DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF BRAKE PAD

BY USING GLASS FIBRE

A TERM PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

S.P.SARAVANAPANDIYAN
In partial fulfillment for the award of the degreeof

MASTER OF ENGINEERING
IN
CAD/CAM

THE KAVERY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, MECHERI

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
ANNA UNIVERSITY, CHENNAI-600 025
DEC- 2015

ANNA UNIVERSITY, CHENNAI

1

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this term project titled DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF BRAKE PAD
BY USING GLASS FIBRE is the bonafide work of Mr.S.P.SARAVANAPANDIYAN
(612614402005) who carried out the research under my supervision. Certified further, that
to the best of my knowledge the work reported herein does not form part of any other
project report or dissertation on the basis of which a degree or award was conferred on an
earlier occasion on this or any other candidate.

Signature of HOD with date

Signature of Supervisor with date

MrG. RAMALINGAM, M.E.,

Mr. M. UMASHANKAR, M.E.

Associate Professor and Head

Assistant Professor

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

The Kavery Collage Of Engineering

The Kavery Collage Of Engineering

Mecheri, Salem 636453.

Mecheri, Salem 636453.

Submitted for the university examination held on ..

Internal Examiner

External Examiner

ABSRACT

In the automotive repair industry, many consumers purchase brake lining

with a good performance.
These pads (or) lining use a much harder lining than traditional brake lining and tend
to cause excessive wear of the much more expensive rotors or drums. For that
reason,
Our project aim is to be improving performance of the brake liner with considering of
wear resistant, thermal stability and friction properties.
Synthetic asbestos free brake liner are replacing by the glass fibre materials with the
Epoxy resin.
.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

At this pleasing movement of having successfully completed our term project, I wish
to convey my sincere thanks and gratitude to the management of our college and our
Honorable chairman Dr. A.K.NATESAN and Advisor Mr. A.ANBALAGAN who provided
all the facilities to us.
I

express

my

thanks

to

our

Secretary

Prof.S.K.ELANGOVAN,

CorrespondentMr.R.RAMANATHAN, Dean Prof Mr S.OBLI and Co-Coordinator

Mrs.S.V.REVATHY ELANGOVANfor their inspiring support.
We would like to express our sincere thanks to our principal Dr.T.K.KANNANM.E.,
Ph.D., for forwarding us to do our project and offering adequate duration in completing our
project.
We are also grateful to the Head of the Department Mr. G. RAMALINGAM M.E.,
for his constructive suggestions & encouragement during our project.
With deep sense of gratitude, we extend our earnest sincere thanks to guide Mr.M.
UMASHANKAR M.E., Associate Professor of Mechanical Engineering for his valuable
guidance and encouragement to complete this project we also express our indebt thanks to
our teaching staff and other staff members of Mechanical Engineering Department for
rendering their valuable support.

DECLARATION

I affirm that the term project titled DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF BRAKE
PAD BY USING GLASS FIBRE , being submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of
M.E degree is the original work carried out by me. It has not formed the part of any other
thesis submitted for award of any degree or diploma, either in this or any other university.

(Signature of the candidate)

S.P.SARAVANAPANDIYAN
Register No: 612614402005

I certify that the declaration made above by the candidate is true.

(Signature of Guide)
Mr. M. UMASHANKAR
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR / MECH

TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER NO

TITLE

PAGE NO.

