
Fg=portion of F taken by the graduated-length leaves (N)
Machine Design II
The group of graduated-length leaves
along with the master leaf can be
treated as a triangular plate, as shown

in fig. 4.21. In this case, it is assumed
Half of nth leaf

Half of 3rd leaf
Half of 2nd leaf
that the individual leaves are separated

and the master leaf placed at the centre.
Main leaf
Half of 2nd leaf
Half of 3rd leaf
The second leaf is cut longitudinally into

two halves, each of width (b/2) and
Half of nth leaf
Figure 4.21
placed on each side of the master leaf.
A similar procedure is repeated for other
leaves
h
The resultant shape is approximately

a triangular plate of thickness t and a
n leaves
maximum width at the support as (ngb).

The bending stress in the plate, which is
uniform throughout, is given by
b/h
Figure 4.22
( b )g =
( b )g =
Mb y
I
Fg L ) ( t / 2 )
(
=
1
3
12 ( n g b ) (t )
6Fg L
n g bt 2
Machine Design II
It can be proved that the deflection g at the load point of the triangular plate is given
by
Fg L3
g =
=
2EImax
g =
Fg L3
( )
2E
n g b (t 3 )
12
6Fg L3
En g bt 3
Similarly, the extra full length leaves can be treated as a rectangular plate of thickness
t and uniform width (nfb), as shown in Fig 4.22 The bending stress at the support is
given by
Mb y
( Ff L )( t / 2 )
=
I
1
3
12 ( n f b ) (t )
6F L
( b )f = f 2
n f bt
( b )f
The deflection at the load point is given by
Ff L3
f =
=
2EI
Ff L3
( )
2E
n f b (t 3 )
12
4Ff L3
g =
En f bt 3
g = f
6Fg L3
4Ff L3
=
En g bt 3 En f bt 3
or
Fg 2n g
=
Ff 3n f
Machine Design II
Also
Fg + Ff = F
(f)
From Eqs(e) and (f),
Ff =
Ff =
3n f F
(3nf + 2ng ))
2n g F
(3nf + 2ng ))
Substituting these valued in Eqs(a) and (c),
( b )g =
( b )f =
12FL
(3nf + 2ng ) bt2

18FL
(3nf + 2ng ) bt2
It is seen from the above equations that bending stresses in full-length leaves are 50%
more than those in graduated length leaves. The deflection at the end of the spring is
determined from Eqs(b) and (h). It is given by
12FL3
(3nf + 2ng ) Ebt3
Multi-leaf springs are designed using load stress and load deflection equations. The
standard dimensions for the width and thickness of the leaf section are as follows:
Nominal thickness (mm): 3.2, 4.5, 5, 6, 6.5, 7, 7.5 8,9, 10,11,12,14, and 16.
Nominal width (mm) 32, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 90, 100 and 125.
Figure 4.3.4
Machine Design II
The leaves are usually made of steels, 55Si2Mn9-, 50Cr1 or 50Cr1V23. The plates are
hardened and tempered. The factor of safety based on the yield strength is between 2
to 2.5 for the automobiles suspension.
Nipping Of Leaf Springs

As discussed in the previous section, the stresses in extra full length leaves are 50%
more than the stresses in graduated length leaves. One of the methods of equalizing
the stresses in different leaves is to pre-stress the spring. The pre-stressing is achieved
by bending the leaves to different radii of curvature, before they are assembled with the
centre clip. As shown in Figure the full-length leaf is given a greater radius of curvature
than the adjacent leaf.
r1
LINE REPRESENTS
FULL LENGTH LEAVES
r2
Fb
c
AFTER ASSEMBLY
Fb
LINE REPRESENTS
GRADUATED LEAVES
The radius of curvature decreases with shorter leaves. The initial gap C between the
extra full-length leaf and the graduated-length leaf before the assembly is called a nip.
Such pre-stressing, achieved by a difference in radii of curvature, is known as nipping.
Nipping is common in automobile suspension springs.
Machine Design II
Rewriting Eqs(a) and (c) of the previous section,
6Fg L
n g bt 2
6F L
b = f
f n bt 2
f
( b )g =
( )
Assuming that pre-stressing results in stress- equalization,
( b )g = ( b )f
From(a) and (c),
Also,
Fg n g
=
Ff n f
Pg + Pf = P
ii
Solving Eqs(i) and (ii),

ngF
Fg =
n
n F
Ff = f
n
n = ng + nf
Where
Rewriting Eqs (b) and (d) of the previous section,
6Fg L3
g =
En g bt 3
4Ff L3
f =
En f bt 3
iii
iv
Machine Design II
Under the maximum force P, the deflection of graduated-length leaves will exceed the
deflection of extra full length leaves by an amount equal to the initial nip C.
6Fg L3
4Ff L3
=
C=
En g bt 3 En f bt 3
Substituting (iii) and (iv) in the above equation,
2FL3
Enbt 3
C=
The initial pre-load Pi required to close the gap C between the extra full-length leaves an
graduated-length leaves is determined by considering the initial deflection of leaves.
Under the action of pre-load Pi
( )
( )
C = g + f
i
i
3 4 F / 2 L3
2FL3 6 Fi / 2 L
i
=
=
Enbt 3
En g bt 3
En f bt 3
2n g n f F
Fi =
n 3n f + 2n g
iv
Or,
The resultant stress in the extra full-length leaves is obtained by superimposing the
stresses due to initial pre-load Pi and the external force P. From Eq.(c).
( b )f =
6 Pf 0.5Pi L
n g bt 2
Machine Design II
Substituting Eq (g) of the previous section and Eq. in the above expression, we get
( b )f = 6FL2
nbt
Since the stresses are equal in all leaves, the above expression is written as
b =
6FL
nbt 2
The deflection of the multi-leaf spring due to the external force P is the same as the
given by above equation.
Machine Design II
Module 5 SLIDING CONTACT BEARINGS

Lecture 1- SLIDING CONTACT BEARINGS: INTRODUCTION
Contents
1.1 Sliding contact bearings - introduction
1.2 Sliding contact bearings - advantages and disadvantages
1.3 Classification of sliding contact bearings
1.4 Journal bearings
1.5 Hydrodynamic lubrication
1.6 Lubricants and their properties
1.7 Lubricants for journal bearing application
1.8 Journal bearing problem 1
1.1 SLIDING CONTACT BEARINGS - INTRODUCTION
Bearings are machine elements which are used to support a rotating member viz., a
shaft. They transmit the load from a rotating member to a stationary member known as
frame or housing.
They permit relative motion of two members in one or two directions with minimum
friction, and also prevent the motion in the direction of the applied load.
The bearings are classified broadly into two categories based on the type of contact
they have between the rotating and the stationary member
a. Sliding contact
b. Rolling contact
The sliding contact bearings having surface contact and are coming under lower
kinematic pair.
Machine Design II
1.2 SLIDING CONTACT BEARINGS - ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

These bearings have certain advantages over the rolling contact bearings. They are:
1. The design of the bearing and housing is simple.
2. They occupy less radial space and are more compact.
3. They cost less.
4. The design of shaft is simple.
5. They operate more silently.
6. They have good shock load capacity.
7. They are ideally suited for medium and high speed operation.
The disadvantages are:
1. The frictional power loss is more.
2. They required good attention to lubrication.
3. They are normally designed to carry radial load or axial load only.
1.3 SLIDING CONTACT BEARINGS - CLASSIFICATION

Sliding contact bearings are classified in three ways.
1. Based on type of load carried
2. Based on type of lubrication
3. Based on lubrication mechanism
1. 3.1 Bearing classification based on type of load carried

a. Radial bearings
b. Thrust bearings or axial bearings
c. Radial thrust bearings
Machine Design II
1.3.1(a) Radial bearings

These bearings carry only radial loads.
Fig.1.1 Radial Bearing
1.3.1(b) Thrust or axial bearings

These bearings carry only axial loads
Fig.1.2(a) Single collar thrust

bearing
Fig.1.2(b) Multiple collar thrust

bearing
Machine Design II
1.3.1(c) Radial thrust bearings

These bearings carry both radial and thrust loads.
Fig.1.2 (c) Radial thrust bearing
1.3. 2. Bearing classification based on type of lubrication

