Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
biomeccanica
del sistema muscolo-scheletrico
Capitolo 1:
INTRODUZIONE
1.1 - La biomeccanica: definizione e campo di indagine
1.2 - La biomeccanica del sistema muscolo scheletrico
Capitolo 2:
RICHIAMI DI MECCANICA DEI SISTEMI
2.1 - Braccio e momento di una forza
2.2 - Le leve: definizione, regola di equilibrio, classificazione
2.3 - Le leve: propriet dinamiche
Capitolo 3:
FORZE ESTERNE
3.1 - Classi di forze esterne
3.2 - Momento delle forze esterne
3.3 - Misura delle forze esterne
Capitolo 4:
FORZA MUSCOLARE
Aspetti geometrici:
4.1 - Punto di applicazione, direzione, verso
4.2 - Braccio della forza muscolare
4.3 - Angolo di trazione
Intensit e regolazione della forza muscolare:
4.4 - Curva lunghezza-tensione
4.5 - Curva forza-velocit
4.6 - Livello di attivazione
4.7 - Parametri dellarchitettura del muscolo
4.8 - Momento della forza muscolare
Valutazione della forza muscolare:
4.9 - Elettromiografia
4.10 - Modelli biomeccanici
Capitolo 5:
CARICHI ARTICOLARI
1.1 - La biomeccanica: definizione e campo di indagine
1.2 - La biomeccanica del sistema muscolo scheletrico
Capitolo 6
APLLICAZIONI
6.1 - Strength training equipment (leg extension modificato)
6.2 - Ergonomia
6.3 - Supporti per la riabilitazione del ginocchio in acqua
6.4 - Cardio equipment (cardio wave)
Capitolo 7
ASPETTI FUNZIONALI
7.1 - Ciclo allungamento-accorciamento
7.2 - Biomeccanica dei muscoli poliarticolari
7.3 - Co-contrazione
Capitolo 1:
INTRODUZIONE
1.1 - La biomeccanica: definizione e campo di indagine
1.2 - Biomeccanica del sistema muscolo-scheletrico
Definizioni generali:
Biomechanics is the science that study
structures and functions of biological systems
using the knowledge and methods of mechanics.
(Hatze, 1971)
Definizioni specifiche:
Biomechanics is the science that examines
forces acting upon and within a biological structure
and the effects produced by such forces.
(Hay, 1973)
Societ:
International Society of Biomechanics
International Society of
Biomechanics in Sports
American Society
of Biomechanics
Canadian Society
of Biomechanics
Riviste:
Journal of Biomechanics
Clinical Biomechanics
Journal of
Applied Biomechanics
Journal of
Biomechanical Engineering
Campo di indagine:
Definizione:
Capitolo 2:
M a = Fb
asse di rotazione
corpo rigido
r
F
Dimensioni ed unit di misura
corpo rigido
r
F
corpo rigido
r
F
Il braccio della forza (e il momento) nullo quando la retta di applicazione della forza passa per il centro di rotazione C
Braccio della
resistenza, bR
r
F
r
R = mg
retta di applicazione
della resistenza
Regola dequilibrio:
M a( est ) = 0
Se
bF = 10bR
bF F bR R = 0
F=
1
R
10
bF F = bR R
F=
bR
R
bF
Utilit:
Epossibile equilibrare/spostare un carico elevato con una forza minima
r
F
bF
bR
r
R
Classificazione:
Leve di primo tipo
Fulcro in posizione intermedia fra forza e resistenza
Leve di secondo tipo
Resistenza in posizione intermedia fra forza e fulcro
Leve di terzo tipo
forza in posizione intermedia fra resistenza e fulcro
Leve vantaggiose
Braccio della forza maggiore del braccio della resistenza
bF > bR
1 tipo
r
F
r
F
F<R
2 tipo
Leve svantaggiose
Braccio della forza miniore del braccio della resistenza
bF < bR
r
R
r
R
F>R
r
F
***
Le leve di primo genere possono essere vantaggiose
o svantaggiose
Le leve di secondo genere sono in genere vantaggiose
Le leve ti terzo genere sono in genere svantaggiose
r
R
3 tipo
r
F
bF = nbR
sF
R
e sF = nsR
n
FsF = RsR LF = LR
F=
sR
Il lavoro compiuto dalla forza e la resistenza lo stesso.
