Biology Study Guide Semestral

CH. 1: The nature of life

1.1: What is science?

The goal of science is to provide natural explanation for events in the natural

world.
Science also gives us those explanations to understand patterns in nature

and to make predictions.

Scientific method observing, asking questions, making inferences,
hypothesis, conducting control experiments, collecting data, analyzing data
and drawing conclusion.

Vocabulary

Science: organized way of getting and analyzing evidence about the natural

world
Observation: act of notice and describing events or processes in a careful,

orderly way
Inference: a logical interpretation based on what scientists already know.
Hypothesis: Scientific explanation for a set of observations that can be

tested in ways that support it

Controlled Experiment: experiment in which only one variable is changed
Independent Variable: factor in a controlled experiment that is manipulated

variable
Dependent Variable: responding to the independent variable
Control Group: group in an experiment that is exposed to the same

conditions as the experimental group except for one independent variable

Data: evidence; information gained from observation
1.2: Science in context
Curiosity, skepticism, open mindedness, and creativity help scientist

generate new ideas.

Publishing peer-review articles allows researchers to share ideas.
The word theory applies to a well-tested explanation that unifies a broad
range of observations and hypotheses and that enables scientist to make
accurate predictions about new situations.

Vocabulary

Theory: evidence from many scientific studies may support several related

hypothesis in a way that inspires researchers to propose a scientific theory.

Bias: is a particular preference or point of view that is personal.

1.3: Studying Life

Living things are made up of cells, they are based on a universal genetic
code, obtain and use materials and energy, grow and develop, reproduce,
respond to their environment, maintain a stable internal environment, and

change over time.

The study of biology revolves big ideas:
The cellular basis of life;
Information and heredity;
Matter and energy;
Growth, development, and reproduction;
Homeostasis;
Evaluation;
Structure and function;
Unity and diversity of life;
Independence on nature;
Science as a way of knowing
Most scientists use the metric system when collecting data and doing
experiments

Vocabulary

Biology: is the study of life.

DNA: organisms stored the complex information they need to live, grow, and

reproduce in a genetic code.

Stimulus: is a signal to which an organism responds.
Sexual reproduction: cell from two parents unite to form the first cell of a

new organism.
Asexual reproduction: single organism produces offspring identical to

itself.
Homeostasis: all organisms need to keep the internal environment

relatively stable.
Metabolism: all organisms most take in materials energy to grow, develop,
and reproduce. So the combination of chemical reaction, which an organism
builds up, and break down is metabolism.

Biosphere: living planet.

CH. 2: The chemistry of life

2.1: The nature of matter

Subatomic particles that make up atoms:

Protons+
Neutrons
ElectronsAll isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties, because they

have the same number of electrons

The physical and chemical properties of a compound are usually different

from those of the elements from which it is formed

Main type of chemical bonds:
Ionic bonds
Covalent bonds

Vocabulary

Atom: basic unit of matter.

Nucleus: strong forces bind protons and neutrons together to form the

nucleus as the center of the atom.

Electron: negatively charged particle.
Element: pure substance that consists entirely of one type of atom.
Isotope: atoms of the same element that differ in the number of neutrons.
Compound: substance formed by the chemical combination of two or more

elements in definite proportions.

Ionic bond: form when one or more electrons are transfer from one atom to

another.
Ion: positively and negatively charged atoms.
Covalent bond: moving electrons travel about the nuclei of both atoms.
Molecule: is the smallest unit of most compounds.
Van de waals forces: can hold molecules together, especially when the
molecules are large.

2.2: Properties of water

Water is a polar molecule, it is able to form multiple hydrogen bonds, which

account for many of its special properties

Waters polarity keeps its ability to dissolve ionic compounds
Buffers play an important role in maintaining homeostasis in organism.

Vocabulary

Hydrogen bond: the attraction between a hydrogen atom with a partial

positive charge and another atom with a partial negative charge.

Cohesion: is an attraction between molecules of the same substance.
Adhesion: is an attraction between molecules of different substances.
Mixture: is a material composed of two or more elements or compounds

that are physically mixed together but not chemically combined.

Solution: the ions gradually become disperse in water, forming a type of

mixture.
Solute: the substance that is dissolved.
Solvent: the substance in which the substance is dissolved.
Suspension: some materials do not dissolve when placed in water,

separate into pieces so small that they do not settle out.

PH scale: chemist divides a measurement system.
Acid: is any compound that forms h ions in solutions.
Base: is a compound that produces hydroxide ions in solutions.
Buffer: is week acid or basis that can react with strong acids or basis to
prevent sharp, so then changes in PH.