The type of lubrication means the extent to which the contacting surfaces are separated
in a shaft bearing combination. This classification includes
(a) Thick film lubrication
(b) Thin film lubrication
(c) Boundary lubrication
Fig1.4(a) Thick film

lubrication
Fig.1.4(b) Thin film

lubrication
Fig.1.4(c) Boundary
lubrication
Machine Design II
1.3. 2(a) Thick film lubrication As in Fig.1.4 (a) the surfaces are separated by thick
film of lubricant and there will not be any metal-to-metal contact. The film thickness is
anywhere from 8 to 20 m. Typical values of coefficient of friction are 0.002 to 0.010.
Hydrodynamic lubrication is coming under this category. Wear is the minimum in this
case.
1.3.2(b) Thin film lubrication Here even though the surfaces are separated by thin
film of lubricant, at some high spots Metal-to-metal contact does exist , Fig.1.4
(b).Because of this intermittent contacts, it also known as mixed film lubrication. Surface
wear is mild. The coefficient of friction commonly ranges from 0.004 to 0.10.
1.3.2(c).Boundary lubrication Here the surface contact is continuous and extensive
as Shown in Fig.1.4(c). The lubricant is continuously smeared over the surfaces and
provides a continuously renewed adsorbed surface film which reduces the friction and
wear. The typical coefficient of friction is 0.05 to 0.20.
Fig. 1.5 Stribeck curve for bearing friction
Machine Design II
1.3.3 Bearing classification based on lubrication mechanism

a. Hydrodynamic lubricated bearings
b. Hydrostatic lubricated bearings
c. Elastohydrodynamic lubricated bearings
d. Boundary lubricated bearings
e. Solid film lubricated bearings
The operating regimes of different lubrication mechanisms are depicted by Stribeck in
Fig.1.5 by plotting coefficient of friction verses the non-dimensional factor known as
bearing modulus.
1.3.3(a) Hydrodynamic lubricated bearings

In these bearings the load-carrying surfaces are separated by a stable thick film of
lubricant that prevents the metal-to-metal contact. The film pressure generated by the
moving surfaces that force the lubricant through a wedge shaped zone. At sufficiently
high speed the pressure developed around the journal sustains the load. This is
illustrated in Fig.1.6.
Fig.1.6 Hydrodynamic lubricated bearing
Machine Design II
1.3.3(b) Hydrostatic lubricated bearings

In these bearings, externally pressurized lubricant is fed into the bearings to separate
the surfaces with thick film of lubricant. These types of bearings do not require the
motion of the surfaces to generate the lubricant film. Hence they can operate from very
low speed to high speed. This is illustrated in Fig. 1.7
Fig.1.7 Hydrostatic lubricated bearing
1.3.3(c) Elastohydrodynamic lubricated bearings

Rolling contact bearings come under this category. The oil film thickness is very small.
The contact pressures are going to be very high. Hence to prevent the metal-to-metal
contact, surface finishes are to be of high quality. Such a type of lubrication can be seen
in gears, rolling contact bearings, cams etc.
Machine Design II
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig.1.8 (a) Gear, (b) Rolling contact bearing and (c) Cam
1.3.3(d) Boundary lubricated bearings

When the speed of the bearing is inadequate, less quantity of lubricant is delivered to
the bearing, an increase in the bearing load, or an increase in the lubricant temperature
resulting in drop in viscosity any one of these may prevent the formation of thick film
lubrication and establish continuous metal-to-metal contact extensively. Often bearings
operating in such situations are called boundary lubricated bearings.
1.3.3(e) Solid film lubricated bearings

For extreme temperature operations ordinary mineral oils are not satisfactory. Solid film
lubricants such as graphite, molybdenum disulfide or their combinations which
withstand high operating temperature are used. These types of bearings are common in
furnace applications, or trunnion bearings of liquid metal handling systems, hot drawing
mills etc.
Machine Design II
1.4 JOURNAL / SLEEVE BEARINGS

Among the sliding contact bearings radial bearings find wide applications in industries
and hence these bearings are dealt in more detail here.
The radial bearings are also called journal or sleeve bearings. The portion of the shaft
inside the bearing is called the journal and this portion needs better finish and specific
property. Depending on the extent to which the bearing envelops the journal, these
bearings are classified as full, partial and fitted bearings. As shown in Fig.1.9.
(a)Full
(b) Partial
(c) Fitted
Fig. 1.9 Various types of journal bearings

1.5 Hydrodynamic lubrication
In 1883 Beauchamp Tower discovered that when a bearing is supplied with adequate
oil, a pressure is developed in the clearance space when the journal rotates about an
axis that is eccentric with the bearing axis. He exhibited that the load can be sustained
by this fluid pressure without any contact between the two members.
The load carrying ability of a hydrodynamic bearing arises simply because a viscous
fluid resists being pushed around. Under proper conditions, this resistance to motion will
Machine Design II
develop a pressure distribution in the film that can support useful load. Two
mechanisms responsible for this are wedge film and squeeze film action.
The load supporting pressure in hydrodynamic bearings arises from either (1) the flow
of a viscous fluid in a converging channel, the wedge film, or (2) the resistance of a
viscous fluid to being squeezed out from the between approaching surface, the squeeze
film.
1.5.1 Stages in hydrodynamic lubrication
Consider a steady load F, a fixed bearing and a rotating journal.
Stage 1 :
At rest, the bearing clearance space is filled with oil, but the load F has squeezed out
the oil film at the bottom. Metal-to-contact exists. The vertical axis of bearing and journal
are co-axial. Load and reaction are in line fig.1.10.
Fig.1.10 At rest
Fig.1.11 Slow rotation

Boundary lubrication
Machine Design II
Stage 2:
When the journal starts rotating slowly in clockwise direction, because of friction, the
journal starts to climb the wall of the bearing surface as in Fig.1.11. Boundary
lubrication exists now. The wear normally takes place during this period. However, the
journal rotation draws the oil between the surfaces and they separate.
Stage 3:
As the speed increases, more oil is drawn in and enough pressure is built up in the
contact zone to float the journal Fig.1.12. Further increase in speed, additional
pressure of the converging oil flow to the right of the minimum film thickness position
(ho) moves the shaft slightly to the left of center. As a result full separation of journal and
bearing surfaces occurs. In stable operating condition, the pressure distribution on the
journal is shown in Fig.1.13. This is known as Hydrodynamic lubrication or full
film/thick film lubrication. At this equilibrium condition, the pressure force on journal
balances the external load F. The animation of this lubrication is shown in Fig.1.14.
Fig.1.12 At running
Fig.1.13 Stable hydrodynamic
(hydrodynamic lubrication)
lubrication
Machine Design II
Fig.1.14 Journal position in hydrodynamic lubrication

1.5 .2 HYDRODYNAMIC LUBRICATION - ANIMATION
The various stages of lubrication explained in 1.5.1 can now be perceived from the
animation illustrated here.
1.5.3 The friction characteristics of hydrodynamic lubrication of journal bearings
The friction behaviour during hydrodynamic condition is shown in Fig.1.15 and the
bearing will operate between point C and D under hydrodynamic lubrication condition.
It can be seen from the graph Fig.1.15 and bearing modulus (n / p) that
The higher the viscosity, the lower the rotating speed needed to float the journal
at a given load.
Machine Design II
Any further increase in viscosity produces more bearing friction thereby

increasing the forces needed to shear the oil film.
The higher the rotating speed, the lower the viscosity needed to float the journal
at a given load. ( n / p )
Further increases in rotating speed produces more bearing friction by increasing

the time rate at which work is done in shearing the oil film.
Fig.1.15. Friction behaviour during hydrodynamic lubrication

Average pressure on project surface of the journal:
p = F / (ld)
(1.1)
Where F Radial load

l Length of the journal
d Journal diameter
ld - Bearing projected area
The smaller the bearing unit load, the lower the rotating speed and the viscosity
needed to float the journal.
Further reductions in bearing load do not produce corresponding reductions in

the bearing friction drag force.
Thus the bearing coefficient of friction, which is the ratio of friction drag force to
radial load F, increases.
Machine Design II
The basic requirements for achieving Hydrodynamic lubrication are :

1. Surfaces which are in relative motion to be separated.
2.Wedging,as provided by the shaft eccentricity.
3. The presence of a suitable fluid.
1.6 JOURNAL BEARING - LUBRICANTS
1.6.1 Viscosity:
It is the internal friction that resists the motion in fluids. If an unloaded plate of area A m2
moves parallel to a stationary surface with velocity U m/s as in Fig.1.16 and the space is
filled with fluid, the velocity gradient will a straight line. The fluid shear stress for
Newtonian fluids is
proportional to the rate of shear,
i.e.,
U
h
(1.2)
Fig.1.16 Flow between parallel plates

Force required to move the plate is given by
U
F A
h
(1.3)
The unit of viscosity in SI units is Ns/m2 or Pa.s. Since this is a large unit, it is normally
expressed as millipascal second mPa.s or centipoise cp.
Machine Design II
One poise is the force, in dynes, required to move one face of a 1cm3 of liquid at the
rate of 1 cm/s relative opposite face. Since this unit is very large one hundredth of it is
taken normally and expressed as centipoise or cp.
In FPS unit viscosity is expressed as reyns. 1 reyn = 6890 Pa.s.
Viscosity is also expressed as
SUS (Saybolt Universal Seconds),
SSU (Saybolt Seconds Universal),
SUV (Saybolt Universal Viscosity).
Kinematic viscosity = (absolute viscosity)/(mass density)
Units are length2 /time, as cm2/sec, which is named stoke, abbreviated as St.
1.6.2 Viscosity Measurement
Saybolt universal viscometer is widely used for the measurement of viscosity, Fig.1.17.
The time required for a given quantity of the liquid to flow by gravity through a precision
opening. Absolute viscosity expressed in saybolt seconds s.
(in cp) = (0.22 s - 180/s)
(1.4)
(in reyn) =0.145(22s-180/s)
(1.5)
where is the density of oil .

is the mass density of oil in g / cm3 or numerically equal to specific gravity.. For
petroleum oils the density at 60oF or 15.6oC is 0.89 g/cm3. At other temperatures, To in
o
C or To in oF, the density is given by equation 1.6 and 1.7.

