. Data link protocols almost always put the CRC in a trailer, rather than in a header.

Why?
It is easier to append CRC to the data while transmitting data, otherwise, data has to be
buffered

12. Consider building a CSMA/CD network running at 1 Gbps over a 1-km cable with
no repeaters. The signal speed in the cable is 200,000 km/sec. What is the minimum
frame size?
For a 1 km cable, the on-way propagation time is 5 micro sec. To make CSMA/CD work, it
must be possible to transmit entire frame in this interval. At 1 Gbps, minimum frame should
be transmitted in 10 micro sec, or must have 10,000 bits or 1250 bytes.

Question 1
Consider building a CSMA/CD network running at 1 Gbps over a 1 km
cable with no repeaters. The signal speed in the cable is
200000km/sec. What is the minimum frame size?
Answer
We must keep in mind that in CSMA/CD , for a station to get some surety of
successful transmission the contention interval (time during which the station
is transmitting) should have at least 2 slot width where is time for signal to
propagate between two farthest stations ie there must be enough time for
the front of the frame to reach the end of the cable and then for an error
message to be sent back to the start before the entire frame is transmitted.
As a result for a 1 km cable the one way propagation time = 1/200000
= 5 x 10

-6

= 5 sec

so for both ways it would be = 2 x 5 sec = 10 sec

To make CSMA/CD work, it must be impossible to transmit an entire frame in
this interval. At 1 Gbps, all frames shorter than 10,000 bits can be completely
transmitted in under 10 sec, so the minimum frame is 10,000 bits or 1250
bytes.
9
-6
4
ie 10 bps x 10 x 10 sec = 10 bits
4
10 bits / 8 = 1250 bytes

q
Ten thousand airline reservation stations are coming
for the use of a single slotted ALOHA channel. The
average station makes 18 request/hour. A slot is 125
sec.What is theapproximatetotal channel load
A
Average requests for 10000 stations
= 10^4 x 18 / (60 x 60) =
50 requests/sec
Average slots number = 1 / (125 x
10^-6) = 8000 slots/sec.
Total channel load = average
requests / average slots number
= 50 / 8000 = 0.0625
Hence, the total channel load is
0.0625 request/slot.

An upper-layer packet is split into 10 frames, each of which has an 80 percent chance
of arriving undamaged. If no error control is done by the data link protocol, how
many times must the message be sent on average to get the entire thing through?
Solution:
Since each frame has a chance of 0.8 of getting through, the chance of the whole
message getting through is (0.8)10, which is about 0.107. Call this value p. The
expected number of transmissions for an entire message is then

E = ip(1-p)i-1 = p i(1-p)i-1
i=1 i=1
To reduce this, use the well known formula for the sum of an infinite geometric series,

S = ai = 1
i=1 -----1a
Differentiate both sides with respect to a to get,

S' = iai-1 = 1

i=1 ------(1-a)2
Now use a = 1-p to get E = 1/p. Thus, it takes an average of 1/0.107, or about 9.3
transmissions.
When the IPv6 protocol is introduced, does the ARP protocol have to be changed? If so,
are the changes conceptual or technical?
There are no changes conceptually. Technically, the IP addresses requested are now bigger, so
bigger fields are needed.

Many companies have a policy of having two (or more) routers

connecting the company to the Internet to provide some
redundancy in case one of them goes down. Is this policy still
possible with NAT? Explain your answer.
Ans: It is possible if the two rouers can exchange the NAT
translation table information when new entries are added. From
Chris Cabuzzi, "In the case of redundancy, CISCO has a
protocol called HSRP that allows two or more routers to
"appear" as one virtual router. With the implementation of
HSRP, more than one router could be used with NAT without
issue. Otherwise, the two routers would most likely conflict IP
addresses amongst each other."
Problem 2.b. With NAT, can we still claim that 1) the destination
address of IP packets will not be changed end-to-end? 2) every IP
address uniquely idenfites a machine worldwide? Please brief
explain and give an example.
Ans: 1) We cannot, since the destionation adress was changed to
a private LAN address. A web server runs in a DMZ LAN may have
a 192.168.0.10 address and packets to the external 128.198.60.10
may be routed to the web server using DNAT and convert its
destination address to 192.168.0.10. 2) If every IP address
includes that in the private LAN addreses, then different machines
at different organizations may have the same 10.0.0.10 address.