Classification and

phytochemical
of seeds

3. CLASSIFICATION AND PHYTOCHEMICAL

OF SEEDS
3.1 CLASSIFICATION OF ANNONA SQUAMOSA
Kingdom
Division

: Plantae
: Magnoliophyta

Class

: Magnoliopsida

Order

: Magnoliales

Family

: Annonaceae

Genus

: Annona

Species
Binomial name

: A. squamosa
: Annona squamosa

3.1.1 Phytochemical and Pharmaceutical action

A. squamosa seed extracts were evaluated for antimicrobial activity against human
pathogenic bacterial strain of gram negative Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa,

Salmonella typhi and gram positive Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyo genes.
Benzene and methanol extracts showed high activity against E. coli, P. aeruginosa and

Staphylococcus aureus. The use of essential oil from A. squamosa as a potential antiseptic
in prevention and treatment of bacterial infection has been suggested (Namasivayam and
Palaniappan, 2005).

Armotemoyin-1 annotemoyin-2, squamocin and cholesteryl glucopyrano side were

isolated from seeds of A. squamosa collected from chapai nawabganj, Bangladesh, in
September 2000. The compounds and extracts were evaluated for antibacterial against

Bacillus subtilis, B. cereus, B. megaterium, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus

haemolyticus, Sarcina lutea, Escherichia coli, Shigella dysenteriae, S. flexneri, S. sonnei,
Salmonella typhi, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella spp. and antifungal against

25

Aspergillus flavus, A. niger, A. fumigatus and Candida albicans activities by disc

diffusion method. All the compounds and extracts were showed antibacterial activity
against all bacteria. Annotemoyin-1, Annotemoyin-2, Squamocin and Cholesteryl
glucopyranoside were isolated from the seeds of Annona squamosa. These compounds
and plant extracts were showed remarkable antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities
(Rahman et al., 2005).
3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF ARTOCARPUS HETEROPHYLLUS

Kingdom

: Plantae

Division

: Magnoliophyta

Class

: Magnoliopsida

Order
Family

: Rosales
Moraceae

Genus

: Artocarpus

Species
Binomial name

: A. heterophyllus
: Artocarpus heterophyllus

3.2.1 Phytochemical and Pharmaceutical action

Several species of the genus Artocarpus (Moraceae) have been investigated during
the last decade. Over 60 phenolic constituents have been discovered and characterized,
including 27 new compounds from 13 Indonesian taxa of Artocarpus, namely A.
champeden, A. lanceifolius, A. teysmanii, A. scortechinii, A. rotunda, A. maingayi, A.
kemando, A. bracteata, A. altillis, A. fretessi, A. gomezianus, A. reticulates and A.
glaucus. The principles and the most pronounced features of these phenolic constituents
are the assembly of an isoprenyl substituent at C-3 of a flavone skeleton by closure of an
either bridge or a carbon carbon linkage with a B ring of the skeleton, which may further
rearranged into xanthone to produced classes of natural products. The structures of the
new and unusual natural products are presented. Many of metabolites also exhibit
cytotoxic effects against murein leukemia P388 cells (Hakim et al., 2006).

26

The crude methanolic extract of the stem and root barks, stem and root heart wood,
leaves, fruits and seeds of Artocarpus heterophyllus and their subsequent partitioning
with petrol, dichloromethane, ethyl acetate and butanol gave fractions that exhibited a
broad spectrum of antibacterial activity (Khan et al., 2003). Recent laboratory studies
show that lectins found in jack fruit and its seeds may have antibacterial, antifungal,
antiviral and immunostimulative properties.

3.3 CLASSIFICATION OF CUCURBITA MAXIMA

Kingdom

: Plantae

Division

: Magnoliophyta

Class

: Magnoliopsida

Order

: Cucurbitales

Family

: Cucurbitaceae

Genus
Species

: Cucurbita spp.
: C. maxima

3.3.1 Phytochemical and Pharmaceutical action

Cucurbita maxima contained carbohydrates 24.30%, fats 51.49% and proteins
16.80%. The major mineral content of the defatted seed flours was found to include
potassium 39 ppm, sodium 11.50 ppm, and calcium 15 ppm. They also found to contain
zinc 0.084 ppm and iron 0.032 ppm (Ojiako, 2007).