= 0.89 0.00063 ( To 15.6)
(1.6) or
= 0.89 0.00035 ( To 60 )
(1.7)
Machine Design II
Fig.1.17 Saybolt viscometer

1.6.3 Viscosity Index
The measure of variation of viscosity with temperature is the viscosity index (VI).
For Pennsylvania crude oils, VI = 100, which undergoes the least change of
viscosity with temperature.
For Gulf coast oils, VI = 0, which undergoes the greatest change with
temperature
Other oils were rated intermediately. VI of Multigrade oils such as SAE 10W-40 is
more than that of single grade designation (as SAE 40 or SAE 10W).
VI
L U
x100 (6)
L H
Where L- viscosity of a standard 0% VI oil at 100oF

H- Viscosity of standard 100% VI oil at 100oF
U - Viscosity of oil with unknown VI oil at 100oF
Machine Design II
1.6.4 Temperature Effects on Viscosity Index

a. Nonpetroleum-base lubricants have widely varying viscosity indices. Silicone oils, for
example, have relatively little variation of viscosity with temperature. Thus their
viscosity indices substantially exceed 100 on the Dean and Davis scale.
b. The viscosity index of petroleum oils can be increased by the use of viscosity index
improvers known as additives.
1.6.5 Pressure Effects on Viscosity
a. All lubricating oils experience an increase in viscosity with pressure. This effect is
usually significant only at pressures higher than those encountered in sliding bearings.
b. This effect is important in elastohydrodynamic lubrication.
1.6.5 LUBRICANT PROPERTIES

Properties of a good lubricant are:
1. It should give rise to low friction.
2. It should adhere to the surface and reduce the wear.
3. It should protect the system from corrosion.
4. It should have good cleaning effect on the surface.
5. It should carry away as much heat from the surface as possible.
6. It should have thermal and oxidative stability.
7. It should have good thermal durability.
8. It should have antifoaming ability.
9. It should be compatible with seal materials.
10.It should be cheap and available in plenty.
Machine Design II
1.7 LUBRICANT FOR JOURNAL BEARING APPLICATION

1.7.1 Recommended Lubricants for the Bearing Application
1. SAE 10 spindle oil for light loaded bearings and high speeds.
2. SAE 20 40 Machine oil for bearings of IC engines, machine tools, turbines etc.
3. SAE40-50 Machine oil for diesel engines heavy load and medium speeds.
4. SAE 60-70 machine oil for high temperature, heavy load and low speeds.
1.7.3 SAE Specification of Lubrication oils

a. Viscosity of SAE 30 oil lies in between thickest SAE 20 and thinnest SAE 40 oil
being the thickest.
b. SAE 20,30,40 and 50 are specified at 100C.
c. SAE 5W, 10W and 20W are specified at -18C.
d. SAE 10W-40 oil must satisfy the 10W viscosity requirement at -18C and the 40
requirement at 100C.
1.7.4 ISO Specification of Lubrication oils

Industrial fluid lubricants are commonly specified in terms of international standards,
which appear as
1. ASTM D 2422,
2. American National Standard Z11.232,
3. ISO Standard 3448.
Machine Design II
The various viscosity grades are designated as ISO VG followed by a number equal to
the nominal kinematic viscosity at 40C.
Eighteen grades are specified, with kinematic viscosities at 40C of,
3,5,7,10,15,22,46,68,100,150, 220,320,460, 680, 1000 and 1500 cSt (mm2/s).
The properties of various grades of oil against operating temperatures are given Figs. 1.
18 to 1.20
Fig. 1.18 Viscosity - temperature curves of SAE graded oils
Machine Design II
Fig. 1.19 Viscosity temperature chart for multiviscosity lubricants derived from
known viscosities at two points, 40 and 100oC
Machine Design II
Fig. 1.20 Viscosity temperature diagram for ISO VG graded oils
Machine Design II
1.8 JOURNAL BEARING LUBRICANTS - PROBLEM 1

In a journal bearing application an oil of kinematic viscosity at 100oC corresponding to
46 seconds as found from Saybolt viscometer is used. Determine its absolute viscosity
and corresponding oil in SAE and ISO VG grades.
Solution:
= 46 SUS
From eqn.(1.6) we have = 0.89 0.00063(To 15.6)
= 0.89 -0.00063(100-15.6)
= 0.837 g /cm3
From eqn (1.4), = ( 0.22 s - 180/s)
= (0.22 x 46 180/46) 0.837
= 5.19 cp
From eqn (1.5),
Or
=0.145(22s- 180/s)
= 0.145(22x46-180/46)0.837
= 0.735 reyn
SAE oil corresponding to viscosity 5.19cp at 100oC from Fig.1.18a is SAE 20.
At 100oC, the kinematic viscosity of the oil from is
= / = 5.19/0.837 = 6.2 cSt.
Oil corresponding to the kinematic viscosity 6.3 cSt at 100oC from Fig.1.19a is
ISO VG 46.
Machine Design II
Fig. 1.18a Viscosity temperature curves SAE graded oils
Machine Design II
Fig. 1.19a Viscosity temperature diagram for ISO VG graded oils
--------------------
Machine Design II

Lecture 2 HYDRODYNAMIC LUBRICATION OF JOURNAL BEARINGS
THEORY AND PRACTICE
Contents
2.1 Petroffs equation for bearing friction
2.2 Analysis Problem 1
2.3 Hydrodynamic lubrication of Journal bearings - theory
2.4 Design charts for Hydrodynamic lubricated journal bearings
2.5 Analysis Problem 2
2.1 PETROFFS EQUATION FOR BEARING FRICTION
In 1883, Petroff published his work on bearing friction based on simplified
assumptions.
a. No eccentricity between bearings and journal and hence there is no Wedging
action as in Fig.2.1.
b. Oil film is unable to support load.
c. No lubricant flow in the axial direction.
Fig. 2.1 Unloaded Journal bearing
Machine Design II
With reference to Fig.2.1, an expression for viscous friction drag torque is derived
by considering the entire cylindrical oil film as the liquid block acted upon by
force F.
From Newtons law of Viscosity:
F=
AU
h
(2.1)
Fig. 2.2 Laminar flow of fluid in clearance space

Where F = friction torque/shaft radius = 2 T f / d
A= d l
U = d n (Where n is in rps d is in m)
h = c (Where c = radial clearance = 0.5(D-d))
r = d /2
Substituting and solving for friction torque:
4 2 nlr 3
Tf
c
(2.2)
Machine Design II
If a small radial load W is applied to the shaft, Then the frictional drag force f w
and the friction
Torque will be:
Tf = f w = 0.5 f (d l p) d
(2. 3)
Equating eon. (2.2) and (2.3) and simplifying, we get

n r
f 2 2

p c
(2.4)
Where r = 0.5 d and u is Pa.

This is known as Petroffs equation for bearing friction. It gives reasonable
estimate of co-efficient of friction of lightly loaded bearings.
The first quantity in the bracket stands for bearing modulus and second one
stands for clearance ratio. Both are dimensionless parameters of the bearing.
Clearance ratio normally ranges from 500 to 1000 in bearings.
2.2 PETROFFS EQUATION FOR BEARING FRICTION Problem 1
A machine journal bearing has a journal diameter of 150 mm and length of 120
mm. The bearing diameter is 150.24 mm. It is operating with SAE 40 oil at 65oC.
The shaft is carrying a load of 8 kN and rotates at 960 rpm. Estimate the bearing
coefficient of friction and power loss using Petroffs equation.
Data: d = 0.15m; D =0.15024m; l = 0.12 m; F=8kN;
SAE 40 oil To = 65oC; n = 960/60 = 16 rps.
Q 1, f =? , Nloss =?
Solution:
r = 0.5d = 0.5 x 0.15 = 0.075 m
c = (D-d) /2 = 0.00012 m
p = F/dl = 8000/ 150x 120 = 0.44 MPa= 44X104 Pa
Machine Design II
Viscosity of SAE 40 at 65oC, = 30 mPa.s = 30x10-3 Ns/m2

3
0.075
(a) f 2 2 n r 2 2 30 x10 x16
4
0.00012 0.0134
p c
44x10
Fig.2.3a Viscosity temperature curves of SAE graded oils

(b) Friction Torque Tf = f F r = 0.0134 x 8000 x 0.075 = 8.067 Nm
= 2n /60 = 2 x 3.14 x 960 / 60 = 100.48 rad/s
Power loss: Nloss = Tf = 8.067 x 100.48 = 811 W
Machine Design II
2.3 HYDRODYNAMIC LUBRICATION THEORY