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

ii

ABSTRACT

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

DECLARATION

vi

TABLE OF CONTENT

vi

LIST OF FIGURES

Ii

LIST OF TABLES

Iii

ASBESTOS FREE BRAKE PAD

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Experiment

1.3 Results and discussion

1.4 Disadvantages

1.5 Conclusions

10

GLASS FIBRE

11

2.1 Introduction

11

2.2 Continuous fibre reinforcement

composites

12

2.3 Discontinuous fibre reinforcement

compositions

12

2.4 Discontinuousfibre reinforcement

compositions rondom orientation

13

2.5 Fibre formation

13

2.6 Characteristics

15

E GLASS FIBRE
3.1 Introduction

CHAPTER

16

TITTLE

PAGE NO

3.2 Composition of E-glass fibre(%)

16

3.3 Properties

17

3.3.1 Thermal

17

3.3.2 Tensile

17

3.4 Advantages

18

EPOXY

19

4.1 Introduction

19

4.2Specifying glass fibre for resin matrices

20

4.3 Epoxy Resin

20

4.4 Curing Epoxy Resin

21

4.5 Adhesives

23

4.6 Comparision Of Resin Properties

23

4.6.1 Adhesive properties

24

4.6.2 Mechanical Properties

25

4.6.3 Micro Crack

25

4.6.4 Degradation from water ingress

26

4.7 Application
5

16

26

GLASS FIBRE/EPOXY BRAKE PAD

27

5.1 Introduction

27

5.2 Composition of glass fibre brake pad

28

5.3 Preparing glass fibre/epoxy brake pad

CHAPTER

TITTLE

28

PAGE NO

5.4 Production Process

29

5.5 handling of the backing plate

30

5.6 Main Process

30

5.7 Experiment

33

5.7.1 Hardness Test

34

5.7.2 Friction Test

35

5.7.2.1 Procedure Of Testing

35

5.7.3 Wear test

36

5.7.4 Thermal Stability Test

37

RESULTS AND COMPARISION

38

6.1 Comparing the glassfibre/epoxy

brake pad with phenolic friction pad

38

6.2 Advantages

39
CONCLUSION

40

REFERENCES

41

LIST OF FIGURES

CHAPTER

TITTLE

PAGE NO

Asbestos free brake pad

Plot of wear vs time

The variation of co efficient of friction

exhibited by
the sample under variying
load condition

Plot of thermogravimetric analysis carried out

to determine the temperature resistance of the
sample

Glass fibre

11

Discontinuousfibre

12

Formation of glass fibre

14

Chopped strand

14

Epoxy GY250

19

Structure of epoxy GY250 resin

20

Comparision of Tensile Strength and Stiffness

of Resins

25

TypicalFibre Reinforced Plastic Stress/Strain

Graph.

25

Effect of period of water soak at 100 on resin

inter-laminar shear strength

26

Glass Fibre/Epoxy brake pad

27

Block Diagram Of Brake Pad Preparation

28

Brake production process

29

Molding die

30

Glass fibre/Epoxy pad

31

Hardness test

34

Friction test

35

Wear test

36

Thermal stability test

37

LIST OF TABLE
CHAPTER

TITTLE

PAGE NO

Table of properties,result,units for standard

phenolic brake lining

Properties of E-Glass fibre

17

Comparision Of Glass Fibre/Epoxy Brake Pad

With Standard Phenolic friction Pad

38

CHAPTER-I
ASBESTOS FREE BRAKE PAD
1.1 Introduction:
The purpose of friction brakes is to decelerate a vehicle by transforming the
kinetic energy of the vehicle to heat, via friction, and dissipating that heat to the
surroundings. As a part of a commercial truck or automobile, brake materials have
additional requirements, like resistance to corrosion, light weight, long life, low
noise, stable friction, low wear rate, and acceptable cost versus performance. There
are two common types of friction brakes - drum/shoe brakes and l 3 disk/pad brakes.
The design of the brakes affects heat flow, reliability, noise characteristics, and ease
of maintenance. History records the use of many kinds of materials for brakes
(friction materials). For example, wagon brakes used wood and leather. In fact,
many current brake materials still contain organic-based materials, like polymers and
plant fibers.
High friction materials have applications in automotive, aerospace and
industrial brake systems. High friction compositions are a three-element composition
consisting of a matrix of polymeric blends, reinforcing material, friction and antiwear material. Among the most well known polymeric systems known, the phenolic
10

resins or modified phenolic resins are the well known thermosets with good thermal
stability.
Alternate reinforcing materials are being constantly stu- died. Some known
reinforcing materials in use today are generally fibres of Kevlar, glass, carbon, metal
and so on. Friction imparting materials are typically carbides, oxides, and nitrides in
fine particulate form. Graphite and molybdenum oxide are generally added to
increase resis- tance to wear. Phenolic resins are among the most commonly used
binders in friction materials. They are usually readily mixed with other constituents of
friction material com- posites and therefore, may be used in relatively high con- tent.
They offer resistance to temperatures to the order of 250C, and they char to high
carbon content.
Virtually every manufacturer of automotive friction materials uses phenolics as
the binder. However, phenolic resins are not without their limitations.

Figure1.1 Asbestos free brake pad

Phenolics are also inherently brittle. For this reason, friction material
composites are modified with tougheners such as epoxy resin. Rubber particles are
added to increase flexibility and increase braking power. Cashew dust at levels of up
to 20 volume percent of the resin content have been added to minimize cracking of
the composite. Cashew nut resin is known to increase friction properties of the base
thermoset resin which otherwise has a hard smooth finish and also makes it abrasion
resistant. Cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) is a naturally occurring chemical monomer
consisting of four alkyl substituted phenols. Cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL), whose
11

main component is cardanol, is a phenol derivative having a meta substituent of a C

15 unsaturated hydro- carbon chain with one to three double bonds.
Its phenolic nature makes it suitable for polymerization into resins by
formaldehyde. Both additives increase the high temperature limit and the high char
yield of a phenolic binder com- posite and provide an improved resin with increased
toughness as measured by compressive strain to failure. This also minimizes the need
for toughening additives as required by phenolics and raises the decomposition/char
yield (as compared to phenolic resin) of a resin-bonded composite. We have used
phenolic resin in combination with epoxy resin, hardeners, rubbers, silicones, cashew
nut resins, reinforcing and friction imparting and modifying fillers to form a vastly
improved brake composition. While a guide to the percentages of some of the
constituting components has been obtained from the references indi- cated, the
appropriate amount of shellac, hardener.
1.2 Experiment
Asbestos free friction liners were synthesized comprising of the following
methodology:
A mould was made to generate disc shaped friction linings. 3 g of phenol formaldehyde was blended with 4 g of epoxy resin. To the uniformly blended mixture
was added 1 g of CNSL along with 08 g of graphite and the resultant composition
mixed well. 08 g of SiC and 22 g of iron fibre were blended into the mixture.
Slowly, 05 g of shellac, 15 g of silica flour and 04 g of silicone resin were added.
On obtaining a uniform blend, 1 g of rubber solution and 06 g of trisphenol hardener
were added. The above ratio of pheno- lic resin and epoxy resin gave a pot life of 4
10 min. The mixture was blended and transferred to a mould for com- paction. After
allowing the mixture to harden partially, it was compacted in a press at a pressure of
about 200 psi to give the shape of the mould. The compacted sample was then
subjected to a pre- liminary curing process at 60C for 2 h after which it was post
cured at 180C for 3 h.
12