2.3: Carbon Compounds

Carbon can bond with hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulfur and nitrogen to

form the molecules of life

Living things use carbohydrates as their main source of energy
Lipids can be used to store energy, some lipids are important parts of

biological membranes and waterproof coverings

Nucleic acids store and transmit hereditary, or genetic information.
Properties control the rain of reactions and regulate self process, other
proteins build tissues such as bone and muscles, other transport materials
or help to fight diseases.

Vocabulary

Monomer: single part.

Polymer: many parts.
Carbohydrate: are compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

atoms, usually in a radio off 1: 2: 1.

Monosaccharide: single sugar molecule.

Lipid: are a large and varied group of biological molecules that are

generally not soluble in water. Are made mostly of hydrogen and carbon.
Nucleic acid: are macromolecules containing hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,

carbon and phosphorus.

Nucleotide: subunit of which nucleic acids are composed; made up of a 5

carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.

Protein: are macromolecules that contain nitrogen as well as carbon,

hydrogen, and oxygen.

Amino acid: are compounds with an amino group on one end and a
carboxyl group on the other end.

2.4: Chemical reactions and enzyme

Chemical reactions involve changes in the chemical bonds that join atoms

in compounds
Chemical reactions that absorb energy could not occur without a source of

energy
Enzymes speed up chemical reactions that are in cells

Vocabulary

Chemical reaction: a process that changes or transforms one set of

chemicals into another.

Reactant: the element or compounds that enter into a chemical reaction.
Product: the element of compound produce by a chemical reaction.
Activation energy: energy that is needed to get a reaction started.
Catalyst: is a substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction.
Enzyme: are proteins that act as biological catalysts.
Substrate: the reactant of enzyme-catalyzed reactions.

CH. 7: Cell structure and function

7.1: Life is cellular

Cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things
New cells are produced from existing cells
Most microscopic use lenses to magnify the image of an object by focusing
light or electrons.

Prokaryotic cells do not separate their genetic material within a nucleus

Eukaryotic cells, the nucleus separates the genetic material from the rest of
the cell

Vocabulary

Cells: are the basic units of life.

Cell theory: a fundamental concept of biology. All living things are made up
of cells. Cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things.

New cells are produced from existing cells.

Cell membrane: a thing flexible barrier.
Nucleus: a large membrane enclosed structure that contains genetic

material in the form of DNA and controls many of the cells activities.
Eukaryotes: are cells that enclosed their DNA in nuclei.
Prokaryotes: are cells that do not enclose in nuclei.

7.2: Cell structure

Nucleus contain nearly all the cells DNA, the code instructions for making

proteins and other important molecules

Vacuoles store materials like water, salts, proteins, and carbohydrates
Lysosomes breakdown large molecules into smaller ones that can be used

by the cell
Cytoskeletons helps the cell maintain its shape and is also involve in

movement
Proteins are assembly on ribosomes, they made on the rough ER include
those that would be realized from the cell as well as many membrane

proteins
Golgi apparatus then modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and other

materials for storage in the cell or release outside the cell

Chloroplasts capture energy from sunlight and convert it into food that

contains chemical energy in a process called photosynthesis

Mitochondria convert the chemical energy stored in food into compounds

that are made convenient for the cell to use

The cell membrane regulates what enters and leaves the cell, protects the
cells

Vocabulary

Cytoplasm: is the potion of the cell outside the nucleus.

Organelles: specialized organs of a cell.

Vacuoles: large, saclike, membrane-enclosed structures.

Lysosomes: small organelles fill with enzyme.
Cytoskeleton: network of protein filaments.
Centrioles: are formed from tubulins, located near the nucleus and helped

organize cell division.

Ribosomes: are small particles of RNA and protein found through out the

cytoplasm in all cells.

Endoplasmic reticulum: an internal membrane system, is where lipid
components of the cell membrane are assemble, along with proteins in

other materials that are exported of the cell.

Golgi apparatus: organelle in cells that modifies, sorts, and packages
proteins and other materials from the endoplasmic reticular for storage in

the cell or release outside the cell.

Chloroplast: biological equivalent of solar power plants.
Mitochondria: are the power plants of the cell.
Cell wall: a strong supportive layer around the membrane.
Lipid bilayer: gives cell membranes a flexible structure that forms a strong

barrier between the cell and in surroundings.

Selectively permeable: some substances can pass across them and
others cannot.