Beauchamp Towers exposition of hydrodynamic behavior of journal bearings in
1880s and his observations drew the attention of Osborne Reynolds to carryout
theoretical analysis. This has resulted in a fundamental equation for
hydrodynamic lubrication. This has provided a strong foundation and basis for
the design of hydro-dynamic lubricated bearings.
In his theoretical analysis, Reynolds made the following assumptions:
a) The fluid is Newtonian.
b) The fluid is incompressible.
c) The viscosity is constant throughout the film.
d) The pressure does not vary in the axial direction.
e) The bearing and journal extend infinitely in the z direction. i.e., no lubricant
flow in the z direction.
f) The film pressure is constant in the
y direction. Thus the pressure depends
on the x coordinate only.

g) The velocity of particle of lubricant in the film depends only on the coordinates
x and y.
h) The effect of inertial and gravitational force is neglected.
i) The fluid experience laminar flow.
2.3.1 Reynolds Equation
As shown in Fig.2.4, the Forces acting on a fluid element of height dy, width dx,
velocity u, and top to bottom velocity gradient du is considered.
For the equilibrium of forces in the x direction acting on the fluid element acting
on the fluid element shown in Fig. 2.5
-pdydz dxdz (p
dp
dx)dydz - (
dy)dxdz 0
dx
y
2.5
Machine Design II
Fig.2.4 Pressure and viscous forces acting on an

element of lubricant. Only X components are shown
which reduces to
dp
dx y
(2.6)
The equation for absolute viscosity is given as

= F h /(A U)
In eqn. (7)
is the shear stress.
In eqn. (2.7)
(2.7)
u
y
(2.8)
is the shear stress.
where the partial derivatives is used since the velocity u depends upon both x
and y. Substituting eqn (8) in (6), we get
dp
2u
2
dx
y
(2.9)
Machine Design II
Fig.2.5 Pressure and viscous forces acting on an

element of lubricant. Only X components are shown
Rearranging the terms, we get
2u 1 dp
y2 dx
(2.10)
Holding x constant and integrating twice with respect to y gives
u 1 dp

y C1
y dx
(2.11 )
1 dp y2
u
C1y C2
dx 2
( 2.12 )
Machine Design II
The assumption of no slip between the lubricants and the boundary surfaces
gives boundary conditions enabling C1 and C2 to be evaluated:
u=0 at y=0, u=U at y=h
Hence,
U h dp 2
U
y hy y
h 2 dx
h
C1
and C2 =0
(2.13)
(2.14)
Substituting the values of C1 and C2 in Equation (2.12)

we get,
1 dp 2
U
y h y y
2 dx
h
(2.15)
Fig. 2.6 Velocity distribution in the oil film

Velocity Distribution of the Lubricant Film shown in Fig.2.6 consists of two terms
on the right hand side.
Machine Design II
1 dp 2
U
y hy y
2 dx
h
Parabolic
Linear Dashed
Fig. 2.7 Velocity gradient in the oil film

At the section when pressure is a maximum and the velocity gradient is linear.
dp
0
dy
Let the volume of lubricant per-unit time flowing across the section containing the
element in Fig. 2.6 be Qf. For unit width in the Z direction,
h
Q f udy
o
Uh h3 dp
2 12 dx
(2.16 )
For an in-compressible liquid, the flow rate must be the same for all cross
sections, which means that
dQ f
0
dx
(2.17)
Differentiating equation (2.16) with respect to x and equating to zero,
Machine Design II
Or
dQ f U dh d h3 dp
0
dx
2 dx dx 12 dx
(2.18)
d h3 dp
dh
6U
dx dx
dx
(2.19)
This is the classical Reynolds equation for one dimensional flow. This is valid for
long bearings.
In short bearings, flow in the Z direction or end leakage has to be taken into
account. A similar development gives the Reynolds Equation for two dimensional
flows:
d h3 dp
d h3 dp
dh
6U
dx dx dz dz
dx
(2.20)
Modern bearings are short and (l / d) ratio is in the range 0.25 to 0.75. This
causes flow in the z direction (the end leakage) to a large extent of the total flow.
For short bearings, Ockvirk has neglected the x terms and simplified the
Reynolds equation as:
d h3 dp
dh
6U
dz dz
dx
((2.21)
2.21)
Unlike previous equations (2.19) and (2. 20), equation (2. 21) can be readily
integrated and used for design and analysis purpose. The procedure is known as
Ocvirks short bearing approximation.
2.4 DESIGN CHARTS FOR HYDRODYNAMIC BEARINGS

Solutions to eqn.2.19 were developed in first decade of 20th century and were
applicable for long bearings and give reasonably good results for bearings with
Machine Design II
(l / d) ratios more than 1.5. Ocvirks short bearing approximation on the other
hand gives accurate results for bearings with (l /d) ratio up to 0.25 and often
provides reasonable results for bearings with (l / d) ratios between 0.25 and 0.75.
Raimondi and Boyd have obtained computerized solutions for Reynolds

eqn. (2.20) and reduced them to chart form which provide accurate solutions for
bearings of all proportions. Selected charts are shown in Figs. 2.8 to 2.15.
All these charts are plots of non-dimensional bearing parameters as functions of
the bearing characteristic number, or the Sommerfeld variable S which itself is a
dimensionless parameter.
Fig.2.8 Chart for minimum film thickness variable and eccentricity ratio.
The left shaded zone defines the optimum ho for minimum friction; the right
boundary is the optimum ho for maximum load
Machine Design II
Fig.2.9 Chart for determining the position of the minimum film thickness ho
for location refer Fig.2.10
Fig.2.10 Stable hydrodynamic lubrication
Machine Design II
Fig. 2.11 Chart for coefficient of friction variable.
Machine Design II
Fig. 2.12 Chart for flow variable.
Machine Design II
Fig.2.13 Chart for determining the ratio of side flow to total flow.
Fig. 2.14 Chart for determining the maximum film pressure.
Machine Design II
Fig. 2.15 Chart for finding the terminating position of oil film and position of
maximum film pressure
2.5 DESIGN CHARTS FOR HYDRODYNAMIC BEARINGS Problem 2
A journal of a stationary oil engine is 80 mm in diameter. and 40 mm long. The
radial clearance is 0.060mm. It supports a load of 9 kN when the shaft is rotating
at 3600 rpm. The bearing is lubricated with SAE 40oil supplied at atmospheric
pressure and average operating temperature is about 65oC. Using RaimondiBoyd charts analyze the bearing assuming that it is working under steady state
condition.
Data: d = 80 mm; l =40 mm; c = 0.06 mm; F = 9kN;

n = 3600rpm = 60 rps; SAE 40 oil; To = 65OC;
Analysis:
1. p= F / ld = 9 x1000 /40 x 80 = 2.813 MPa
2. = 30 cP at 65oC for SAE 40 oil from Fig. 2.3a.
Machine Design II
3.
3
r n 40 30x10 x 60
0.284
S

6
c p 0.06 2.813 x 10
4. For S = 0.284 and l/d = , ho /c = 0.38 and

= e /c = 0.62 from Fig.6.
ho = 0.38xc = 0.382x 0.06=0.023mm = 23m
e = 0.62 x c = 0.62 x 0.06 = 0.037 mm
Fig.2.3a Viscosity temperature curves of SAE graded oils
5. (r /c) f = 7.5, for S = 0.284 for l /d = from Fig.2.11a.

f = 7.5 x (c / r) = 7.5x (0.06/40) = 0.0113
Machine Design II
Fig.2.8a Chart for minimum film thickness variable and eccentricity ratio.
Fig. 2.11a Chart for coefficient of friction variable
Machine Design II
Fig.2.9a Chart for determining the position of minimum film thickness ho
6. = 46o, for S = 0.284 for l /d = from Fig.2.9a.

7. (Q / r c n l) = 4.9, for S = 0.284 for l /d = from Fig.2.12a.
Q = 4.9 r c n l = 4.9 x 0.04 x 0.00006 x 60 x 0.04
= 2.82x10-5 m3/s = 28.2 cm3 /s
8. (Qs /Q) = 0.75, for S = 0.284 for l /d = from Fig.2.13a.
Qs = 0.75 Q = 0.75 x 28.2 = 21.2 cm3 /s
9. (p / p max) = 0.36, for S = 0.284 for l /d = from Fig.2.14a.
puma = p /0.36 = 2.813 / 0.36 = 7.8 MPa
10. pox = 61.5o and puma = 17.5o, for S = 0.284 for l /d = from Fig.2.15a.
Machine Design II
Fig. 2.12a Chart for flow variable
Machine Design II
Fig.2.13a Chart for determining the ratio of side flow to total flow
Fig. 2.14a Chart for determining the maximum film pressure
Machine Design II
Fig. 2.15a Chart for finding the terminating position of oil film and position
of maximum film pressure
Fig.2.10a Stable hydrodynamic lubrication