The prepared sample was then characterized using a scanning electron

microscope. For carrying out the elec- tron microscopy, the samples were gold coated
to improve quality of the images. Scanning electron microscopy was done on the
samples before and after they were subjected to friction testing using a JEOL JSM
5600LV. The wear tests were done using a pin on disc wear test setup. The setup was
connected to a computer to compute the results. Wear testing was done using samples
of 10 mm diameter. Each sample was tested by sliding it against a steel disc and the
friction and wear characteris- tics of the sample was then obtained from the test.
Samples were also subjected to a thermogravimetric analysis to determine the
temperature resistance of the composite prepared. About 115 mg of the sample was
used in thermogravimetric analysis studies.

13

1.3 Results and discussion

The brake lining material is made up of (a) fibrous mate- rials, (b) abrasive
particles, (c) anti-wear materials, (d) fillers and (e) binders, curing agents and heat
and wear resistance additives. The resin binder is a critical compo- nent. The limits of
heat resistance and strength of the frictional material are governed largely by the heat
resis- tance and strength of the resin binder. The temperature attained in high
performance braking systems is hot enough to decompose phenolics and similar
organics by high temperature oxidation. The phenolic resin first chars, which means it
is converted to carbon accompanied by loss of mass, and then ablates into carbon
dioxide. Pheno- lic resins are highly brittle by nature, thus to reduce the brittle nature
of the composite, specific ratios of epoxy resin and rubber particles are used. This
improves the toughness of the resin-bonded mixture. The composite thus consists of
phenolic resin and epoxy resin that func- tion as the base matrix.
The matrix is strengthened by reinforcing materials of Fe fibres and friction
materials comprising of SiC. Graphite and silica flour are added to act as anti-wear
additives and the addition of silicone resins acts as a fire retardant. The cashew nut
resin is added to improve the temperature resistance of the composite. Shellac is a
natural, organic resin that comes from an in- sect, Lacciferalacca, that is about the
size of an apple seed, used to improve the hardness of the composition. The rubber
solution helps reducing the brittle nature of the phenolic base. A curing agent in the
form of tris phenol (DMP 30, 2,4,6-tri dimethylaminomethyl phenol) is used to
improve the curing time.
The percentage of each component has been selected by trying various
permutations and combinations in the percentages for the phenolic and epoxy levels.
The same has been done to select the percentages of other filler materials, hardener
and the like. For example, a higher percentage of phenolic content created a
composite which was extremely brittle. Higher percentages of shellac re- sulted in a
composite which was very hard but with re- duced friction characteristics. Similarly,
higher percentages of DMP-30 resulted in composites which hardened ex- tremely
14

rapidly and lost its workability and hence, made it increasingly brittle. Increasing the
percentage of graph- ite content increased the wear resistance but at the cost of
friction coefficient. The filler contents were chosen at percentages which were
optimum for blending and at the same time provided the desired characteristics.
Thus, the appropriate composition as indicated have been obtained after a
number of iterations and trials and errors associ- ated with them, thus optimizing the
process requirements. The friction material synthesized was subjected to a wear test
by making use of a pin on disc wear tester. The tester was coupled to a computer to
generate the results for the plot as shown in figure 1. The sample used for the test
was of 10 mm diameter and is slid against a rotating steel disc. Initially a load of 05
kg is applied on the sample against a speed of 300 rpm of the rotating disc. An initial
period of 200 s is allowed for attaining stability. Beyond this, it is clear from the plot
that there is no wear till the next loading condition. The next loading is applied at
600s, the increasing trend observed during the loading period in the wear plot is
attributed to loading errors. In the region between 600 s .

Figure1.2 The plot of wear vs time.

Asbestos free friction composition for brake linings and 1200 s, a load of 1
kg is applied and the plot again indicates minimal wear during this period with
respect to time. A similar trend is observed for the following loading periods. This
clearly shows that the composite has exem- plary resistance to wear under different
loading condi- tions. The same setup was used to determine the coefficient of friction
of the composite friction lining. The prepared sample was found to exhibit excellent
15

coefficient of fric- tion as illustrated by the plot of coefficient of friction vs load in

figure 2. The coefficient of friction was found to vary between 035 and 045 for
varying load conditions.
The coefficient of friction is governed by the relation
= F/N,
where represents the coefficient of friction of the sam- ple, F the frictional
force and N represents the normal load. The prepared sample was also subjected to a
test for determining the stopping power of the sample on a simi- lar setup (table 1).
The sample was mounted on an arm and the disc was rotated at a fixed arm. The
power supply was then cut-off and the angle of rotation of the disc be- fore it came to
a halt was noted for varying loads and speeds. It is evident from the table that the
high friction characteristics of the sample prepared reduced the rota- tion of the disc
to small angles after cutting off the power which is a necessity for high performance
brake linings. A test was carried out to determine the loss of mass in the sample as a
measure of wear over time. The steel disc

Figure1.3 The variation of coefficient of friction exhibited by the sample under

varying load conditions.

was rotated at 500 rpm for 1800 s. The sample was found to have lost 0002 g in wear
which is almost negligible. This could also be attributed to human errors during
mounting and un-mounting.
16

Figure1.4 Plot of the thermogravimetric analysis carried out to determine the

temperature resistance of the sample.