7.3: Cell transport

Passive transport: includes diffusion and osmosis, is the movement of

materials across the cell membrane without cellular energy

The movement of materials against a concentration difference is no as
active transport, it requires energy

Vocabulary

Diffusion: the driving force behind the movement of many substances

across the cell membrane.

Facilitated diffusion: process in which molecules that cannot directly

diffuses across the membrane pass throughout special protein channels.

Aquaporin: cells that contain water channels proteins.
Osmosis: diffusion of water through a selectivity permeable membrane.
Isotonic: same strength.
Hypertonic: above strength.
Hypotonic: below strength.

Osmotic pressure: the net movement of water out of or into a cell produces
a force.

7.4: Homeostasis and Cells

To maintain homeostasis, unicellular organisms grow, respond to

environment, transform energy, and reproduce

The cells of multicellular organisms became specialized for particular tasks
and communicate with one and other to maintain homeostasis

Vocabulary

Homeostasis: relatively constant internal physical and chemical condition

the same.
Tissue: a group of similar cells that perform a particular function.
Organ: many groups of tissue works together.
Organ system: a group of organs that work together to perform a specific

function.
Receptor: on or in a cell, an espefsific protein to whose shape fits that off a
specific molecular messenger, such as hormones.

CH. 10: Cell growth and Division

10.1: Cell growth, division and reproduction

The large a cell becomes, the more demands the cell plays on itr DNA
In addition, a large cell is less efficient in moving nutrients and waste

materials across the cell membrane

A sexual reproduction is the production of genetically identical offspring of a

single parent
Offspring produced by sexual reproduction inherit some of their genetic
information from each parent

Vocabulary

Cell division: the process by which a cell divides into new daughter cells.
Asexual reproduction: single parent.
Sexual reproduction: inherits some of their genetic information from each
parent.

10.2: The process of cell division

Chromosomes make it possible to separate DNA precisely during cell

division
During the cell cycle, a cell grows, prepares for division, and divides to from

2 daughter cells
Prophase: the genetic material inside the nucleus condenses
Metaphase: the chromosomes line up across the center of the cell
Anaphase: the chromosomes separate and move along spinal figures to

opposite ends of the cell

Telophase: the chromosomes, which were distinct and condensed, begging

to separate out into a tangle of chromatin

Cytokinesis complete the process of the cell division, it splits one cell into 2

Vocabulary

Chromosomes: genetic information is bonded into package of DNA.

Chromatin: the chromosomes in a eukaryotic cell form a close association

with histones, a type of protein.

Cell cycle: cell go through a series of events.
Interphase: period of the cell cycle between cell division.
Mitosis: division of the cell nucleus.
Cytokinesis: division of the cytoplasm.
Prophase: material inside the nucleus condenses and duplicate

chromosomes become visible. Outside the nucleus, a spindle starts to form.

Centromere: region of a chromosome were the two sisters chromatids

attach.
Chromatid: one of two identical sisters, parts of a duplicated chromosome.
Centrioles: structure in an animal cell that helps to organize cell division.
Metaphase: centromeres duplicate chromosomes to line up across the
center of the cell. Spindle fibers connect the centromere of each

chromosome of the two poles of the spindle.

Anaphase: chromosomes separate and move along spindle fibers to

opposite ends of the cell.

Telophase: chromosomes, which were distinct and condensed, begin to
separate out into a tangle of chromatin.

10.3: Regulating the Cell Cycle

Regulatory proteins both inside and outside the cell control cell cycle.
Cancer cells do not respond to the signals that regulate the growth of most
cells. As a result, the cells divide uncontrollably.

Vocabulary

Cycling: one of a family of proteins that regulates the cell cycle in

eukaryotic cells.
Growth factors: stimulate the growth and division of the cell.
Apoptosis: process of a programed cell dead.
Cancer: disorder in which body cells loose the ability to control growth.
Tumor: cancer cells formed a mass of cells.

10.4: cell differentiation

During the development of an organism, cells differentiate into many types

of cells.
Steam cells offer the potential benefit of using undifferentiating cells to repair

or replace badly damage cells and tissues.

Human embryonic steam cells research is controversial because the
arguments for it and against it both involved ethical issues of life and dead.

Vocabulary

Embryo: developing stage of multicellular organism.

Differentiation: the process by which cells became specialized.
Totipotent: cells that are able to develop into any type of cell founding the

body.
Blastocyst: a stage of early development in mammals that consist f a

hollow ball of cells.

Pluripotent: cells that are capable of developing into most, but not all, of

the body cell types.