---------------------------
Machine Design II

Lecture 3 HYDRODYNAMIC LUBRICATION OF JOURNAL BEARINGS
THEORY AND PRACTICE
Contents
3.1 Lubricant Supply
3.2 Heat dissipation and equilibrium oil temperature
3.3 Thermal analysis of journal bearing problem 1
3.4 Thermal analysis problem 2
3.5 Hydrodynamic bearing design guidelines
3.1. LUBRICANT SUPPLY
Lubricant present at the bearing surface gets depleted due to side leakage and to
main the hydrodynamic lubrication continuous supply of lubricant must be
ensured. The principal methods of supply of lubricant are:
1. Oil Ring lubrication
2. Oil collar lubrication
3. Splash lubrication
4. Oil bath lubrication
5. Oil pump lubrication
3.1.1. Oil Ring lubrication
Fig.3.1 shows an oil ring lubricated bearing. The ring of 1.5 to 2 times the
diameter of the shaft hangs loosely on journal. As it rotates with the journal, it lifts
oil to the top. The bearing sleeve is slotted to accommodate the ring and bear
against the journal. This method of lubrication has been found efficient in many
applications.
Machine Design II
Fig.3.1 Oil ring lubricated bearing with water cooling

3.1.2 Oil collar lubrication
This case a rigid collar integral with the journal as shown in Fig.3.2 dips into the
reservoir at the bottom. During rotation it carries the oil to the top and throws off
into a small sump on either side of the collar. From there it flows by gravity
through the oil hole and groove to the bearing surface as shown in Fig.3.3.
Fig. 3.2 Oil collar lubrication
Machine Design II
Fig. 3.3 Bearing with oil hole and axial groove
3.1. 3 Oil splash lubrication

In some machines, oil is splashed by rapidly moving parts can be channeled to
small sumps maintained above the bearings. Besides this, small oil scoops on
rotating parts can dip into the main oil sump and thereby carry that flow into
bearings. Typical examples of this can be seen in automobile engine wrist pin
lubrication wherein the crank splashes oil when it dips into the oil sump below.
Another example is lubrication of the bearings of gearboxes wherein the gears
splash the oil into bearings.
3.1.4 Oil pump lubrication

This is a positive means of supplying oil. Fig.3.4 shows the pressure fed
lubrication system of a piston engine or Compressor. Pumped oil fills the
circumferential grooves in the main bearings. Through the holes in crankshaft oil
is then carried to the connecting rod bearings. Circumferential groove in them
transmits the oil through riffle drilled holes to the wrist pin bearings.
Machine Design II
Fig. 3.4 Oil pump lubrication of an engine crank shaft

In many automobiles to reduce the cost and also weakening the crankshaft, riffle
drilled holes is eliminated and the wrist pins are splash lubricated.
3.2 HEAT DISSIPATION AND EQUILIBRIUM OIL TEMPERATURE

Another important consideration in hydrodynamic lubrication is thermal aspect of
design. The heat generated in the bearing should be effectively dissipated so that
the equilibrium conditions are reached in a short time. Further, the average or
equilibrium temperature of the oil should not exceed 93 to 123oC to prevent quick
deterioration of the oil.
The frictional heat generated can be found from the load (F) coefficient of friction
(f), and the journal speed (n).
Machine Design II
v = 2 nd / 60000 rad / s where n is in rpm & d in mm.

Frictional power loss:
Hg = F f v
(3.1)
Where Hg is expressed in Nm/s or W

The oil temperature rise can be estimated from chart in Fig.2.20 devised by
Raimondi and Boyd or from the heat balance equation in the case of self
contained bearings as in the case of ring, collar or oil bath lubrication. Industrial
applications of self contained bearings can be seen in fans, blowers, pumps,
motors and so on.
Tvar CH
(3.2)
Where is the density of the oil 861 kg /m3

CH is the specific heat of the oil, an average value of 1760 J/ kg. oC may be
taken.
T is the temperature rise oC and P is the film pressure in Pa.
Heat dissipated: Hd = C A (TH TA)
(3.3)
Where, Hd = in W or Nm/s
C = combined the heat transfer coefficient (radiation and convection), W/m2 .OC
A = exposed surface area of the housing, m2
= 20 d l
TH = surface temperature of the housing, oC
TA= temperature of surrounding air, oC.
The value of C depends on the material, colour, geometry and roughness of the
housing, temperature difference between the housing and surrounding objects
Machine Design II
and temperature and velocity of the air.

C = 11.4 W/m2.oC
for still air
C = 15.3 W/m2.oC
for average design practice
C = 33.5 W/m2.oC
for air moving at 2.5 m/s
An expression similar to eqn. (3.3) can be written between the temperature

difference To TH between the lubricant oil film and the housing.
The relationship depends on the lubrication system and the quality of lubricant
circulation. Oil bath lubrication system in which a part of the journal is immersed
in the lubricant provides good circulation. A ring oiled bearing in which oil rings
ride on top of the journal or an integral collar on journal dip into the oil sump and
provides fair circulation for many purposes. Wick feeding will result in inadequate
circulation and should be limited to very light load application and is not
considered here.
TO TH = b (TH TA)
(3.4)
where TO is the average oil film temperature and b is a constant depending on

lubrication system. Since TO and TA are known, combining eqn. (3.3) & (3.4),
1
Hd C A
(TO TA )
b 1
Hd C AB(TO TA )
(3.5)
(3.6)
Where B = 1/ (b+1) and a rough estimate of this is given in Table 3.1.

In heat balance computation, the oil film temperature and hence the viscosity of
the lubricant in a self contained bearing are unknown. The determination is
based on iterative process where the heat generated and heat dissipated match
giving the equilibrium temperature. This is a time involving procedure.
Machine Design II
Table 3.1 Value of the constant B

Lubrication system
Condition
Range of B
Oil ring
Moving air
0.333 - 0.500
Oil ring
Still air
0.667 0.500
Oil bath
Moving air
0.667 0.500
Oil bath
Still air
0.714 -0.833
.
Fig.3. 5 Chart for temperature variable, Tvar = CH (T/p)
The use of this chart will be illustrated with worked out problems in arriving at
equilibrium temperature.
Machine Design II
3.3 ANALYSIS OF HYDRODYNAMIC LUBRICATED BEARING USING

CHARTS Problem 1
A journal of a stationary oil engine is 80 mm in diameter and 40 mm long. The
radial clearance is 0.060mm. It supports a load of 9 kN when the shaft is rotating
at 3600 rpm with SAE 40 oil supplied at atmospheric pressure and assume
average operating temperature is about 65oC as first trial for inlet oil temperature
of 45oC. Using Raimondi-Boyd charts analyze the bearing temperature under
steady state operating condition.
Data: d = 80 mm; l =40 mm; c = 0.06 mm; F = 9kN;
n = 3600rpm = 60 rps; SAE 40 oil; To = 65OC; Ti=45oC.
Analysis:
1. p= F /l d = 9 x1000 /80 x 40 = 2.813 MPa
2. = 30 cP at 65oC for SAE 40 oil from graph 2.3(a).
2
r n 40 30x10 3 x 60
3. S
0.284

6
c p 0.06 2.813 x 10
4. For S = 0.284 and l /d = , Tvar = 25 from Fig.3.5 (a).
5. Rewriting the equation 2.23,
Tvar p
CH
25 x 2.813 x 106
46o C
861x 1760
6. Tav = Ti + 0.5 T = 45 + 0.5 x 46 = 68oC

7. At Tav = 68oC, = 26 Pa.s from Fig. 2.3(b)
Tvar CH
(2.23)
Machine Design II
8. S = 0.246, for this Tvar = 22.5 from Fig. 3.5 (b), calculated value of T = 41.4oC
9. Tav = Ti + 0.5 T = 45+0.5x41.4 = 65.7oC. Hence equilibrium temperature will
be about 66oC.
Fig. 2.3(a) Viscosity temperature curves of SAE graded oils
Machine Design II
Fig. 3.5(a) Chart for temperature variable, Tvar = CH (T/p)
Machine Design II
Fig. 2.3b Viscosity temperature curves of SAE graded oils
Machine Design II
Fig. 3.5(b) Chart for temperature variable, Tvar = CH (T/p)

3.3 HEAT DISSIPATION AND EQUILIBRIUM OIL TEMPERATURE USING
CHARTS PROBLEM 2
A sleeve bearing is 40 mm in diameter. and has a length of 20 mm. The
clearance ratio is 1000, load is 2.5 kN, and journal speed is 1200 rpm. The
bearing is supplied with SAE 30 oil. The ambient temperature is 35oC. Determine
the average oil film temperature in equilibrium condition, assuming that the
bearing is lubricated by an oil bath in moving air.
Machine Design II
Data: d = 40 mm; l = 20 mm; r/c = 1000; SAE 30 Oil;

TA = 35oC; Lubrication is by oil bath in still air.
Analysis:
1. p = F /d l = 2.5 x 103 / 0.04 x 0.02 = 3.13 x 106 Pa
2. Expecting the oil average temperature to be 60oC
= 26.5 cP or mPa.s for SAE 30 oil. From Fig.2.3c
3. n = 600/60 = 10 rps.
2
3
x 10
r n
2 26.5x10
4. S
0.085
1000
6
c p
3.13 x 10
5.
r
f 3.05
c
6.
f 3.05
7.
for S = 0.085 and (l /d) = 0.5 from Fig.2.11b.
c
3.05x103 0.00305
r
x40 x 600
dn
1.26m / s
60000
60000
8. Hg = F f v = 2500 x0.00305 x 1.26 = 9.61 Nm /s

9. Hd = CAB (To-TA) = Hg
C = 33.5 W/m2.oC
from which
for moving air
B = 0.667 from Table 2.1 for oil bath in moving air.

A = 20 d l = 20 x 0.04 x 0.02 = 0.016 m2
10. To = TA + Hg / CAB
= 35 + 9.61 / (33.5x0.016 x0.667)
= 61.9oC
Machine Design II
Fig.2.3c Viscosity temperature curves of SAE graded oils
Machine Design II
Fig. 2.11b Chart for coefficient of friction variable
Iteration 2
1. For oil temperature of 61.9oC,
= 26.5 mPa.s for SAE 30 oil from Fig.2.3d
24.5x103 x 10
r n
2. S 10002
0.078
6
c p
3.13 x 10
3. f = 0.00285
4. Hg = F f v = 2500 x0.00285 x 1.26 = 8.98 Nm /s
Machine Design II
Fig.2.3d Viscosity temperature curves of SAE graded oils

5. To = TA + Hg / CAB
= 35 + 8.98 / (33.5x0.016 x0.667)
= 60.1oC
6. Hence the equilibrium temperature of oil will be around 60.1oC.