Popularity of pumpkin in various systems of traditional medicine for several

ailments (antidiabetic, antihypertensive, antitumor, inmmunomodulation, antibacterial,
antihypercholesterolemia, intestinal antiparasitia, antiinflammation and antalgic) focused
the investigators, attention on this plant considerable evidence form several
epidemiological studies concerning bioactivities leads have stimulated a number of animal
model, cell culture studies and clinical trials designed to test this pharmacological actions
(Caili et al., 2006).

27

Dried defatted and powdered seeds of Cucurbita pepo were extracted with
solvents. Extracts obtained were separately tested for antibacterial and antifungal activities
by a disc diffusion method. Test microorganisms were bacteria (Bacillus subtilis, E. coli)
and fungi (Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus). The results were obtained in the form of
an inhibition zone. When compared with the control, results showed significant
antimicrobial activities in extracts effective against all the tested microorganisms (Singhal,
2007).

3.4 CLASSIFICATION OF ELETTARIA CARDAMOMUM

Kingdom

Plantae

Division

Magnoliophyta

Class

Liliopsida

Order

Zingiberales

Family

Zingiberaceae

Genus
Species
Binominal name

Elettaria
E. cardamomum
Elettaria cardamomum

3.4.1 Phytochemical and Pharmaceutical action

The essential oil was found to contain 71 compounds. The major components were
a terponyl acetate (44.3%), 1,8- cincole (10.7%) a- terponeol (9.8%) and linalool (8.6%) .
the chloroform and methanol oleroresins both contained a terpinyl acetate (21.8 and
25.9% respectively) as the main component while 5-hydroxymethylfurgural (28.9%) was
the most abundant compound in the ethanol oleoresin (Singh et al., 2007).

Cardamom owes its aroma and therapeutic properties to the volatile oil present in
the seeds (2-8%). The important constituent of cardamom is the volatile oil (6-10%) for
which it is valued as a spice and flavouring material. Cardamom oil is rich in oxygenated

28

compounds and poor in terpene hydrocarbons. The oil contains about 70 compounds
mostly mono terpenoids. The major components are 1, 8-cincole and terpinyl acetate, 1, 8
cinceole gives a harsh `encalypte smell to the oil if present in high proportion. On the
other hand, the oil rich in esters like terpinyl acetate and linalyl acetate are known to give
'flowery' smell. Volatile components of cardamom exhibit antimicrobial activity. Oil has
antiaflotoxin substances. It has inhibitory properties against aflatoxins synthesis and
caused 90% drop in aflatoxin elaboration. Thus oil can be successfully utilized against the
danger of aflotoxin on food commodities (Kubo et al., 1984).
Terpineol and acetyl terponed active principles of cardamom seeds showed greater
penetration enhancing capacity than Azone which was used as a comparative penetration
enhancer for the diffusion of perdnisolone through mouse skin in vitro (Yamahara et al.,
1989). Ether and methanol extracts of cardamom caused a significant decrease in gastric
secretion after hours of treatment. The effect of water extract on gastric secretion as very
similar to that of cimetidine with a significant decrease in acid output. The effect of
methanol extract is primarily observed as decreased pepsin output.

The effects of the entire fruits, pericarps and seeds of E. cardamomum on the
microbial populations of the mouth cavity in vitro were studied. Cardamom fruits,
pericarps and seeds effectively reduced the microflora in the saliva in vitro. The maximum
antibacterial activity was exhibited by the entire fruits, closely followed by the pericarps.
The cardamom seeds were also effective but the efficacy was very low compared to that
of the entire fruit or pericarp alone (Tiwari and Charaya, 2005).

The essential oil exhibited strong antibacterial activity against the microorganisms
Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhi by agar
well diffusion method. Antifungal activity was tested against the food borne fungi
Aspergillus terreus, Penicillium purpurogenum, Fusarium graminearum and Pen icillium
madriti (Singh et al., 2007).

29

3.5 CLASSIFICATION OF MANGIFERA INDICA

Kingdom
Phylum
Class

: Plantae
: Magnoliophyta

Order

: Sapindales

Family

: Anacardiaceae

Genus
Species
Binomial name

: Mangifera.
: indica
: Mangifera indica

: Magnoliopsida

3.5.1 Phytochemical and Pharmaceutical action

The unripe, fully developed mangoes of pickling varieties contain citri, malic,
oxalic, succinic and two unidentified acids. The ripe fruits constitute a rich source of
vitamin A, some varieties contain fairly good amounts of vitamin (also 13 carotene and
xanthophylls are the principle pigments). The leaves contain the glucoside mangiferine.
The bark of the mango tree contains tannin (16-20%) mangiferine has been isolated from
the bark.

