Chemical Reactions

A chemical change: any change in which a

new substance is formed.
Evidence of a Chemical Change:

Release of energy as heat

Release of energy as light

Change in colour

Formation of a gas

Change in odour

1.Synthesis Reactions
Synthesis reactions are also known as
FORMATION reactions.
Two or more reactants (usually elements) join
to form a compound.

A + B AB

where A and B represent

elements

The elements may form ionic

compounds, like

Sodium metal and chlorine gas

combine to form sodium
chloride.

2Na + Cl2 2NaCl

Types of Chemical Reactions

Most of the reactions we will study fall into
one of the following categories
1) Precipitation Reactions
2) Acid base reactions (later)
3) Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Oxidation-Reduction

2.Decomposition Reactions

An alternative definition of oxidationreduction

Decomposition reactions are the

opposite of synthesis reactions.

A compounds breaks down into

two or more products (often
elements).

AB A + B
where A and B represent
elements

Heat of Reaction
In almost all chemical reactions, heat
is either given off or absorbed.

Types of Chemical Reactions

1. Neutralization: Acid(H) + Base(OH)
salt + H(OH)

3.Single Replacement Reactions

2. Combustion: AB + oxygen CO2 +

H 2O

Single replacement reactions replace

one element from a compound with
another element.

3. Synthesis: A + B AB
4. Decomposition: AB A + B

A compound and an element

react, and the element switches
places with part of the original
compound.

A + BC B + AC where
A is a metal, or

A + BC C + BA where
A is a non-metal

5. Single displacement: A + BC AC + B
6. Double displacement: AB + CD AD
+ CB

4.Double Replacement Reactions

Double replacement reactions swap

elements between 2 compounds that
react together to form two new
compounds.

Two compounds react, with

elements switching places
between the original
compounds.
AB + CD AD + CB

5.Neutralization Reactions

Neutralization reactions occur when an

acid (most compounds starting with H)
and a base (most compounds ending
in OH) react to form a salt and water.
Neutralization reactions are a type of
double replacement.

Acid + base salt +

water

HX + MOH MX + H2O
Where X and M are elements
6.Combustion Reactions

Combustion reactions occur when a

compound or element react with
oxygen to release energy and produce
an oxide.

Also sometimes referred to as

hydrocarbon combustion.
CXHY + O2 CO2 + H2O
where X and Y represent
integers

SUMMARY OF REACTIONS

Balancing Equations
Chemical reactions occur when
bonds (between the electrons of
atoms) are formed or broken
Chemical reactions involve
changes in the chemical
composition of matter
the making of new materials
with new properties
energy changes:
Bond breaking absorbs Energy
(endothermic process)
Bond making releases Energy
(exothermic process)
Symbols represent elements
Formulas describe compounds
Chemical equations describe a
chemical reaction
Chemical Equations
A chemical equation is written as an
expression similar to a mathematic equation
that can be compared to a recipe that a
chemist follows in order to produce desired
results.
Their Job: Depict the kind of reactants
and products and their relative amounts in a
reaction.
4 Al

Guide to balance a Chemical

Equation

(s)

+ 3 O2 (g) ---> 2 Al2O3 (s)

The numbers in the front are called

Stoichiometric coefficients
The letters (s), (g), and (l) are the
physical states of compounds.

 Because of the principle of the

conservation of matter (matter cannot
be created or destroyed) an equation
must be balanced.
It must have the same number of
atoms of the same kind on both sides.
Law of Conservation of Energy MUST
ALSO BE FOLLOWED!
Energy changes are written in (endo-/
exothermic reactions) All chemical
equations have reactants and
products.
We express a chemical equation as
follows:
Reactants Products
The arrow is equivalent to an =
math. When we describe the equation
we use the word yields or
produces instead of equals
Example
C + O2 CO2
This reads carbon plus oxygen react
to yield carbon dioxide
Balancing a Chemical Equation
A chemical equation is balanced when
the ions or atoms found on the
reactant side of the equation equals
that found on the product side.
The arrow can be considered the
balance point.
Symbols Used in Equations
Solid (s)
Liquid (l)
Gas (g)
Aqueous solution (aq)
Catalyst

H2SO 4

or

Chemical Reactions an d Chemical

Equations
Reactants

Products

Driving forces:
a) Color change
b) Formation of a solid/precipitate
c) Evolution of a gas
d) Evolution or absorption of heat