End of problem 2
-------
Machine Design II
3.5 HYDRODYNAMIC LUBRICATED JOURNAL BEARING DESIGN

The design procedure of hydrodynamic bearing is very elaborated one with
theory and practice being judiciously blended together. The following guidelines
aid in design:
3.5.1 Unit loading

The load per unit journal projected area is denoted by p. In many applications
like engine bearings, momentary peak loads result in bearing pressures of the
order of ten times the steady state values. The hydrodynamic bearings can take
up such peak loads without any problem. The recommended values of steady
unit load for various applications are given in Table 3.1. This helps in selecting
suitable diameter for any particular the application.
3.5.2 Bearing l / d ratios

Ratios - 0.25 to 0.75 are now commonly used in modern machinery whereas in
older machinery closer to unity was used. Longer bearings have less end
leakage and reduced oil flow requirements and high oil temperature. Short
bearings are less prone to edge loading from shaft deflection and misalignments,
need higher flow rate and run cooler. The shaft size is found from fatigue
strength and rigidity considerations. Bearing length is found from permissible unit
loads.
Table 3.2 Unit loads for journal bearings

(a) Relatively steady loads p = Fmax / d l
Applications
Unit loads MPa
Applications
Unit loads MPa
Electric motors
0.8 1.5
Air compressors
Main bearing
1.0 - 2.0
Steam turbines
1.0 2.0
Air compressors
Crank pin bearing
2.0 4.0
Gear reducers
0.8 1.5
Centrifugal pumps
0.6 1.2
Machine Design II
(b) Rapidly fluctuating loads p = Fmax / d l

Applications
Unit loads MPa
Diesel
Engines
Applications
Unit loads
MPa
Automotive
gasoline engines
Main bearings
6 12
Main bearings
4-5
Connecting
rod bearings
8 15
Connecting rod
bearings
10 15
3.5.3. Acceptable values of ho:

The minimum acceptable oil film thickness, ho, depends on surface finish.
Trumpler suggests the relationship
ho 0.005 + 0.00004 d
(units in mm)
(3.7)
This equation applies only to bearings that have finely ground journal with
surface roughness not exceeding 5m, that have good standards of geometric
accuracy circumferential out of roundness, axial taper, and waviness both
circumferential and axial; and that have good standards of oil cleanliness.
A factor of safety of 2 is suggested for steady loads that can be assessed with
good accuracy.
3.5.4 Clearance ratios c/r

For journals 25 to 150 mm in diameter and for precision bearings (c / r) ratio of
the order 0.001 is recommended.
For less precise bearings of general machinery bearings (c / r) ratio up to about
0.002 is used.
For rough-service machinery (c / r) ratio of 0.004 is used.
Machine Design II
In any specific design the clearance ratio has a range of values, depending on
the tolerances assigned to the journal and bearing diameter.
Table 3.3 Clearance ratio: = c/r in 10 -3

Working pressure p
MPa
Peripheral speed m/
Low to medium
Low <2
Medium -2 to 3
High >3
0.7 1.2
1.4-2.0
2-3
0.3-0.6
0.8-1.4
1.5-2.5
p<8
High
p>8
Table 3.4.Surface roughness values R1 and R2 in m (peak to valley height

of shaft and bearing surface roughness)
Type of
machining
Roughness
values
Type of
machining
Roughness
values
Rough turning
finish
16 - 40
Fine turning,
reaming,
grinding,
broaching finish
2.5 6.0
Medium
turning finish
6 - 16
Very fine
grinding, lapping,
honing
1 2.5
3.5.5 Important factors to be taken into account for designing a

hydrodynamic bearing
1. The minimum oil film thickness to ensure thick film lubrication is given as
ho 0.005 + 0.00004 d
Machine Design II
2. Friction should be as low as possible to reduce the power
loss ensuring
adequate oil film thickness. Operation in the optimum zone in Raimondi chart
ensures good design.
3. Ensure adequate supply of clean and cool oil at the bearing inlet.
4. Ensure that the oil temperature never exceeds 93oC for long life of the oil.
5. Grooves are to be provided for distribution of oil admitted to the bearing over
its full length. If so, they should be kept away from highly loaded areas.
6. Choose a bearing material with enough strength at operating temperatures,

adequate conformability and embeddability, and sufficient corrosion resistance.
7. Shaft misalignment and deflection should not be excessive.

8. Check the bearing loads and elapsed times during start-up and shutdown.
Bearing pressures should be below 2MPa during these periods.
9. To arrive at a good design, right combinations of clearance and oil viscosity for
given operating condition should be chosen. This will ensure running of the
bearing with minimum friction and wear, and lowest possible temperature by
dissipating the heat.
---------------------------------
Machine Design II
Module 5 - SLIDING CONTACT BEARINGS

Lecture 4 JOURNAL BEARINGS - PRACTICE
Contents
4.1 Bearing materials
4.2 Hydrodynamic Lubricated journal bearing design Problem 1
4.3 Boundary lubricated bearings
4.4 Boundary lubricated bearings Problem 2
4.1 BEARING MATERIALS

Bearing materials constitute an import part of any journal bearing. Their
significance is at the start of the hydro-dynamic lubrication when metal to metal
contact occurs or during mixed and boundary lubrication period.
4.1.1 Desirable properties of a good bearing material
1. Conformability (low elastic modulus) and deformability (plastic flow) to relieve
local high pressures caused by misalignment and shaft deflection.
2. Embeddability or indentation softness, to permit small foreign particles to
become safely embedded in the material, thus protecting the journal against
wear.
3. Low shear strength for easy smoothing of surface asperities.
4. Adequate compressive strength and fatigue strength for supporting the load
and for enduring the cyclic loading as with engine bearings under all operating
conditions.
Machine Design II
5. Should have good thermal conductivity to dissipate the frictional heat and
coefficient of thermal expansion similar to the journal and housing material.
6. It should be compatible with journal material to resist scoring, welding and
seizing.
7. Should have good corrosion resistance against the lubricant and engine
combustion products.
4.1.2 Composition of bearing materials

Babbits are the most commonly used bearing materials. Babbitts have excellent
conformability and embeddability, but have relatively low compressive and
fatigue strength, particularly above 77C. Babbitts can seldom be used above
about 121C.
Other materials such as tin bronze, leaded bronze, copper lead alloy, aluminium
bronze, aluminium alloys and cast iron are also used in many applications.
Widely used bearing material compositions are given below:
a.Tin-base babbitts with 89% Sn, 8% Pb and 3% Cu,
b. Lead- base babbitts with 75% Pb, 15% Sb and
10% Sn,
c. Copper alloys such as Cu- 10% to 15% Pb.