Mangostin, 29-hydroxymangiferonic acid and mangiferin have been isolated from

the stem bark, together with common fiavonoids. The flowers yielded alkyl gallates such
as gallic acid, ethyl gallate, methyl gallate, n-propyl gallate, n-pentyl gallate, n-octyl
gallate, 4-phynyl-n-butyl gallate, 6-phynyl-n-hexyl gallate and dihydrogallic acid. The
antibacterial assay was done by both agar disc diffusion method and agar well diffusion
method. The antibacterial activity exhibited by alcoholic extract was better than the
aqueous extract. The results evaluated as the diameter of the inhibition zone of microbial
growth showed that the extracts were more active against gram positive bacteria than
gram negative bacteria. Among the investigated microorganisms, the most resistant
bacteria were Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Alcaligenes fecalis. The most susceptible
bacteria were gram positive Bacillus cereus and gram negative Klebsiella pneumoniae

30

and the maximum activity was shown by Term inalia chebula, Mangifera indica and
Eucalyptus citriodora (Parekh and Chanda, 2006).
The antimicrobial properties of Mango Seed Kernel Ethanol extract (MKE) were
investigated Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) of the MKE against 18 species of
43 strains, containing food borne pathogenic bacteria were determined using the agar
dilution method. The MKE had a broad antimicrobial spectrum and was more active
against gram positive than gram negative bacterial with a few exceptions (Kabuki et al.,
2000).

Bacterial and fungal infections pose a greater threat to health, most notably in
immune compromised subjects, hence the need to find natural cheap an defective
antimicrobial agents. The antimicrobial properties of mango seed kernel extract were
investigated (Kabuki et al., 2000). The ethanol extract had a broad antimicrobial spectrum
and was more active against gram positive than gram negative bacteria with a few
exceptions. The results indicated that the active component was a type of polyphenol. The
antimicrobial activity of extract was stable against heat (121 C, 15 min), freezing (-20C,
16 hrs) and pH treatment (pH 3-9) normally used in food processing. Therefore the mango
seed kernel extract would be used together with other antimicrobial components, effective
against gram negative bacteria such as organic acids.

Akinpelu and Onakoya (2006) investigated that the antimicrobial activities of

methanolic extracts of Psidium guajava and Mangifera indica. Fifteen different bacterial
isolates comprising of both gram negative and gram positive organisms were used. The
results show that P. guajava and M indica extracts exhibited antimicrobial activities at a
concentration of 20 mg/ml, the zone of inhibition exhibited by P. guajava extract ranged
between 12 mm and 30 mm while that of M indica varied between 11 and 28 mm. the
minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) exhibited by P. guajava extract against the
tested organisms ranged between 0.313 and 0.625 mg/ml. On the other hand MIC
exhibited by M indica extract varied between 1.25 and 10.0 mg/ml.

31

Mango extract at 50% concentration showed maximum zone of inhibition on

Streptococcus mitis. Neem extract produced the maximum zone of inhibition on
Streptococcus mutans at 50% concentration. Even at 5% concentration neem extract
showed some inhibition of growth for all the four species of organisms (Prashant et al.,
2007).

Mangifera indica is commonly grown in many parts of the world. Its seeds have
been used for anti diarrhoeal activity in Indian traditional medicine. This study evaluates
the potential anti diarrhoeal activity of methanolic (MMI) and aqueous (AMI) extracts of
seeds of M indica in experimental diarrhoea, induced by castor oil and magnesium
sulphate in mice (Sairam et al., 2003).
Leaf extracts of Man gifera indica a medicinal and horticultural plant were
investigated for antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coil and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Using the agar well diffusion and the gradient serial dilution
methods the extracts showed weak antibacterial activity against the study organisms
compared with the positive control (Gentamicin). The ethanolic extract was most active
with minimum inhibitory concentration ranging from 5481.0 to 4375.0 lig
al., 2007).
3.6 CLASSIFICATION OF MOMORDICA CHARANTIA

Kingdom

: Plantae

Division

: Magnoliophyta

Class

: Magnoliopsida

Order

: Cucurbitales

Family

: Cucurbitaceae

Genus
Species
Binomial name

: Momordica
: M charantia
: Momordica charantia

32

(Bbosa et

3.6.1 Phytochemical and Pharmaceutical action

The seeds of Momordica charantia a better melon fruit that is widely used as food
as well as medicine in Asia. It has a particular clinical usefulness similar to MAP 30
(Momordica anti HIV protein, molecular weight 30 kDa) is believed to have multiple
functions that could be beneficial for HIV (Jassim and Naji, 2003). Plants such as Ananas
comosus (pine apple), Momordica charantia (bitter gourd) and Azadirachta indica (neem)
containing anthelmintic compounds and for their use for controlling internal parasites
(Makkar et al., 2007).