Una piccola forza pu spostare una grande resistenza, ma
lo spostamento della resistenza piccolo rispetto a quello
del punto di applicazione della forza.
r
R = mg
I a = m1d12 + m1d12 + L + mN d N2
Sistema continuo
r 2 dm
m
d1
m1
d2
di
m2
di
mi
dN
mN
mi
Braccio della
resistenza, bR
r
F
r
R = mg
retta di applicazione
della resistenza
M a( est ) = I
bF F bR R = I
F=
bR R + I
bF
= accelerazione angolare
= velocit angolare
Capitolo 3:
Le forze esterne, sono note a priori (pesi liberi o vincolati, forze elastiche) o possono essere misurate
(resistenze di mezzi fluidi, reazioni vincolari). Possono quindi essere considerate note in modulo
direzione e verso.
Forza peso
g = 9.81 m/s2 alle nostre latitudini
g = 9.78 m/s2 allequatore
g = 9.83 m/s2 ai poli
r
r
P = mg
r
mg
r
mg
r
mg
Implicazioni biomeccaniche:
Durante un esercizio con pesi liberi la resistenza
mantiene direzione ed intensit invariate.
r
R
r
R
r
R
Implicazioni biomeccaniche:
Durante un esercizio quasi-statico alla leg extension la resistenza
mantiene intensit R invariata ma cambia la sua direzione.
r
R
r
R
r
R
Implicazioni biomeccaniche:
Durante un esercizio ai cavi la resistenza mantiene intensit R
invariata (R=mg) ma cambia la sua direzione.
r
mg
r
OP = r = rr
r
Fel
r
r
Fel = kOP = kr = kr r
k = costante elastica
O
banda elastica allungata
Implicazioni biomeccaniche:
Durante un esercizio con bande elastiche
varia sia la direzione che lintensit della
resistenza.
P
P
r
F = Af ( v ) v
f (v ) = v
0 v 2 m/s
(regime viscoso)
f (v ) = v 2
2 < v 200 m / s
(regime idraulico)
Esempio:
I due corpi rappresentati
hanno lo stesso valore di
A ma differenti valori di .
fluido
r
v
Implicazioni biomeccaniche:
Durante un esercizio in acqua lintensit della resistenza pu essere
modulata variando la velocit dellesercizio e la superficie esposta.
r
v
Ground reaction
Forza esercitata dal piano di appoggio sulla zona di contatto fra piede e piano di appoggio. Per il terzo
principio della dinamica uguale ed opposta alla forza esercitata dal piede sul piano
bR
bR
r
mg
r
mg
M R = bR Mg
r
mg
bR
bR
r
mg
M R = bR Mg
bR
r
mg
r
mg
bR
r
Fel
M R = bR Mg
bR
bR
r
Fel
r
Fel
Pedane baropodometriche
Capitolo 4:
FORZA MUSCOLARE
Aspetti geometrici:
4.1 - Punto di applicazione, direzione, verso
4.2 - Braccio della forza muscolare
4.3 - Angolo di trazione
Intensit e regolazione della forza muscolare:
4.4 - Curva lunghezza-tensione
4.5 - Curva forza-velocit
4.6 - Livello di attivazione
4.7 - Parametri dellarchitettura del muscolo
4.8 - Momento della forza muscolare
Valutazione della forza muscolare:
4.9 - Elettromiografia
4.10 - Modelli biomeccanici
Capitolo 4:
FORZA MUSCOLARE
Aspetti geometrici:
4.1 - Punto di applicazione, direzione, verso
4.2 - Braccio della forza muscolare
4.3 - Angolo di trazione
Intensit e regolazione della forza muscolare:
4.4 - Curva lunghezza-tensione
4.5 - Curva forza-velocit
4.6 - Livello di attivazione
4.7 - Parametri dellarchitettura del muscolo
4.8 - Momento della forza muscolare
Valutazione della forza muscolare:
4.9 - Elettromiografia
4.10 - Modelli biomeccanici
r
F
r
F
r
F
r
F
r
F
Importanza
Il momento assiale M della forza muscolare
definito come il prodotto del braccio della forza
muscolare per lintensit della forza muscolare:
Forza muscolare
M = aF F
Determina laccelerazione angolare a del
segmento anatomico in accordo alla seconda
equazione cardinale della dinamica dei sistemi:
I = M
M = momento assiale della forza
I = momento di inerzia
= accelerazione angolare
r
F
aF
Esempio
Il braccio della forza del quadricipite femorale varia al variare dellangolo di flessione del ginocchio.
Forza del
quadricipite
femorale
Braccio
r
F
aF
Esempio
Braccio dei muscoli flessori ed estensori del gomito.