Bimetal and trimetal bearings are used in engine application to reduce the size of
the bearing and obtain good compatibility and more load capacity. The bearings
can be of solid bushings or lined bushings. Some times two piece with or without
flanges are also used. These are shown in Fig.4.1. The inner surfaces of the
Machine Design II
bearings are grooved to facilitate the supply of lubricant to the surface of the
journal. Various groove pattern used in industry are shown in Fig. 4.2
(a) Solid bushing
Fanged
(b) Lined bushing
(d) Straight
Fig.4.1 Various types of bush bearings
Fig 4.2 Developed views of typical groove patterns
Machine Design II
4.1.3 BEARING MATERIALS- RECOMMENDED RADIAL CLEARANCES FOR

CAST- BRONZE
Recommended radial clearances for cast bronze bearings are shown in Fig.4.3.
A Precision spindles made of hardened ground steel, running on lapped cast
bronze bearings (0.2 to 0.8 m rms finish) with a surface velocity less than 3 m/s.
B - Precision spindles made of hardened ground steel, running on lapped cast
bronze bearings (0.2 to 0.4 m rms finish) with a surface velocity more than 3
m/s.
C- Electric motors, generators, and similar types of machinery using ground
journals in broached or reamed cast-bronze bearings (0.4 to 0.8 m rms finish)
D General machinery which continuously rotates or reciprocates and uses
turned or cold rolled steel journals in bored and reamed cast-bronze bearings
(0.8 to 1.6 m rms finish)
E- Rough service machinery having turned or cold rolled steel journals in bored
and reamed cast-bronze bearings (0.8 to 1.6 m rms finish)
Fig.4.3 Recommended radial clearance for cast bronze bearings
Machine Design II
4.2 HYDRODYNAMIC LUBRICATED BEARING DESIGN Problem 1

A journal bearing of a centrifugal pump running at 1740 rpm has to support a
steady load of 8kN. The journal diameter from trial calculation is found to be 120
mm. Design suitable journal bearing for the pump to operate under hydrodynamic
condition.
Data:
n = 1740 rpm = 29 rps; F = 8 kN = 8000 N; r = 0.5d= 60mm
Solution:
1. From Table 4.1a, for centrifugal pumps, recommended unit load is 0.6 to
1.2MPa
2. Recommended l/d ratio for centrifugal pumps is 0.75 to 2.
A value of l/d = 0.75 is chosen. L = 0.75 d = 0.75x120 = 80mm
3. p = F/ l d = 8000 / 80 x 120 = 0.833 MPa which is within the range for
centrifugal pump 0.6 to 1.2 MPa
4. v = dn = x0.12 x 29 = 10.93 m/s
5. Choosing cast bronze material for the bearing, the recommended clearance is
coming under C curve of Fig.4. 3a.
C- Electric motors, generators, and similar types of machinery using ground
journals in broached or reamed cast-bronze bearings (0.4 to 0.8 m rms finish)
From Fig. 4.3a, the recommended clearance for 120 mm diameter journal is 0.07
mm.
6. ho 0.005 + 0.00004 d =0.005 +0.00004x120= 0.0098mm
Machine Design II
Table 4.1 (a) Unit loads for journal bearings

(a)Relatively steady loads p = Fmax / d l
Applications
Unit loads MPa
Applications
Unit loads MPa
Electric motors
0.8 1.5
Air compressors
Main bearing
1.0 - 2.0
Steam turbines
1.0 2.0
Air compressors
Crank pin bearing
2.0 4.0
Gear reducers
0.8 1.5
Centrifugal
pumps
0.6 1.2
Fig. 4.3a Recommended radial clearance for cast bronze bearings

7. The peak to valley height of roughness R1 = 1.5 m for fine ground journal and
R2 = 2.5 m lapped bearing assumed.
8. ho > 0.5 (R1 + R2) = 0.5 (1.5+2.5) = 2 m
9. Hence , ho = 0.012 is aimed at which is at least 6 times the average peak to
valley roughness of journal and bearing and safe working regime for hydrodynamic lubrication.
Machine Design II
10. The recommended viscosity of oil for the centrifugal pump application is
30 80 cP. Hence from the chart SAE 30 oil is chosen.
11. Assuming the bearing to operate between 50 to 60OC and average oil
temperature of 55OC, = 34 cP from Fig. 2.3e
12. Clearance ratio of for p < 8 MPa and v > 3 m /s. (c/r) =2x10 -3 assumed. Or
r/c = 500.
2
3
x29
2 34x10
r n
0.296
13. S 500
6
c p
0.833x 10
Table 4.2a Clearance ratio: = c/r in 10 -3

Working pressure
p MPa
Peripheral speed m/s

Low < 2
Medium 2 to 3
High >3
Low to medium
p< 8 MPa
0.7-1.2
1.24 2.0
2-3
High
p>8 MPa
0.3 0.6
0.8 1.4
1.5 2.5
Table 4.3a Surface roughness values R1 and R2 in m (peak to valley height

of shaft and bearing surface roughness)
Type of
machining
Roughness
values
Type of machining
Roughness
values
Rough turning
finish
16 - 40
Fine turning,
reaming, grinding,
broaching finish
2.5 6.0
Medium
turning finish
6 - 16
Very fine grinding,

lapping, honing
1 2.5
14. S = 0.296 and l/d = 0.75, Tvar = CH (T/p) =26.5 from Fig.2.20c.
15. T = 26.5 p/ CH = 26.5 x 0.833 x 106 / 861x1760 = 14.6oC
Machine Design II
16. Tav = Ti + 0.5 T = 50 + 0.5 x 14.6 = 57.3oC

17. For Tav = 57.3oC, = 31.5cP from Fig. 2.1e
18. Recalculated S = 0.274
19. For S = 0.274 and l/d = 0.75, Tvar = 24 from Fig. 2.20d
20. T = 24 p/ CH = 24 x 0.833 x 106 / 861x1760 = 13.2oC
21. Tav = Ti + 0.5 T = 50 + 0.5 x 13.2 = 56.6oC
22. For Tav = 56.6oC, = 32cP, S =0 283, Tvar = 24, T =13.8oC
22. For Tav = 56.6oC, = 32cP, S =0.28, Tvar = 24, T =13.8oC
23. Tav = Ti + 0.5 T = 50 + 0.5 x 13.8 = 56.9oC
25. For Tav = 56.9oC, = 32.5cP, S =0. 283, ho/c = 0.492; Tvar=25;
Q / r c n l = 4.45; Q/Qmax = 0.605; (r/c) f = 6.6;
P/pmax = 0.42; = 54.8o; po =78o; pmax = 17.8o;
26. ho = 0.492 x c = 0.492 x 0.12 = 0.059 mm
27. f = 6.6(c/r) = 6.6x 2.0 x 10-3 = 0.0132
28. T = 25 p/ CH = 24 x 0.833 x 106 / 861x1760 = 13.74oC
29. Tav = Ti + 0.5 T = 50 + 0.5x 13.74 = 56.87oC = 56.9oC
30. Q = 4.45 x rcnl = 4.48 x .06 x0.00012x29x0.08
= 7.43 x 10-5 m3/s = 73.4 cm3/s
Machine Design II
Fig.2.3e Viscosity temperature curves of SAE graded oils
Machine Design II
Fig. 2.20c Chart for temperature variable, Tvar = CH (T/p)

31. Qs = 0.605 x 73.4 = 45 cm3/s
32. pmax = p/0.42 = 0.833/0.42 = 1.98 MPa
Bearing diameter: 120 H7 - 120.00 / 120.035
Journal diameter-120 f8 -119.964 / 119.910
Fit = 120 H7/f8
Machine Design II
33. Frictional power loss: f.Fv = 0.0132x8000x10.93=1154 W

Final details of the designed bearing are given in tabular form in Table 4.4
Table 4. 4 Final details of the designed bearing
d=120mm
l = 80mm
l/d = 0.75
SAE 30 oil
C= 120m
ho =59 m
p=0.833MPa
pmax=1.98MPa Tav=56.9oC
Ti = 50oC
= 54.8o
pmax = 17.8o
po =78o
Q =73.4cc/s
Qs=45 cc/s
Bearing
material
Cast Bronze
Reamed and
honed
f = 0.0132
Fit
120 H7/ f8
Journal
Hardened &
ground
TH =63.8oC
= 32.5 cP
Fig.2.8b Chart for minimum film thickness variable and eccentricity ratio.
Machine Design II
Fig. 2.20d Chart for temperature variable, Tvar = CH (T/p)
Machine Design II
Fig. 2.12b Chart for flow variable.
Machine Design II
Fig.2.13b Chart for determining the ratio of side flow to total flow
Fig. 2.11b Chart for coefficient of friction variable
Machine Design II
Fig. 2.14a Chart for determining the maximum film pressure
Fig.2.9b Chart for determining the position of minimum film thickness ho
Machine Design II
Fig. 2.15b Chart for finding the terminating position of oil film and position
of maximum film pressure
Fig 4.4 Journal position under stable hydrodynamic lubrication condition

problem1
----- End of problem 1---
Machine Design II
4.3 BOUNDARY AND MIXED-FILM LUBRICATION

There are many bearings in several machineries which run at relatively low
speeds and high loads. Under these unfavorable conditions, hydrodynamic
pressure developed is inadequate to support the load and they operate under
either mixed-film or boundary lubricated conditions as depicted in the Stribeck
curve shown in Fig. 4.5. Bearings operating in this regime have extensive metalto-metal contact and partial hydrodynamic lubrication.
Fig. 4.5 Stribeck curve for bearing friction