Balancing Equations
When balancing a chemical reaction
you may add coefficients in front of
the compounds to balance the
reaction, but you may not change the
subscripts.
Changing the subscripts changes the
compound. Subscripts are determined
by the valence electrons (charges for
ionic or sharing for covalent)
Think back to naming compounds/
determining formulas. NaCl exists,
because Na is + and Cl is -, but NaCl 2
does NOT exist since you would not
have a neutral compound! You cant
just add a number to a formula to
balance an equation.
Molecular Weight and Formula Weight
The molecular weight of a substance is
the sum of the atomic weights of all
the atoms in a molecule of the
substance.
The formula weight of a substance is
the sum of the atomic weights of all
the atoms in one formula unit of the
compound, whether molecular or not.
Mass and Moles of a Substance

Pt

Escaping gas ()
Change of temperature/ heat energy
( or + 3kJ or 3kJ)

The Mole Concept

A mole is defined as the quantity of a given

substance that contains as many molecules
or formula units

The molar mass of a substance is the

mass of one mole of a substance.

For all substances, molar mass,

in grams per mole, is
numerically equal to the
formula weight in atomic mass
units.
That is, one mole of any
element weighs its atomic mass
in grams.

Converting the number of moles

of a given substance into its
mass, and vice versa, is
fundamental to understanding
the quantitative nature of
chemical equations.

moles of " A"

the atomic masses (in amu) in a molecule.

SO2

1S 32.07 amu
2O + 2 x 16.00
amu
SO2

64.07 amu

Molar Mass

Mole calculations

Molecular mass (or molecular weight) is

the sum of

mass of " A"

atomic (or molecular) mass of " A"

Molar mass (formula weight) can be used to

convert from grams to moles, and from
moles to grams

Youaregivenoneofthese
andaskedtofindtheother
GramsofA

Formula weight is the sum of the atomic

masses

MolesofA

Usemolarmass(g/mol)
astheconversionfactor

(in amu) in a formula unit of an ionic

compound.

1Na 22.99 amu

1Cl + 35.45
amu

NaCl

Determining Chemical Formulas

NaCl 58.44
amu

The percent composition of a

compound is the mass percentage of
each element in the compound.

Atomic Weights

We define the mass percentage

of A as the parts of A per
hundred parts of the total, by
mass. That is,

mass % " A"

mass of " A" in whole

100%
mass of the whole

Determining the formula of a

compound from the percent
composition.

The percent composition of a

compound leads directly to its
empirical formula.

An empirical formula (or

simplest formula) for a
compound is the formula of the
substance written with the
smallest integer (whole
number) subscripts.

Molar Interpretation of a Chemical

Equation

Determining the empirical formula

from the percent composition.

For the purposes of this

calculation, we will assume we
have 100.0 grams of benzoic
acid.

Then the mass of each element

equals the numerical value of
the percentage.

Since x, y, and z in our formula

represent mole-mole ratios, we
must first convert these masses
to moles.

An empirical formula gives only

the smallest whole-number ratio
of atoms in a formula.

The molecular formula should

be a multiple of the empirical
formula (since both have the
same percent composition).

To determine the molecular

formula, we must know the
molecular weight of the
compound.

The limiting reactant (or limiting

reagent) is the reactant that is entirely
consumed when the reaction goes to
completion

It is based on the balanced

chemical equation and on the
relationship between mass and
moles.
Such calculations are
fundamental to most
quantitative work in chemistry.

The limiting reagent ultimately

determines how much product
can be obtained.

For example, bicycles require

one frame and two wheels. If
you have 20 wheels but only 5
frames, it is clear that the
number of frames will
determine how many bicycles
can be made.

The theoretical yield of product is

the maximum amount of product that
can be obtained from given amounts
of reactants.

The percentage yield is the actual

yield (experimentally determined)
expressed as a percentage of the
theoretical yield (calculated).

Stoichiometry is the calculation of the

quantities of reactants and products
involved in a chemical reaction.

Theoretical and Percent Yield

Stoichiometry: Quantitative Relations in

Chemical Reactions

For example, the Haber process

for producing ammonia involves
the reaction of hydrogen and
nitrogen.

Limiting Reagent

Determining the molecular

formula from the empirical
formula.

The balanced chemical equation can

be interpreted in numbers of
molecules, but generally chemists
interpret equations as mole-tomole relationships.

%Yield

actual yield
100%
theoretica l yield

Law of Conservation of Mass

When a chemical reaction occurs, new

compounds are created, BUT

No new matter is created or

destroyed; atoms are just

rearranged as the atoms

change partners to form new
compounds.

If there are 3 atoms of oxygen

in the reactants, there MUST be
3 atoms of oxygen in the
products.

Formulas of Ionic Compounds

Formulas of ionic compounds are
determined from the charges on the
ions

Number of each atom in

reactants = number of each
atom in products.