Multipotent: cell with limited potential to develop into many types of

differentiation cells.
Steam cell: unspecialized cell that can give rise to one or more types or
specialized cells.

CH. 16: Darwins theory of evolution

16.1: Darwins buoyage of discovery

Darwin develops a scientific theory of biological evolution that explains how

modern organisms evolved over long period of time through decent from

common ancestors.
Darwin notice:

-Ecologically similar, animals species inhabited separate, but

ecologically similar, habits around the globe.
-Animal species often occupy different habits within a local area.
-Some fossils of stink animals were similar to living species.
Vocabulary

Evolution: the process of change during time.

Fossils: the preserved remains or traces of ancient organisms.

16.2: ideas that shape Darwin thinking

Jutton and Lyell conclude that earth is extremely old and that the process
that change earth in the past are the same process that operate in the

present.
Lamarck suggest that organisms could change during there lifetimes by
selectable using or not using various parts of their bodies. He also
suggested that individuals could pass these accurate trades on to their

offspring, enabling species to change overtime.

Mathieu reasoned that if the human population grew unchecked, they would

not be enough living space and food for everyone.

In artificial selection, nature provides the variations, and humans select
those they found useful.

Vocabulary

Artificial selection: selectively breading of plants and animals to promote

the occurrence of desirable traits in offspring.

16.3: Darwin present his case

Natural selection occurs in any situation in which more individuals are born

than can survive.

According to the principal of common descends, all species living and
extinct are descended of ancient common ancestors.

Vocabulary

Adaptation: any heritable characteristic that increases an organisms ability

to survive and reproduce in its environment.

Fitness: describes how well an organism can survive and reproduce in its

environment.
Natural selection: the process by which organisms with variations most
suited to their local environment survive and leave more offspring

16.4: evidence of evolution

Patterns in the distribution of living and fossil species tell us how modern

organisms evolve from their ancestors.

Many recently discover fossils formed series that trace the evolution of

modern species from extinct ancestors.

Evolutionary theory explains the existence of homologous structures
adapted to different purposes as the result of descent with modification

from a common ancestor.

The universal genetic code and homologous molecules provide evidence
of common descent.

Vocabulary

Biogeography: is the study of where organisms live now and where they

and their ancestors lived in the past.

Homologous structures: structures that are shared by related species and

that have been inherited from a common ancestor.

Analogous structures: body parts that share common function, but not

structure.
Vestigial structures: are inherited from ancestors, but have lost much or all
of their original function due to different selection pressures acting on the
descendant.

CH. 18: classification

108.1

In binomial nomenclature, each species is assigned a two part specific

name.
The goal of systematics is to organize living things into groups that have

biological meaning.
Linnaeus original classification system expands to include seven
hierarchical taxa: species, genus, family, order, class, phylum and kingdom.

Vocabulary

Binomial nomenclature: a two-word naming system

Genus: a group of similar species
Systematics: the science of naming and grouping organisms
Taxa: group or level of organization into which organisms are classified
Family: several genera that that share many similarities are grouped in a

large category, the family

Order: closely related families are grouped into the next larger rank, order.
Class: similar orders are grouped into the next larger rank, class.
Phylum: classes are grouped into a phylum
Kingdom: The largest and most inclusive of Linnaeuss taxonomic
categories is the kingdom.

18.2: modern e evolutionary classification

The goal of phylogenetic systematics, evolutionary classification, is to

group species into large categories that reflects lines of evolutionary

descent, rather overall similarities and differences.

The more derived genetic characters two species share, the more
recently they share a common ancestor and the more closely they are
related in evolutionary terms.

Vocabulary

Phylogeny: the evolutionary history of lineages

Clade: a group of species that includes a single common ancestor and all

descendants of that ancestor living and existing.

Monophyletic group: includes a single common ancestor and all of its

descendants.
Cladogram: links groups of organisms by showing how evolutionary lines,

or lineages, branched off from common ancestors.

Deriver character: is a trait that arose in the most recent common ancestor
of a particular lineage and was passed along to its descendants.

18.3: building the tree of life

Six kingdoms:
- Eubacteria
- Archibateria
- Protista
- Fungi
- Plantae
- Animalia

The tree of life chose current hypothesis regarding evolutionary

relationships among the taxa within the tree domains of life.

Vocabulary

Domain: is a large more inclusive category than a kingdom

Bacteria: are unicellular and prokaryotic.
Archaea: live in some of the most extreme environments, in volcanic hot

springs, brine pools, and black organic mud totally devoid of oxygen.
Eukarya: consists of all the organisms that have a nucleus.