SUMMARY in ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Properties of materials
A. Chemical properties are properties of a material that refer
to the structure of a material and its formation from our
elements.
Factors that affect the chemical properties
1. Composition means the percentage of the various
elements that make up the metal.
2. Corrosion resistance is the ability of the material to resist
deterioration by chemical or electro-chemical reaction with
its environment.
3. Crystal structure is the ordered, repeating arrangement of
atoms and molecules in a material.
4. Microstructure is the structure of a polished and etched
materials as revealed by microscope magnifications greater
than ten diameters
5. Stereo specificity is the tendency for polymers and
molecular materials to form with an ordered, spatial, three
dimensional arrangement of monomer molecules.
Example of polymers rubber
Chemical properties
- These are properties that depend on the arrangement of the
atoms and describe the behavior of a material in process
that alter its identity.
- A way a substance may change or start to form other
substance.
Includes
1. Conductivity ability to conduct heat/electricity.
2. Flammability tendency of certain substance to combust.
3. Reactivity the tendency of matter to react with other
substances and form new substance.
Chemical change the process occur in a substance transforming
it to a new substance which is undergoing chemically.
Example corrosion of G.I roof, ripening of fruits
Physical properties are properties of materials that refer to the
interaction of materials with various forms of energy and with other
forms of matter.
a. Curie point is the temperature at which ferromagnetic
materials are no longer be magnetized by outside forces.
b. Density is the mass per unit volume
c. Dielectric strength is the maximum potential difference
that an insulating material of given thickness can withstand

d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.

k.

for a specified time without occurrence of electrical

breakdown through its bulk.
Electrical resistivity is the electric resistance of a material
per unit length and cross-sectional area or per unit length
and unit weight.
Heat distortion temperature is a temperature at which a
polymer under a specified load shows a specified amount of
deflection.
Melting point is the point at which a material liquefies on
heating or solidifies on cooling.
Poissons ratio is the absolute value of the ration of the
transverse strain to the corresponding axial strain in a band
subjected to uniaxial stress.
Refractive Index is the ratio of the velocity of light in a
vacuum to its velocity in another material.
Specific gravity is the ratio of mass or weight of a solid or
liquid to the mean or weight of an equal volume at water.
Thermal conductivity is the ratio of heat flow per unit time
in a homogenous material under steady state conditions,
per unit area, per unit temperature gradient in a direction
perpendicular to area.
Thermal expansion is the rate at which a material
elongates when heated.

Mechanical Properties are properties of the material that are

displayed when a force is applied to the material.
a. Compressive strength is the maximum compressive stress
that a material is capable of withstanding.
b. Creep is the permanent strain under stress.
c. Creep Strength is the constant stress that will cause a
specified quality of creep in a given time of constant
temperature.
d. Endurance limit the maximum stress below which a
material can theoretically endure a finite number of tress
cycles.
e. Flexural Strength is the outer fiber stress developed when
a material is loaded as a simple supported beam and
deflected to a certain value of strain.
f. Hardness is the resistance of a material to plastic
deformation.
g. Modulus of elasticity is the ratio of stress to strain in a
material loaded within its elastic range.
h. Percent Elongation increase in the gage length measured
after the specimen fractures within the gage length.

SUMMARY in ENGINEERING MATERIALS

i.

Percent Reduction in Area is the difference expressed as a

percentage of original area between the original CSA of a
tensile test specimen and the minimum CSA measured after
the fractures.

Ultimate Strength the maximum stress a material withstands

when subjected to an applied load. Dividing the load at failure by
the original CSA determines the value.
Elevated temperature may have 3 general effects upon
metals and alloys.
1. Loss of metal as a result of oxidation or exposure to
contaminating media.
2. The formation of surface cracks resulting from cyclic thermal
stresses.
3. The change in the properties of the material with increasing
temperature.
Elasticity is the physical property of a material that return to its
original shape after the stress that made it deform or distort is
removed.
Modulus of elasticity mathematical description of an object or
substances tendency to be deformed elastically.
Modulus of Rupture is a computed strength which does not bear a
specific relationship to the maximum stress the material will
sustain before fracture, but provides a value from which the
maximum twisting moment.
Reduction Area measure of the ductility of metals defined in a
tensile test. It is the difference between the original CSA of a
specimen and the area to its smallest cross section after testing.
Engineering Materials
1. Metals
2. Plastic

3. Glass
4. Rubber

Metals defined as an element that possess certain properties.