PROPERTIES
Hardness

UNIT

RESULTS

M Scale

(Rock well scale)

52,48,60,59,55,64,
65,50

Wear

MM

100 deg C/100 appplns

0.18,0.20

200 deg C/100 applns

Co-efficient of Friction

0.28,0.33

Cold
Hot(upto 250 deg C only)
Temperature resistace

------

Deg C

0.421
0.405
500

Table 1.1 properties,units,result for phenolic brake liner

17

1.4 Disadvantages:
(i)

Serious health problems are caused by the use of asbestos (commonly used

(ii)
(iii)

as rein- forcement material in friction linings).

Asbestos fibres are known to cause lung cancer.
Corrosion by the chemical reaction.

1.5 Conclusions
An asbestos free friction material composite for brake linings is synthesized
which contains fibrous reinforcing constituents, friction imparting and controlling
additives, elastomeric additives, fire retarding components and a thermosetting resin.
The composite synthesized was cha- racterized using SEM technique. The samples
were subjected to a number of tests including a wear test, thermogravi- metric
analysis. It was also found to exhibit exemplary friction and anti-wear characteristics
along with provid- ing high temperature stability. The constituents used in the
composite are extremely economical and are hence ap- propriate for industrial
applications. The resins used in the composite are priced in the range of $25 to $3
per kg while the fillers in the range of $025 to $1 per kg. The composite becomes
even more economical when manu- factured in bulk for industrial applications.

18

CHAPTER-2
GLASS FIBRE
2.1 Introduction:
Glass fiber (also spelled glass fibre) is a material consisting of numerous
extremely fine fibers of glass.Glassmakers throughout history have experimented
with glass fibers, but mass manufacture of glass fiber was only made possible with
the invention of finer machine tooling. In 1893, Edward Drummond Libbey exhibited
a dress at the World's Columbian Exposition incorporating glass fibers with
thediameter and texture of silk fibers. This was first worn by the popular stage actress
of the time Georgia Cayvan. Glass fibres can also occur naturally, asPele's hair.
Glass wool, which is commonly known as "fiberglass" today, however, was
invented in 1938 by Russell Games Slayter of Owens-Corning as a material to be
used as insulation. It is marketed under the trade name Fiberglas, which has become
a genericized trademark.

Figure2.1 Glass fibre

19

Glass fiber is commonly used as an insulating material. It is also used as a

reinforcing agent for many polymer products; to form a very strong and lightfiberreinforced polymer (FRP) composite material called glass-reinforced plastic (GRP),
popularly known as "fiberglass". Glass fiber has roughly comparable properties to
other fibers such as polymers and carbon fiber. Although not as strong or as rigid as
carbon fiber, it is much cheaper and significantly less brittle.
Glass fibres are most common of all reinforcing fibres of polymetric matrix
compositions. Fibre glass also called as glass fibre is material made from extremely
fine fibre of glass.
2.2 Continuous fibre reinforcement compositions:

When the fibres are arranged in a continuous manner , i.e. without any
discontinuous in fibre , the composites are called as continuous fibre reinforcement
composites.
2.3 Discontinuous fibre reinforcement compositions:
When the fibres are arranged in a discontinuous manner , i.e. without any
continuity in fibre , the composites are called as discontinuous fibre reinforcement
composites.

Figure2.2 Discontinuousfibre

20

2.4 Discontinuous fibre reinforcement compositions Random orientation:

When the fibre are arranged in a discontinuous and at the same time in random
orientation, the composites are called as discontinuous fibre reinforced composites
preferred orientation. The fibres are either spreaded or mixed with the resin to make
the laminates.
2.5 Fibre formation:
Glass fiber is formed when thin strands of silica-based or other formulation
glass

are extruded into

many

fibers

with

small

diameters

suitable

for textile processing. The technique of heating and drawing glass into fine fibers has
been known for millennia; however, the use of these fibers for textile applications is
more recent. Until this time all glass fiber had been manufactured as staple (a term
used to describe clusters of short lengths of fiber). The first commercial production of
glass fiber was in 1936. In 1938 Owens-Illinois Glass Company and Corning Glass
Works joined to form the Owens-Corning Fiberglas Corporation. When the two
companies joined to produce and promote glass fiber, they introduced
continuous filament glass fibers. Owens-Corning is still the major glass-fiber
producer in the market today.
The types of glass fiber most commonly used are mainly E-glass (aluminoborosilicate glass with less than 1% w/w alkali oxides, mainly used for glassreinforced plastics), but also A-glass (alkali-lime glass with little or no boron oxide),
C-glass (alkali-lime glass with high boron oxide content, used for example for glass
staple fibers), D-glass (borosilicate glass with high dielectric constant), R-glass
(alumino silicate glass without MgO and CaO with high mechanical requirements),
and S-glass (alumino silicate glass without CaO but with high MgO content with high
tensile strength).