The typical hydrodynamic, mixed and boundary lubricated surfaces are depicted
in Fig. 4.6(a), (b) and (c).
Fig. 4.6(a) Hydrodynamic Fig. 4.6(b) Mixed film
Fig. 4.6(c) Boundary
lubrication
lubrication
lubrication
Machine Design II
Hence, in boundary lubricated regime to keep the adhesive wear low, oils with
some amount of blend with solid lubricants like MoS2, Teflon and graphite are
quite often used. Since wear is proportional to the frictional work done or pv
value, the design is based on this factor.
Further to prevent cold flow of the bearing material, pmax should be less than the
permissible value for the material and the maximum sliding velocity is also limited
to permissible value for the material, as it increases the dynamic load. Hence for
a good design,
(p v) (p v) max
(4. 2)
permissible value of ,
p pmax
(4.3)
and
v vmax
(4.4)
The choice of journal and bearing material pairing play vital role in design apart
from the lubricant in reducing adhesive wear, seizure, scoring etc. The
permissible value of the
pv, p and v for different materials are given Table 4.2.
Another important criterion which should not be forgotten in bearing design is

thermal aspect.
pv
Where
k (TB TA )
fm
( 4.5)
p is the unit load Pa (N / m2)

v is the surface velocity of journal relative to bearing m/s
TA is the ambient temperature of the air oC
TB is the bearing temperature oC
Machine Design II
k is the constant that depends upon the ability of the bearing to dissipate
the heat. A best estimate of the k value is from the previous design application
and working performance. A rough estimate done by considering maximum pv
value and minimum friction in Fig. 3.6 and maximum pv value from Table 4.5.
Fig. 4.6 Coefficient of friction under various

percentage of mixed - film lubrication
Table 4.5(a) Bearing material properties
Maximum
pressure
Maximum
Maximum
Maximum
Temperature
Speed
pv value
pmax MPa
TBmax oC
Vmax m/s
MPa.m/s
Cast Bronze
31
165
7.5
1.75
Sintered bronze
31
65
7.5
1.75
Sintered Fe
55
65
1.75
Pb-bronze
24
150
7.6
2.1
Sintered Fe-Cu
28
65
1.1
1.2
Material
Machine Design II
Table 4.5(b) Bearing material properties

Material
Maximum
pressure
Maximum
Maximum
Maximum
Temperature
Speed
pv value
pmax MPa
TBmax oC
Vmax m/s
MPa.m/s
Cast iron
150
1.5
0. 5
Hardenable Fe-Cu
55
--
0.2
2.6
Bronze-iron
17
--
4.1
1.2
Lead- iron
--
4.1
1.8
Aluminium
14
--
6.1
1.8
Table 4.5(c). Bearing material properties

Material
Maximum
pressure
Maximum
Maximum
Maximum
Temperature
Speed
pv value
pmax MPa
TBmax C
Vmax m/s
MPa.m/s
Phenolics
41
93
13
0.53
Nylon
14
93
0.11
TFE
3.5
260
0.25
0.035
Filled TFE
17
260
5.1
0.35
TFE fabric
414
260
0.76
0.88
Table 4.5(d) Bearing material properties

Material
Maximum
pressure
pmax MPa
Maximum
Temperature
TBmax oC
Maximum
Speed
Vmax m/s
Maximum
pv value
MPa.m/s
104
5.1
011
Acetal
14
93
0.11
Carbon graphite
400
13
0.53
Rubber
0.35
66
20
-------
Wood
14
71
10
0.42
Polycarbonate
Machine Design II
In boundary lubricated bearing considerable sliding wear takes place and it

decides the life of the bearing. The sliding wear w (in mm) is given by
w=Kpvt
(4. 6)
Where K specific wear, mm / (MPa). (m/s).h

K depends on the type of load and lubrication.
p load per unit area MPa
v sliding velocity = d n / 60, m/s
t - sliding time in hours
Table 4.6 Properties of Oiles 500 bearing under continuous oil lubrication
pmax
vmax
MPa
m/s
(pv)max MPa.ms-1
Tmax
25
0.3
1.636
90
0.03
K (specific wear) mm/MPa.ms-1.h
6 30 x 10-6
Lower values of K refer to oil lubricated bearings with ground journal and steady
load. Higher values refer to Oscillatory loads.
4.4. BOUNDARY AND MIXED-FILM LUBRICATED BEARINGS- PROBLEM 1
A bush bearing has to operate under boundary lubricated condition with a radial
load of 150 N and speed of 4 rps. Its wear should be less than 0.03 mm in 5000
h of operation. Maximum operating temperature is 85oC. Factor of safety desired
is 2. Choose suitable oiles bearing for the application. Assume an air
temperature of 30OC.Take k = 15.3 W/m2. oC
Machine Design II
Data: F = 150 N ; n = 4 rps ; w = 0.03 mm;

t =5000h; Tmax = 85oC; f.s. = 2; TA = 30oC; k = 15.3 W/m2. oC
Solution:
1. For Oiles 500 bearing p max = 25 MPa;
vmax =0.3 m/s;(pv)max = 1.636 MPa.ms-1 from Table 8.
2. We will take (id) d = 18 mm, od D= 28 mm and
l = 25 mm available standard bearing as a first trial from Olies catalog from net.
3. p = F/dl = 150/ 18 x 25 = 0.333 MPa < 25 MPa OK
4. v = d n = x 18 x 4 x 10-3 = 0.226 m/s < 0.3 m/s OK
5. pv = 0.333 x 0.226 = 0.075 MPa.ms-1 < 1.636 , (pv)max OK.
6. Check for thermal aspects:
Assuming a wall thickness of 7.5 mm for the housing, the surface area A is given
by
A = DH L + 2 ( DH2 d2)/4 ] x 10-6 m2
= [ ( 28 + 15) 25 + 0.5 (432 182)x 10-6
= 5.77 x 10-3 m2
F f v = k A (TB TA)
150x 0.03x0.226 = 15.3 x 5.77x10-3 x (TB 30)
TB = 30 + 11.5 = 41.5 oC < Tmax (85oC)
OK
7. Check for wear:

w=Kpvt
K = 30 x 10-6 worst case is assumed from Table 8.
Machine Design II
w = 30 x 10-6x 0.333 x 0.226 x 5000

= 0.011 mm < 0.03 mm
hence from wear consideration also the selection of bearing is satisfied. The
factor of safety is more than 2 here. This indicates that the chosen bearing Oiles
id 18 x od 28 x length 25 mm is adequate for the operation with a factor of
safety.
4. 4 THRUST BEARINGS
When shaft axial loads are great (as with vertical shafts of substantial weight,
and propeller shafts subjected to substantial thrust loads),hydrodynamic thrust
bearings can be provided which is shown in the following figure.
Fig 4.7 Thrust Bearing
a. Oil supplied to the inside diameter of the rotating collar or runner flows outward
by centrifugal force through the bearing interface.
b. As the oil is dragged circumferentially through the bearing, it experiences a
wedging action, which is due to the tapered pads on the stationary member.
Machine Design II
c. This is directly analogous to the wedging action produced by the eccentricity of

a journal bearing.
d. As in figure, the fixed pads may have a fixed taper angle, or the pads may be
pivoted and allowed to assume their own optimum tilt angle, or they may be
partially constrained and permitted a small variation in tilt angle.
e. If the pads have a fixed taper, it is obvious that a load can be supported
hydrodynamically for only one direction of rotation.
--------------------------

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Machine Design II

Prof. K.Gopinath & Prof. M.M.Mayuram

FATIGUE CONSIDERATION IN DESIGN

WHAT IS FATIGUE LOADING?

stress or strain on a component. Thus any variable loading is

basically a fatigue loading.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Prof. K.Gopinath & Prof. M.M.Mayuram

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Prof. K.Gopinath & Prof. M.M.Mayuram

A rotating shaft with a bending load applied to it is a good example of fully

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Prof. K.Gopinath & Prof. M.M.Mayuram

The process of progressive localized permanent structural changes

Fatigue Failure- Mechanism

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Prof. K.Gopinath & Prof. M.M.Mayuram

Fatigue Failure Stages

Areas of localized stress concentrations such as fillets, notches, key ways,

Crack also generally originate from a

metallurgical stress raiser like sites of inclusions

As a result of the local stress concentrations at these locations, the

During plastic straining slip occurs and (dislocation movements) results in

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Prof. K.Gopinath & Prof. M.M.Mayuram

As a consequence, intrusion and extrusion occurs creating a notch like

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Prof. K.Gopinath & Prof. M.M.Mayuram

The micro mechanism of fatigue fracture

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Prof. K.Gopinath & Prof. M.M.Mayuram

Variable stress in shaft under rotation

movement and slip

Effect of cyclic stressing

A fatigue failure, therefore, is characterized by two distinct regions. The

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Prof. K.Gopinath & Prof. M.M.Mayuram

Prof. K.Gopinath & Prof. M.M.Mayuram

How to tackle fatigue failures

Stress Life Relations

How is the fatigue strength of a metal determined?

configuration such that no extraneous

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Prof. K.Gopinath & Prof. M.M.Mayuram

machined with shape characteristics

which enable the best fatigue life.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Prof. K.Gopinath & Prof. M.M.Mayuram

Loading on the Test Specimen

The S-N Diagram

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Prof. K.Gopinath & Prof. M.M.Mayuram

Number of stress cycle, N

Endurance or Fatigue Limit

Endurance or Fatigue limit - definition

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Prof. K.Gopinath & Prof. M.M.Mayuram

Endurance or Fatigue Strength

Failure Line for S f

Other meteials show no

Log number of cycles N

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Prof. K.Gopinath & Prof. M.M.Mayuram