Last few decades has certified several such claims of use of several plants of
traditional medicines. Popularity of Momordica charantia (MC) in various systems of
traditional medicine for several ailments (antidiabetic, abortifacient, antihelminthic,
contraceptive, dysmenorrheal, eczema, emmenagogue, antimalarial, galactagogue, gout,
jaundice, abdominal pain, kidney (stone), laxative, leprosy, leucorrhea, piles, pneumonia,
psoriasis, purgative, rheumatism, fever and scabies) focused the investigator's attention on
this plant. Over 100 studies using modem techniques have authenticated its use in diabetes
and its complications (nephropathy, cataract, insulin resistance), as antibacterial as well as
antiviral agent (including HIV infection) as antihelminthic and abortifacient (Grover and
Yadav, 2004).

3.7 CLASSIFICATION OF MORINGA OLEIFERA

Kingdom

: Plantae

Division

: Magnoliophyta

Class

: Magnoliopsida

Order

: Brassicales

Family

: Moringaceae

Genus

: Moringa

Species
Binomial name

: M oleifera
Moringa oleifera

33

3.7.1 Phytochemical and Pharmaceutical action

The organic extracts of M oleifera had higher activity compared to the aqueous
extracts. It has been reported that different solvents have different extraction capacities
and different spectrum of solubility for the phytoconstituents (Majorie, 1999; Srinivasan
et al., 2001). Several evidences revealed that M oleifera had various pharmaceutical
activities such as antibacterial (Eilert et al., 1981; Dayrit et al., 1990) antifungal,
antispasmodic, anti-inflammatory and diuretic activates (Caceres et al., 1992) mutagenic
activity of M oleifera was also proposed by Villasena et al., (1989). The nutritional
values of this plant were demonstrated by Verma et al., (1976) and Chakraborti et al.,
(1988).

Moringa oleifera leaves as a source of plant growth factors, antioxidants, beta

carotene, vitamin C and various glucosinolates and their degraded products for possible
use as antibacterial, antioxidant, anticarcinogenic and antipest agents (Makkar et al.,
2007). In an ethnobotanical survey of the uses of M oleifera in Guatemala, it was
demonstrated that the main medicinal uses of this plant are for the treatment of infectious
diseases of the skin and mucosa (boils, spots, and ringworm rash), digestive system
(stomach pains, diarrhea) and respiratory tracts (fever, influenza, cold). Similar uses have
been reported in India (Pushpangadan and Atal, 1986; Ramachandran et al., 1980)
Pakistan (Dastur, 1977) and Sudan (John, 1986).

3.8 CLASSIFICATION OF PHOENIX DACTYLIFERA

: Plantae
Magnoliophyta

Kingdom
Division
\

Class

Liliopsida

Order

Arecales

Family

Arecaceae

Genus

Phoenix

Species
Binomial name

P. dactylifera
Phoenix dactylifera

34

3.8.1 Phytochemical and Pharmaceutical action

The sugar content of ripe date is about 80% the remainder consists of protein, fat
and mineral products including copper, sulphur, iron, magnesium and fluoric acid. Dates
are high in fiber and an excellent source of potassium. Medical anthropologist Dr. John
Heinerman states that ten dates yield 47 mg of calcium, 50 mg of phosphorous, 2.4 mg of
iron, 1 mg sodium, 518 mg niacin and very little vitamin C. Heinerman states that
carbohydrate rich food, such as the date, can induce sleep when consumed just prior to
bedtime. The author also mentioned that a possible benefit of using a puree of potted dates
externally on skin eruptions since dates have high sugar content and sugar has
successfully been used as a folk remedy to treat open wounds and sores in many parts of
the world (Al-Shahib and Marshall, 2003).

Thirty four date (Phoenix dactylifera) varieties, from start of tame stage of
maturity were analysed for moisture, protein, lipid and ash. The mean percent of moisture,
protein, lipid and ash were 29.35, 3.3, 042 and 2.25 g/100g (Fresh weight basis),
respectively. Predominant sugars were fructose (12.62 - 43.31 g/1 00g) and glucose (16.41
- 54.23 g/100g fresh weight basis) sucrose was not practically detected in most varieties.
Mineral elements such as Na, Mg, K, and Ca were determined by ICP atomic
spectroscopy and their amounts were in the range of 4.46 47.74, 18.44 - 79.35, 203.61 982.97 and 23.24 - 73.85 mg/100g (dry weight basis) respectively (Sahari et al., 2007).