21

Figure2.3 Formation of glass fibre

The fabricated fibres are cut into required length of small dimensions.shortfibre
or chopped fibres are shown in the following figure.

Figure2.4 Chopped stran

2.6 Characteristics :
22

(i)
(ii)
(iii)

Strength weight ratio superior

Low density
Thermal conductivity
influences the quick and effective heat

(iv)
(v)

dissipation.
Not environmental damage due to moisture , chemicals, etc.
High temperature resisitance.

CHAPTER-3
E-GLASS FIBRE
3.1 Introduction:

23

E-glass does not really melt, but softens instead, the softening point being "the
temperature at which a 0.550.77 mm diameter fiber 235 mm long, elongates under
its own weight at 1 mm/min when suspended vertically and heated at the rate of 5C
per minute". The strain point is reached when the glass has a viscosity of
1014.5 poise. The annealing point, which is the temperature where the internal
stresses are reduced to an acceptable commercial limit in 15 minutes, is marked by a
viscosity of 10 poise.
3.2 Composition of E-Glass fibre(%):
In the E-Glass fibrethe following composition are consisting,
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)

SiO2
Al 2O3
CaO
MgO2
B2 O3
Na2 O

- 54.5
14.5
- 17
- 4.5
- 8.5
-0.5

3.3 Properties:

3.3.1 Thermal
Glass fibers are useful thermal insulators because of their high ratio of surface
area to weight. However, the increased surface area makes them much more
susceptible to chemical attack. By trapping air within them, blocks of glass fiber
make good thermal insulation, with a thermal conductivity of the order of 0.05 W/
(mK).
24

3.3.2 Tensile

Fiber
type

Tensile

Compressive

strength

strength

(MPa)[8]

(MPa)

E-glass 3445

1080

Densit
y
(g/cm3
)
2.58

Thermal

Softening Pric

expansion

m/(mC)

(C)

$/kg

5.4

846

~2

Table 3.1 Properties of E-Glass fibre

The strength of glass is usually tested and reported for "virgin" or pristine
fibersthose that have just been manufactured. The freshest, thinnest fibers are the
strongest because the thinner fibers are more ductile. The more the surface is
scratched, the less the resulting tenacity. Because glass has an amorphous structure,
its properties are the same along the fiber and across the fiber.Humidity is an
important factor in the tensile strength. Moisture is easily adsorbed, and can worsen
microscopic cracks and surface defects, and lessen tenacity.
In contrast to carbon fiber, glass can undergo more elongation before it
breaks. There is a correlation between bending diameter of the filament and the
filament diameter. The viscosity of the molten glass is very important for
manufacturing success. During drawing (pulling of the glass to reduce fiber
circumference), the viscosity must be relatively low. If it is too high, the fiber will
break during drawing. However, if it is too low, the glass will form droplets rather
than drawing out into fiber
3.4 Advantages :
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

Low cost
Commercially available
Best electrical insulation
Strongly resists attacted by water
25

CHAPTER-4
EPOXY RESING
4.1 Introduction:
Epoxy is both the basic component and the cured end product of epoxy resins,
as well as a colloquial name for the epoxide functional group. Epoxy resins, also
known as polyepoxides are a class of reactive prepolymers and polymers which
contain epoxide groups. Epoxy resins may be reacted (cross-linked) either with
themselves through catalytic homopolymerisation, or with a wide range of coreactants including polyfunctional amines, acids (and acid anhydrides), phenols,
alcohols and thiols. These co-reactants are often referred to as hardeners or curatives,
26

and the cross-linking reaction is commonly referred to as curing. Reaction of

polyepoxides

with

themselves

or

with

polyfunctional

hardeners

forms

a thermosetting polymer, often with high mechanical properties, temperature and

chemical resistance.

Figure4.1 Epoxy GY250

Epoxy has a wide range of applications, including metal coatings, use in
electronics / electrical components, high tension electrical insulators, fiber-reinforced
plastic materials

and

structural adhesives.

Epoxy

resin

is

employed

to

bindguttapercha in some root canal procedures.

4.2 Specifying Glass Fibers for SpecificResin Matrices

Thermosets

Thermoplastics

Polyester

Nylon

Vinyl ester

Polypropylene

Epoxy

Polycarbonate

Polyurethane

Polyethylen Terephthalate

Phenolic

Acetal

4.3 Epoxy resin

The most common and important class of epoxy resins is formed from reacting
epichlorhydrin with bisphenol A to form diglycidyl ethers of bisphenol A. The
27

simplest resin of this class is formed from reacting two moles of epichlorhydrin with
one mole of bisphenol A to form the bisphenolAdiglycidyl ether (commonly
abbreviated to DGEBA or BADGE). DGEBA resins are transparent colourless-topale-yellow liquids at room temperature, with viscosity typically in the range of 5-15
Pa.s at 25C. Industrial grades normally contain some distribution of molecular
weight, since pure DGEBA shows a strong tendency to form a crystalline solid upon
storage at ambient temperature.