Forza muscolare
Angolo di
trazione
r
F
Forza del
quadricipite
femorale
Angolo di
trazione
r
F
Importanza
Determina la componente rotatoria e componente stabilizzatrice della forza muscolare
r
F
r
F
r
F
Capitolo 4:
FORZA MUSCOLARE
Aspetti geometrici:
4.1 - Punto di applicazione, direzione, verso
4.2 - Braccio della forza muscolare
4.3 - Angolo di trazione
Intensit e regolazione della forza muscolare:
4.4 - Curva lunghezza-tensione
4.5 - Curva forza-velocit
4.6 - Livello di attivazione
4.7 - Parametri dellarchitettura del muscolo
4.8 - Momento della forza muscolare
Valutazione della forza muscolare:
4.9 - Elettromiografia
4.10 - Modelli biomeccanici
f
g
i
1.25
a
1.65
2.05
2.65
4.05
0.025
1.2
1.6
1.2
0.025
0.2
a
4.05
2.65
2.45
2.05
1.65
1.25
Since sarcomeres are arranged in series, the force that a muscle fiber can generate is independent of the
number of sarcomeres, i.e. provided that sarcomere length is not-changing, the force produced by each
sarcomere will be equal. The force produced by the muscle fiber will be equal to the sarcomere force.
FFIBER = FSARC
Because the maximum force which can be produced by a sarcomere depends on sarcomere length, the
maximum force which can be produced by a muscle fiber will depend on its length. The relationship
between maximum force and muscle fiber length will depend on the number of sarcomeres that make up
the fiber.
Sarcomeres may not be uniform and homogeneous. Sarcomere diameter, myofilament length and
myofilament density may vary along the length of the muscle fiber. This will result in different lengthtension relations for different sarcomeres.
When a muscle fiber is activated to produce a steady force while being held isometric and is then
stretched at constant velocity, the resulting force is greater than the isometric force (Fig. 2.1).
For low velocities of stretch the force increases with velocity, but as the velocity increases further the force
levels off or drops slightly, reaching a maximum of between 1.2-1.8 times the isometric force (Fig 2.3).
Interpretation
The increase in force with muscle lengthening
velocity is probably largely due to stretching of
attached cross-bridges (Fig. 1.6).
Cross-bridges, which are being stretched, will
generate a greater average force during their
period of attachment than crossbridges which are
isometric.
The higher the lengthening velocity, the greater
the amount of stretch that will occur during the
period of attachment and hence, the greater the
average force during the period of cross-bridge
attachment.
When the lengthening velocity becomes too high,
cross-bridges are stretched beyond the limits that
can be supported by the binding force between
actin and myosin, resulting in forcible detachment.
This limits the maximum force during muscle
lengthening.
When a muscle fiber is held isometric and is then released and allowed to shorten at a constant
velocity, the contractile force produced by the muscle fiber drops to a lower relatively constant value.
The higher the shortening velocity the lower the force (Fig. 2.2).Conversely, by decreasing the load on a
muscle fiber, its shortening velocity can be increased.
If contractile force is plotted against shortening velocity a hyperbolic relation is obtained where force is
inversely proportional to velocity, decreasing continuously from its isometric value to zero at maximum
shortening velocity (Fig. 2.3).
Interpretation
There are several possible reasons why muscle force drops as the velocity of shortening increases.
First, there are fewer cross-bridges attached during shortening and their number decreases as the
velocity of shortening increases. It has been suggested that this is a consequence of an increase in the
rate of cross-bridge detachment during muscle shortening and a decrease in the rate of attachment.
Both of these rates may be functions of velocity.
Second, shortening likely reduces the tension in attached myosin cross-bridges (Fig. 1.6). Crossbridges, which are shortening, will generate a smaller average force during their period of attachment
than cross-bridges which are isometric. The higher the shortening velocity, the greater the amount of
shortening that will occur during the period of attachment and hence, the lower the average force
during the period of crossbridge attachment.
Third, some cross-bridges may be compressed as the result of shortening before they detach. These
cross-bridges would generate negative force, thereby reducing the overall tension developed by the
fiber. The higher the shortening velocity the more quickly cross-bridges would compress, resulting in
a greater number of cross-bridges generating negative force before detachment.
The maximum velocity of muscle fiber shortening occurs when there is no load on the muscle fiber.
Conversely, when the muscle fiber is shortening at maximum velocity it does not generate any
contractile force.