The law of conservation of mass:

Mass of reactants = mass of
products

Percent Composition
the percentage by mass of each
element in a compound

The resulting cation and anion are

attracted to each other by
electrostatic forces.

atoms
Na
NaF

ions

F :

Na+

:F:

sodium + fluorine
formula
Charge balance:
= 0

sodium fluoride
1+

1-

Formulas
Percent composition allow you to
calculate the simplest ratio among the atoms
found in compound.
Empirical Formula formula of a
compound that expresses lowest whole
number ratio of atoms.
Molecular Formula actual formula
of a compound showing the number of atoms
present

Writing a Formula
Write the formula for the ionic
compound that will form between Ba2+ and
Cl.
Solution:
1. Balance charge with + and ions
2. Write the positive ion of metal first,
and the
negative ion

NOMENCLATURE

Cl
Cl

Ba2+

Forms of Chemical Bonds

There are 3 forms bonding atoms:

Ioniccomplete transfer of 1 or more

electrons from one atom to another
(one loses, the other gains)

Covalentsome valence electrons

shared between atoms

_________ holds atoms of a metal

together

Properties of Ionic Compounds

Forming NaCl from Na and Cl2

A metal atom can transfer an electron

to a nonmetal.

3. Write the number of ions needed as

subscripts

BaCl2

Naming Compounds
Binary Ionic Compounds:

1. Cation first, then anion

2. Monatomic cation = name of the

element

Ca2+ = calcium ion

3. Monatomic anion = root + -ide

Cl- = chloride

CaCl2 = calcium chloride

Transition Metals

Aluminum hydrogen

Elements that can have more than one

possible charge MUST have a Roman
Numeral to indicate the charge on the
individual ion.

carbonate

Polyatomic Ions
You can make additional polyatomic ions by
adding a H+ to the ion!
CO3

-2

is carbonate

HCO3 is hydrogen carbonate

H2PO4 is dihydrogen phosphate

Naming Molecular Compounds

Molecular (Covalent) Nomenclature
for two nonmetals

Prefix System (binary compounds)

1. Less electronegative atom

comes first.

HSO4 is hydrogen sulfate

Ternary Ionic Nomenclature
Writing Formulas

Write each ion, cation first. Dont

show charges in the final formula.

Overall charge must equal zero.

If charges cancel, just write

symbols.

If not, use subscripts to balance

charges.

Use parentheses to show more than

one of a particular polyatomic ion.

Use Roman numerals indicate the ions

charge when needed (stock system)

2. Add prefixes to indicate # of atoms. Omit

mono- prefix on the FIRST element. Mono- is
OPTIONAL on the SECOND element (in this
class, its NOT optional!).
3. Change the ending of the
second element to -ide.
Overall strategy for naming chemical
compounds.

Naming Ternary Compounds

Contains at least 3 elements
There MUST be at least one
polyatomic ion
(it helps to circle the ions)
Examples:
NaNO3

Sodium nitrate

K2SO4

Potassium sulfate

Al(HCO3)3

Aluminum bicarbonate
or

A flow chart for naming binary

compounds.

Acid Nomenclature

Acids

Compounds that form H+ in

water.

Formulas usually begin with H.

In order to be an acid instead of

a gas, binary acids must be
aqueous (dissolved in water)

Ternary acids are ALL aqueous

Examples:

HCl

HNO3 nitric acid

H2SO4 sulfuric acid

(aq)

hydrochloric acid

Acid Nomenclature Flowchart

Four Types of Naming

Binary compounds

Ternary compounds

Coordination compounds

Organic compounds

Binary Compounds
Metals (fixed oxidation) + Nonmetals
Binary compounds that contain a metal of
fixed oxidation number
(group 1, group 2, Al, Zn, Ag, etc.), and a
non-metal.
To name these compounds, give the name of
metal followed by the

name of the non-metal, with the ending

replaced by the suffix ide.
Molecular Compound

Bond
Formation

e- are
transferr
ed from
metal to
nonmetal

e- are
shared
between
two
nonmeta
ls

electrons
are
delocaliz
ed
among
metal
atoms

Type of
Structure

crystal
lattice

true
molecule
s

electron
sea

Physical
State
Melting
Point

Solid

Liquid or
Gas
Low

solid

Solubility
in
Water
Electrical
Conductivi
ty
Other
Properties

Yes

Usually
Not

no

Yes
(solution
or liquid)

No

yes
(any
form)
malleabl
e,
ductile,
lustrous

A compound containing atoms of two or

more elements that are bonded together by
sharing electrons.
Rules for Parentheses
Parentheses are used only when the
following
two condition are met:
1. There is a radical (polyatomic ion)
present and
2. There are two or more of that radical
in the formula.
Covalent bonding
Fluorine has seven valence electrons