Properties of Metal
a. BRITTLENESS is the property of a metal which permits no
permanent distortion before breaking.
b. DUCTILITY is the ability of metal to be permanently
deformed before breaking.
c. ELASTICITY is the ability of the metal to return to its
original shape after any force upon it has been removed.
d. HARDNESS is the resistance of a metal to forcible
penetration.

e. MALLEABILITY - is the property of a metal which allows it

to be hammered of rolled into other (wires) sizes and shape.
f. TOUGHNESS is the property of a metal withstand shock or
impact.
g. FATIGUE FAILURE is the point at which a metal break,
crack, or fails as a repeated stress.
Selection of Materials
4 Factors to be considered:
a) Material must satisfy the strength requirement.
b) Material must be capable of being fabricated into the
desired form.
c) Cost of the material must be low.
d) Material must be available for the use at the required time.
Two major Division of Metal
a. Ferrous Metal are made up principally of iron, which is
magnetic.
b. Non-Ferrous Metal are metals that contain little or no iron.
Also resistant to corrosion and are non-magnetic.
Types of Steel
I.
Low Carbon Steel commonly called machine steel
contains from 0.10 to 0.30% Carbon
Characteristics
Uses
1. Easily forged
1. Chains
2. Welded
2. Rivets
3. Machined
3. Bolts
4. Shafting
II.

Medium Carbon Steel contains 0.30% to 0.60%

Carbon
Uses
a) Heavy forging
b) Car axles c) Rails

III.

High Carbon Steel commonly called tool steel contains

from 0.60 to 1.7% carbon
Characteristics
a) Can be hardened b) Tempered

IV.

Alloy Steel are steels which have certain metal such

as chromium, nickel, tungsten, vanadium added to them
to give the steel certain new characteristics. By the

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addition of various alloys, steel can be resistant to rust,
corrosion, heat, abrasion, shock & fatigue.
V.

High Speed Steels contains various amounts and

combinations of tungsten, chromium, vanadium, cobalt
& molybdenum.

VI.

High Strength, Low Alloy Steels contains a

maximum carbon content of 0.28% and small amount of
vanadium, copper and columbium.
Characteristic
a) Do not require pointing
b) Developed a protective coating when exposed to the
atmosphere
c) Have higher strength

Chemical Elements in steel

1. Carbon in steel may vary from 0.01% to 1.7%
Effect on steel
-the amount of steel of carbon will determine the brittleness,
and strength of steel
2. Manganese content usually varies from 0.39 to 0.80%
a) Makes the metal more ductile
b) Gives good bending quality
c) It toughen the metal
d) Raises its critical temperature
3. Phosphorus content does not exceed 0.05%
a) Makes the steel brittle
b) Reduces its ductility
4. Silicon content about 0.20%
a) To remove gases and oxides thus preventing the steel
from becoming ferrous and oxidizing
b) Makes harder and tougher

7. Molybdenum it allows cutting tools to retain their hardness

when hot
a) Improves physical structures
b) Gives a greater ability to harden
8. Nickel in steels improves its toughness, resistance to fatigue
failure, and resistance to corrosion.
9. Tungsten increases the strength and toughness of steel
and its ability to harden. It also give cutting tools the ability
to maintain a cutting edge even at a red heat.
10. Vanadium in amount up to 0.20% increases the tensile
strength and produces a finer grain structure in steel. It is
usually alloyed with chromium to make parts such as spring,
gears and wrenches.
Stainless Steel
Steel Production one of the largest and most important in the US
Most of the iron ore are used to make steel comes from the openpit and underground mines, and is sent directly to steel mills. These
are called direct shipping ores
Taconite lower grade ore
Iron ore huge blast furnaces
Blast Furnace first step in the steel making process.
Ore, coke and limestone called the charge are dumped into the top.
Air is dried and heated to about 680C and blown in the near base.
The coke burns in the air, generating heat and gases which melt
the charge. The limestone begin to crumble and absorb impurities
in the ore and coke forming SLAG.
Purifying Processes

5. Sulfur does not contain more that 0.04%

a) Causes crystallization of steel when the metal is heated
to a red color

A. Openhearth Surface Raw materials are put into the furnace

by a charging machine. Empty the box loads. A ladle pours in
molten iron. After 8 12 hours of intense heat, the purified molten
steel is run into the ladle.

6. Chromium in steel imparts hardness and wear resistance

a) It gives steel a deeper hardness penetration than other
alloying metals. It also increases resistance to corrosion.