Figure4.2 Strucutre of Epoxy GY250 resin

Increasing the ratio of bisphenol A to epichlorhydrin during manufacture
produces higher molecular weight linear polyethers with glycidyl end groups, which
are semi-solid to hard crystalline materials at room temperature depending on the
molecular weight achieved. As the molecular weight of the resin increases, the
epoxide content reduces and the material behaves more and more like
a thermoplastic.
Very high molecular weight polycondensates (ca. 30 000 70 000 g/mol) form
a class known as phenoxy resins and contain virtually no epoxide groups (since the
terminal epoxy groups are insignificant compared to the total size of the molecule).
These resins do however contain hydroxyl groups throughout the backbone, which
may also undergo other cross-linking reactions, e.g. with aminoplasts, phenoplasts
and isocyanates.
4.4 Curing epoxy resin:
In general, uncured epoxy resins have only poor mechanical, chemical and heat
resistance properties. However, good properties are obtained by reacting the linear
28

epoxy resin with suitable curatives to form three-dimensional cross-linked thermoset

structures. This process is commonly referred to as curing. Curing of epoxy resins is
an exothermic reaction and in some cases produces sufficient heat to cause thermal
degradation if not controlled.
Curing may be achieved by reacting an epoxy with itself (homopolymerisation)
or by forming a copolymer with polyfunctional curatives or hardeners. In principle,
any molecule containing a reactive hydrogen may react with the epoxide groups of
the epoxy resin. Common classes of hardeners for epoxy resins include amines, acids,
acid anhydrides, phenols, alcohols and thiols. Relative reactivity (lowest first) is
approximately in the order: phenol < anhydride < aromatic amine < cycloaliphatic
amine < aliphatic amine <thiol.
Whilst some epoxy resin/ hardener combinations will cure at ambient
temperature, many require heat, with temperatures up to 150C being common, and
up to 200C for some specialist systems. Insufficient heat during cure will result in a
network with incomplete polymerisation, and thus reduced mechanical, chemical and
heat

resistance.

Cure

temperature

should

typically

attain

the glass

transition temperature (Tg) of the fully cured network in order to achieve maximum
properties. Temperature is sometimes increased in a step-wise fashion to control the
rate of curing and prevent excessive heat build-up from the exothermic reaction.
Hardeners which show only low or limited reactivity at ambient temperature,
but which react with epoxy resins at elevated temperature are referred to as latent
hardeners. When using latent hardeners, the epoxy resin and hardener may be mixed
and stored for some time prior to use, which is advantageous for many industrial
processes. Very latent hardeners enable one-component (1K) products to be produced,
whereby the resin and hardener are supplied pre-mixed to the end user and only
require heat to initiate curing. One-component products generally have shorter shelflives than standard 2-component systems, and products may require cooled storage
and transport.

29

The epoxy curing reaction may be accelerated by addition of small quantities

of accelerators. Tertiary amines, carboxylic acids and alcohols (especially phenols)
are effective accelerators. Bisphenol A is a highly effective and widely used
accelerator, but is now increasingly replaced due to health concerns with this
substance.

4.5 Adhesives
Epoxy adhesives are a major part of the class of adhesives called "structural
adhesives"

or

"engineering

adhesives"

(that

includes polyurethane, acrylic,cyanoacrylate, and other chemistries.) These highperformance adhesives are used in the construction of aircraft, automobiles, bicycles,
boats, golf clubs, skis, snowboards, and other applications where high strength bonds
are required.
Epoxy adhesives can be developed to suit almost any application. They can be
used as adhesives for wood, metal, glass, stone, and some plastics. They can be made
flexible or rigid, transparent oropaque/colored, fast setting or slow setting. Epoxy
adhesives are better in heat and chemical resistance than other common adhesives. In
general, epoxy adhesives cured with heat will be more heat- and chemical-resistant
than those cured at room temperature. The strength of epoxy adhesives is degraded at
temperatures above 350 F (177 C).
4.6 Comparison of Resin Properties
The choice of a resin system for use in any component depends on a number of its
characteristics, with the following probably being the most important for most
composite structures:

30

1.

Adhesive Properties

2.

Mechanical Properties

3.

Micro-Cracking resistance

4.

Degradation from Water Ingress

4.6.1 Adhesive Properties

It must be understood that the adhesive properties of a resin system is important in
achieving the full mechanical properties of a composite. The adhesion of the resin
matrix to the fibre reinforcement or to a core material in a sandwich construction is
important. Of the three resin types discussed in the article (polyester, vinyl ester and
epoxy resin) polyester resins generally have the lowest adhesive properties of the
three systems. Vinyl ester resin shows improved adhesive properties over polyester
but epoxy systems offer the best performance of all, and are therefore frequently
found in many high-strength adhesives.
This is due to their chemical composition and the presence of polar
hydroxyl and ether groups. As epoxies cure with low shrinkage the various surface
contacts set up between the liquid resin and the adherents are not disturbed during
the cure. The adhesive properties of epoxy are especially useful in the construction
of honeycomb-cored laminates where the small bonding surface area means that
maximum adhesion is required. The strength of the bond between resin and fibre is
not solely dependent on the adhesive properties of the resin system but is also
affected by the surface coating on the reinforcement fibres.