A second F atom also has seven

By sharing electrons

Both end with full orbitals (stable

octets)

Chemical Bonding

High

odorous

Ionic Bonds:
atoms give up or gain
electrons and are
attracted
to each other by
coulombic attraction

very
high

Properties of Metals
conduct heat and electricity;
ductile; malleable
Other Types of Bonds
dipole-dipole forces

Chemical Bond

attractive force between atoms

or ions that binds them together
as a unit
bonds form in order to

decrease potential
energy (PE)

increase stability

London dispersion forces

ion-dipole forces (solutions)

Lewis Structure
Lewis structure:

Types of Bonds
IONIC

hydrogen bonds

COVALE
NT

METALLI
C

a model of a covalent molecule that

shows all of the valence electrons

1. Two shared electrons make a single

covalent bond,
four make a double bond, etc.
2. unshared pairs: pairs of un-bonded
valence electrons
3. Each atom needs a full outer shell, i.e., 8
electrons.
Exception: H needs 2 electrons
covalent compounds = molecular
compounds
(have lower melting points than do ionic
compounds)
Writing Formulas of Ionic Compounds
chemical formula:
has neutral charge;
shows types of atoms and how many
of each
To write an ionic compounds formula, we
need:
1. the two types of ions
2. the charge on each ion

Writing Formulas of Covalent Molecules

Covalent Molecules
contain two types of nonmetals
Key: FORGET CHARGES
What to do:
Use Greek prefixes to indicate how many atoms of
each element, but dont use mono on first
element.

Criss-Cross Rule
criss-cross rule:
charge on cation / anion
becomes subscript of anion / cation
** Warning: Reduce to lowest
terms.
Writing Formulas w/Polyatomic Ions
Parentheses are required only when
you need more than one bunch of a
particular polyatomic ion.

1 mono

6 hexa

2 di

7 hepta

3 tri

8 octa

4 tetra

9 nona

5 penta

10 deca

Traditional (OLD) System of

Nomenclature
used historically (and still some today)
to name compounds w/multiple-charge
cations
To use:
1. Use Latin root of cation.
2. Use -ic ending for higher charge

 -ous

lower

3. Then say name of anion, as usual.

Element
-ous
gold, Au
Au1+

Latin root

-ic
Au3+

aur-

lead, Pb

plumb-

Pb

Sn4+

stann-

copper, Cu
iron, Fe
Fe3+

Cu2+

cuprCu1+

3+

cobalt (III)

cobaltic

Co

2+

cobalt (II)

cobaltous

Sn

4+

Sn

2+

tin (II)

stannous

Pb

4+

lead (IV)

plumbic

Pb

2+

Hg

2+

tin (IV)
stannic

4+

Pb2+
tin, Sn
Sn2+

Co

lead (II)
plumbous

Hg2

2+

mercury (II)

mercuric

mercury (I)

mercurous

*Mercury (I) ions are always bound

together in pairs to form Hg2 2+

ferrFe2+

Binary Molecular Compounds

Nonmetal + Nonmetal
To name these compounds, give the name
of the less electronegative element first with
the Greek prefix indicating the number of
atoms of that element present, followed by
the name of the more electronegative nonmetal with the Greek prefix indicating the
number of atoms of that element present
and with its ending replaced by the suffix
ide.

Binary Compounds
Metals (variable oxidation) +
Nonmetals
To name these compounds, give the
name of the metal (Type II cations) followed
by Roman numerals in parentheses to
indicate the oxidation number of the metal,
followed by the name of the nonmetal, with
its ending replaced by the suffix ide.
Type II Cations
Ion
Stock System
Traditional System
Fe
ferric

3+

Fe

2+

iron (III)

iron (II)
ferrous

Cu

2+

copper (II)

cupric

Cu

1+

copper (I)

cuprous

N2O

dinitrogen monoxide

N2O3

dinitrogen trioxide

N2O5

dinitrogen pentoxide

Ternary Compounds
Ternary compounds are those containing
three different elements.
(NaNO3, NH4Cl, etc.). The naming of ternary
compounds involves the memorization of
several positive and negative polyatomic
ions, (two or more atoms per ion), and
adding these names to the element with
which they combine.
i.e., Sodium ion, Na1+ added to the nitrate
ion, NO31-,
to give the compound, NaNO 3,
sodium nitrate.

Binary rules for indicating the oxidation

number of metals and for indicating the
numbers of atoms present are followed. The
polyatomic ions that should be learned are
listed in a separate handout.