In terms of dry weight, the chemical composition of date pots has been reported as
containing 5-10% moisture. 5-7% protein, 7-10% oil, 10-20% crude fiber, 55-65%
carbohydrates and 1-2% ash (Barreveld, 2007; Al-Shahib and Marshall, 2003). The
carbohydrates, as the largest component of the dry weight, are typically comprised of
neutral detergent fiber 75%, acid detergent fiber 57.5%, hemicelluloses 17.5%, lignin
11%, cellulose 42.5% and ash 4% (Barreveld, 2007; Hamada et al., 2002).

35

The seed powder is also used in some traditional medicines and has been
investigated for human potential health benefits (Hamada et al., 2002) and for addition to
animal feed to enhance growth (Afifi et al., 1966; Jumah et al., 1973; Kamal et al., 1981;
Hussein and Alhadram, 2003), the latter an action that has been ascribed to an increase in
the plasma level of estrogen (Elgasim et al., 1995) or testosterone (Ali et al., 1999). Date
pots have been studied as potential sources of edible oils and pharmaceutical (Al-Shahib
and Marshall, 2003). In addition, date pot extract shows an ability to restore the normal
functional status of the poisoned liver and also to protect against subsequent carbon
tetrachloride hepatotoxicity on the liver in rats (Al-Qarawi et al., 2004). Jassim et al.,
(1995) evaluated that the antiviral efficacy of an acetone extract of the pots of the date
palm Phoenix dactyl ifera against Pseudomonas phage ATCC 14209-B1.

It was also found that the 100 and 1000 gg m1'1 concentrations of date pot extract
was showed a strong ability to inhibit the infectivity of Pseudomonas phage ATCC
14209-B1 as evidence by the presence of higher members of P. aeruginosa cells surviving
(Stewart etal., 1998).

3.9 CLASSIFICATION OF TAMARIND US INDICA

Kingdom

: Plantae

Division

: Magnoliophyta

Class

: Magnoliopsida

Order

: Fabales

Family

: Fabaceae

Subfamily

: Caesalpinioideae

Tribe

: Detarieae

Genus

: Tamarindus

Species
Binomial name

: T indica
Tamarindus indica

36

3.9.1 Phytochemical and Pharmaceutical action

In Thai traditional medicine, the fruit of Tamarindus indica is considered to be as a

digestive, carminative, laxative, expectorant and a blood tonic. A crude Tamarindus
indica seed extract inhibited the PLA2, protease, hyaluronidase, L-aminoacid oxidase and
5' nucleotidase enzyme activities of Vipera russelle venom in a dose dependent manner.
Mice that received the extract 10 min after the injection of venom were protected from
venom induced toxicity. The seed coat extract of Tamarindus indica has antioxidant
activity. The extract is composed of flavonoids including tannins, polyphenols,
anthocycnidine, and lolgomeric proanthocyanidins. These flavonoids may produce
vasorelaxant activity, increase capillary permeability and protection from oxidative stress.
Excess nitric oxide production is associated with diseases such as autoimmunity,
rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease and septic shock. In vitro studies
demonstrated that the crude seed coated extract of Tamarindus indica suppressed nitric
oxide production while producing no adverse effects.

In Indian traditional medicine, various plants have been used widely as a remedy
for treating snakebites. The effect of Tamarindus indica seed extract on the
pharmacological as well as the enzymatic effects induced by V. russelli venom. Tamarind
seed extract inhibited the PLA (2), protease, hyaluronidase, L-amino acid oxidase and 5'
nucleotidase enzyme activities of venom in a dose dependent manner. These are the major
hydrolytic enzymes responsible for the early effects of envenomation, such as local tissue
damage, inflammation and hypotension. Furthermore the extract neutralized the
degradation of the B beta chain of human fibrinogen and indirect hemolysis caused by
venom (Ushanandini et al., 2006).

Methanol leaf extracts of Tamarindus indica exhibited anti-B Pseudomallei

activity starting from disc concentrations of 1501.tg by the disc diffusion method (Shankar
et al., 2005) leaves of T. indica have already been reported to have anti pseudomonal
activity (Khare, 2004).

37