31

4.6.2 Mechanical property

Figure4.3 Comparision of Tensile Strength and Stiffness of Resins

4.6.3 Micro crack

32

Figure4.4 TypicalFibre Reinforced Plastic Stress/Strain Graph.

4.6.4 Degradation from Water Ingress

Figure4.5 Effect of Periods of Water Soak at 100C on Resin Inter-Laminar Shear

Strength

4.7Applicaions:
33

The applications for epoxy-based materials are extensive and include

coatings, adhesives and composite

materials such

as

those

using carbon

fiber and fiberglass reinforcements

(althoughpolyester,

vinyl

ester,

and

other thermosetting resins are also used for glass-reinforced plastic).

The chemistry of epoxies and the range of commercially available variations
allows cure polymers to be produced with a very broad range of properties.
In general, epoxies are known for their excellent adhesion, chemical and heat
resistance, good-to-excellent mechanical properties and very good electrical
insulating properties.

CHAPTER-5
GLASS FIBRE/EPOXY BRAKE PAD
5.1 Introduction:
The glass fibre/epoxy composition brake pad is the advance brake pad
replacing the asbestos free brake pad or the phenolic brake pad. We have took the E
class type of glass fibre. Because of these glass fibres are generally available in the
commercial markets. So the raw material cost is low to the fabrication. Due to this
reason the brake pad cost may less compare with the other type of brake pad. Then
the glass fibre can withstand the high temperature resistance.
Compare with the asbestos brake pad its environmental safe. The asbestos or
other brake pads are environment pollution materials. It does not create the heath
problem due to wearing. Also the water will not absorb while immerging in the water.
It does not corrective by the chemical reaction or water.

34

Figure5.1 Glass Fibre/Epoxy brake pad

In the brake pad is made up of composition of the following composites.These
are all the mixed with the certain percentage of the E-Glass fibre , epoxy GY250
resin, hardner 2963. This particulates are combined by the following composition .

5.2 Composition of the glass fibre brake pad:

Epoxy GY250 and hardner 2963 1 : 0.5 (ratio)
E-Glass fibre

- 60%

Epoxy GY 250 and hardner 2963 40%

By using this compositions the composite brake pad fabricating. The below
block diagram is explain the preparing of pad
5.3 Preparing glassfibre/Epoxy brake pad:
The compositions are mixed like the semi solid state. The semi solid
compositions are put in the brake pad die mold. After the molding process the
material going to curing process.

Composit
e
mixer(se

Die
mold(pre
paring
pad)

Curing
the pad

35

Remove
from the
die mold

Figure 5.1 block diagram of brake pad preparation

Apply to
test

In the curing process the pad are insert about the 90 deg C. Then the pad removed
from the die mold. After removal of pad is get the testing process for the
applications. This tests are conducted to the show the prefomanceof the brake pad.
We are conducting the four number of tests.

The fabrication of this brake pad is shown the following steps.

5.4 Production process:

36

Figure5.2 Brake production process

5.5 Handling of the Backing Plate
Step B1 - Stamping of the Backing Plate
Stamp the backing plate form high-grade steel into the exact design
shape to fit vehicle caliper.
Step B2 - Surface Blasting
Roughen the surface of backing plate for increasing the adhesion to
avoid material breaking away from the backing plate.
Step B3 - Applying the Adhesive to the Surface
Apply the adhesive to the backing plate and get ready to bond the
friction materials.
5.6 The Main Process
Step A1 - Formulating the Raw Materials
37

5.6 Experiment:
Our fabrication brake pad is apply to the various test perfomence for the brake
pad applications. We are conducted the basic and major tests for fabricated brake pad.
These tests are showing the application of the our fabricated brake pad i.e glass
fibre/epoxy brake pad.
These results are compare with the now a days using brake pad it means the
phenolics brake pad. So that the following tests wre conducted,
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

Hardness test
Friction test
Wear test
Thermal stability test

These are all the tests are conducted with the glass fibre/epoxy brake pad.

38

5.6.1 Hardness test

The hardness test is to be conducted by the rockwell hardness machine. In the
machine the brake pad is subjected to the specimen place. Then the load has been
given on the liner of the brake pad. The load is applying to the various point of glass
fibre/epoxy brake pad.required number of reading are taken from the test. Then the
values are taken from the rockwell scale reading.

Figure5.6.1 Hardness test

From the test follwing readings were taken. 75,85,63,72,87,72,87,70. These

values are high compare with the phenolics brake pad.

39

5.6.2 Friction test

Friction is the major property of the brake pad. If the friction of the brake is
high vechile stop from the running condition quickly. This test is conducted by the
following friction testing machine.
5.6.2.1 Procedure of the testing:
(i)
(ii)

Two glass fibre/epoxy brake pad is to be taken.

Its insert in the disc caliber. The friction indicator also connected with

(iii)

the caliber.
While rotating the disc with the conditions of cold and temperature the

(iv)

brake is apply in the disc.

The time of the stopping of disc is calculated by the indicator. Friction
also calculate at the applying temperature and cold conditions.