B. Basic Oxygen Surface The furnace is first tipped on its side,

and molten iron and scrap are charge into its mouth. It is then

SUMMARY in ENGINEERING MATERIALS

rotated into an upright position. Oxygen is blown at high speed into
the furnace.
C. Electric Furnace makes super steels (3 large rods called
electrodes reached through the top of the furnace) Powerful electric
current jump from the ends of the electrodes to the scrap.
Molten to Finished Form
Continuous Casting newest method of producing steel. Molten
steel flows into a copper mold. The outside surface begins to
harden forming a thin shell. Water is sprayed. Rollers and cutters.
Ingot Teeming
The ladle of fleshly made steel is made held by a crane
above a row of ingot molds. A valve in the bottom of the ladle is
open and the steel flows into each mold, filling it to the top.
Rolling Mills
a) Plate, sheet, strip
c) Structural steels and rails
b) Rods, bars, seamless pipes and tubes
Identification of metals
4 Method to identify metals (the most accurate are the 1 st two
methods)
1. By manufacturers stamp
2. By color code painted on the bar
3. By spark testing
4. By their appearance
Spark Testing
a. Low Carbon or Machine Steel show sparks in long, light
yellow streaks w/ a slight tendency to burst.
b. Medium Carbon Steel similar to low carbon steel, has
sparks that burst with a sparkler effect due to the greater
percentage of carbon in the steel.
c. High Carbon Steel shows yellow star bursts close to the
grinding wheel.
d. High Speed Test produce several interrupted spark lines
w/ a dark red, ball-shaped at the end.
e. Cast Iron shows a torpedo-shaped spark with a feather
like effect near the end. It changes from dark red to gold
color.
By Appearance

Metal

Cast
Iron

Machin
e Steel

Cold
Rolled
or Cold
Drawn
Tool
Steel
High
Speed
Steel
Brass

Copper

Carbo
n
Conte
nt
2.5 to
3.5 %

Appearance

Method of
Processing

Uses

Grey,
rough,
sandy surface

Molten
metal
poured into
sand molds
Put through
rollers while
hot

Parts
of
machines
such as lathe
beds
Bolts, Rivets,
Nuts

Put through
rollers
or
drawn
through dies
while cold.
Same
as
Machine
Steel
Same
as
Machine
Steel
Same
as
Cast Iron or
rolled
to
shape

Shafting,
Bolts, Screw,
Nuts

Same
as
Cast Iron as
rolled
to
shape

Soldering
Irons, electric
wire,
water
pipes

0.10
to
0.30
%
0.10
to
0.30
%

Black
surface

scaly

0.60
to
1.5%
Alloy
Steel

Black Glossy

Dull,
silver,
Smooth
surface

Black Glossy

Yellow
(various
shades) rough
if
casts,
smooth
if
rolled
Red
Brown
rough if cast,
smooth
if
rolled

Metal Processing
4 Major Kinds of Metal Processing in the industry
1. Heat Treatment or hot working
2. Casting
3. Machining
4. Cold Working

Drills,
Taps,
Dies, Tools
Dies,
Tools,
Taps,
Drills,
Toolbits
Bushing Pump
parts,
Ornamental
Work

SUMMARY in ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Heat treatment operation involving heating of metals to change
its properties.
Why heat treatment of metal is needed?
a. To obtain the desired properties
b. To improve machinability
c. To change electrical properties
d. To change magnetic properties
e. To increase resistance to corrosion
f. To reduce the grain size
Various heat treatment processes used in the industry
1. Hardening
2. Tempering
3. Annealing
4. Normalising
5. Case Hardening
Normalising it is the process to make the steel part to its normal
stage. Generally it is done for the ff. purposes.
a) To remove internal stresses caused by working
b) To reduce grain size of steel

c) To achieve desired mechanical properties

Recommended Color Coding of different materials
Cast Iron Gray
Wrought Iron Prussian
blue
Steel Purple
Brass, Bronze Light Yellow
Copper Red Brown
Aluminum light green
Annealing is the process for softening the steel part. Generally it
is done for the ff. purpose.
a) To soften the steel for easy machining
b) To increase ductility in the steel
c) To relieve internal stresses
d) To refine the grain size in the steel
e) To change electrical and mechanical properties
Case Hardening it is the process for making outer surface
harder of the steel part. Generally it is done for the ff. purposes.
a) To make outer surface harder
b) To utilize low carbon steel
c) To bring the cost cheaper