Figure5.6.2 Friction test

(v)
(vi)

In the cold condition friction glass fibre/epoxy value is 0.400

Then the hot conditions about 250 deg C the friction value is 0.398

5.6.3 Wear test

40

The wear test is conducted by using the micrometer. Wear is defined as the
losses of the materials from the original dimension. It is called wear. The wear test is
done by the following steps.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)

The glass fibre/epoxy brake pad is insert in the disc caliber on both sides.
Then the rotor disc has to be start to rotate.
While rotating the disc brake will apply for each 100 times.
By using the micro meter measure the dimensions of the brake pad.
From the loss of material wear is calculating.
Wear = Dimension of linner before applying brake Dimension of linner

after applied brake.(MM)

(vii) The reading taking for 100 deg C and 200 deg C.

Figure5.6.3 Wear testing

From the above test following results was found.
(i)
(ii)

For the 100 deg C wear values are 0.20mm and0.25mm

For the 200 deg C wear values are 0.26mm and 0.35mm

5.6.4 Thermal stability test

Thermal stability is finding from the heating of the liner about the
maximum temperature.

41

Figure5.6.4 Thermal stability test

The rotor disc will start to rotate at maximum speed of vehicles application
speed. During the applying brake disc generate the high temperature. From the
generating temperature Calculate the temperature withstand of the brake linner. In
the test of our fabrication brake liner can withstand about 495 deg C.

CHAPTER-6
RESULTS AND COMPARISON
Brakes India Ltd
Brake division
sholingure 631 102
velloredist, India
Telephone:04172307783

42

Fax

PROPERTIES

UNIT

RESULT
S
EPOXY,
PHENOLICFRICTION
HARDENER&GLASSFI
MATERIALPAD
BER COMPOSITEPAD

75,85,63,72,87,72,
87,70
MScale

Hardness
(Rockwellscale)

:04172262210

52,48,60,59,55,64,
65,50

REMARKS

HardnessofEpoxyresin
usedcomposite
padissignificantly
higherthanthenormal
phenolicresinbasedFric
tionmaterialpad

Wear
100degC/100applns

MM

200degC/100applns

0.35,0.39

0.18,0.20

0.51,0.53

0.28,0.33

CoefficientofFriction
Cold
-

0.280

0.421

0.190

0.405

Hot(upto250degConly)

OtherRemarks:

The wear rate

of Epoxy resin
used
composite pad
is almost
double than
the normal
phenolic resin
based Friction
material pad at
The Coefficient of
friction of epoxy
resin used composite
pad is significantly
lower than the
normal phenolic
resin based Friction
material pad

The temperatureofa Frictionmaterial,undernormaldrivingconditions,can goup to300degC.

Insomecases,whereduringdownhillconditions,thetemperaturegoup
to500degC.Hence,Epoxyresin,
hardener&glass
fiberusedcompositepadmaterialneedstobestudiedwhetheritcouldwithstandsuchahighertemperaturerange.

6.1 comparision of glass fibre/epoxy brake pad with standard phenolic pad

Advantages:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)

Environmental Eco-friendly, so no environment pollution.

Commercially available in the markets, less cost.
Cost of the material is low.
Weight less.
Melting temperature is high.
High hardness.
No corrosion with the water or chemical.
43

(viii) It does not create the health problem like lung cancer , etc.

CHAPTER - 7
Conclusion:
Our

friction material composite(Glass fibre/Epoxy) for brake linings is

synthesized which contains fibre reinforcing constituents, friction imparting and

controlling additives, elastomeric additives and a thermosetting resin. The samples
were subjected to a number of tests including a wear test, friction test, hardness test
and thermal test. It was also found to exhibit exemplary friction and anti-wear
characteristics along with providing high temperature stability. The constituents used
in the composite are extremely economical and are hence appropriate for automobile
applications. Further we can improve the performance of this pad by adding the
friction and fire retraction materials.
44

REFERENCES
1. ArnabGanguly

andRaji

George M.S. Ramaiah Institute of Technology,

MSRIT POST, Bangalore 560 054, Asbestos free friction composition for
brake liningsIndia.MS received 20 July 2007; revised 1 November
2007.Journal of Bull. Mater. Sci., Vol. 31, No. 1, February 2008, pp. 19
22. Indian Academy of Sciences.
2. B Suresh, G. Chandramohan, P.R. Sandanandarao, P. Sampathkumar, S.
Seetharamu
Friction And Wear CharecteristicsOf Glass Fibre/Epoxyreviced 2005.
Accepted agust 2006.Indian journal engineering and material scince.Vol.13
December 2006 pp.535-541.
3. C.M.Ruzaidi, H. Kamarudin, J.B. Shamsul, A.Mustafa Al Bakri and AAlida.
School of Materials Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Perlis,Morphology and
Wear Properties of Waste BrakeUniMAP, 01000 Kangar, Perlis, Malaysia.
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1452011 International Conference on Asia Agriculture and Animal IPCBEE

vol.13 (2011) (2011)IACSIT Press, Singapoore.
4. L. Boopathi , Dr. P.S. Sampath Erode sengunther engineering college and
K.S.R college of technology Erode.Compositematerialsreviced edition
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46