The velocity of muscle fiber shortening (V) is the sum of the shortening velocities of the individual
sarcomeres (vsarc). Each sarcomere has a maximum shortening velocity. Therefore, the maximum
shortening velocity of the muscle fiber will be equal to the sum of the maximum shortening velocities of
the sarcomeres. The greater the number of sarcomeres the higher the maximum velocity.
Vlong =
slong
t
nlong ssarc
t
= nlong vsarc
Vshort
s
n s
= short = short sarc = nshort vsarc
t
t
Vlong
Vshort
nlong
nshort
llong
lshort
A muscle consists of thousands of muscle fibers organized into motor units. Each motor unit comprises
a group of muscle fibers, often several hundred, which are innervated by a single motoneuron. The
muscle fibers belonging to one motor unit may be distributed throughout a large region of the muscle,
i.e., they need not be adjacent to one another.
A motor unit is activated in an all-or-none fashion by a single action potential, which travels from the
motoneuron along the axon to the muscle fibers. The neural action potential leads to an action
potential in each muscle fiber innervated by that motoneuron.
Twitch
A single muscle action potential produces a brief contraction of the muscle fiber called a twitch. The
duration of the twitch depends on the muscle fiber type. The duration of both the contraction and
relaxation phases of the twitch are longer for slow-twitch (type I) than fasttwitch (type II) fibers (Fig.
2.8).
In skeletal muscle the range of contraction times (time to peak) is from 7.5 ms for fast (extraocular
muscle: IR- internal rectus); 40 ms for intermediate (G - gastrocnemius); to 90 ms for slow (S - soleus)
muscle fibers. Most skeletal muscles have a mixture of different types of fibers: slow; fast oxidative
glycolytic (rare); or fast glycolytic. However, all fibers in a given motor unit are of the same type - the
type being determined to some extent, by the nature of the motoneurone. Small tonically active
motoneurones prompt development of slow fibre types; large, phasic motoneurones favour fast
glycolytic fibres.
Motor unit force is a function of the frequency of activation (firing rate) of the innervating motoneuron.
Firing rate is defined as number of action potentials per second.
The force produced by each muscle fiber, innervated by the motoneuron, increases with firing rate
because of the accumulation of intracellular calcium (Ca+2). Each action potential depolarizes the muscle
membrane, which results in more Ca+2 being released from the terminal cisternae, diffusing through the
intracellular space and activating more actin-binding sites.
1 second
T
time
Action
potential
T: period
: Frequency of activation.
Numbers of action potential
per second
The intracellular calcium concentration produced by a single action potential, increases and decreases more
rapidly than the isometric twitch force. Therefore, the amount of force added by a second action potential
occurring immediately after the first will depend on the time interval between them, i.e., on the amount of
intracellular calcium at the time of occurrence. The additional force contribution by a second action potential
drops steeply as a function of the interval between two successive action potentials.
Fast
units
Slow
units
Twitch sequences of fast and slow motor units. Numbers to the right of each trace indicate the time interval in ms, between
successive action potentials.
Tetanus
If a motor unit is activated at a steady frequency, the force will initially rise and then oscillate about a new
mean value at the frequency of activation, producing what is called an unfused tetanus. Both the mean
force and the initial rate of force development will increase as firing rate increases. The higher the firing
rate the smaller the oscillation with respect to the mean force. At high firing rates, there is no noticeable
oscillation in force. This smooth steady force is called tetanus. Because type I motor units have longer
twitch contraction times than type II units they reach tetanus at lower frequencies.
Fast
units
Slow
units
Unfused and fused tetanus of fast and slow motor units. Numbers to the right of each trace indicate the time interval in ms,
between successive action potentials. At low stimulation rates (long intervals between action potentials) tetanus is unfused
Characteristic frequencies
Humans can voluntarily activate motor units briefly at instantaneous firing rates of about 100 Hz during
brief forceful contractions.
The maximum firing rates that they can sustain during steady contractions are considerably lower and
generally do not exceed 30 Hz. However, these rates are sufficiently high that several action potentials
can occur before the twitch force from the first action potential has dropped to zero. Whereas the
muscle action potential has a duration of less than 10 ms, the twitch duration for skeletal muscle fibers
is of the order of 100-200 ms. Action potentials which arrive before the twitch force has dropped to its
pre-activation level produce additional force by causing more Ca+2 to be released.
= 30 Hz
T = 1/ 30 s = 0.033 s = 33 ms
= 100 Hz
T = 1/ 100 s = 0.01 s = 10 ms
Single stimulus
Twitch
Double stimulus
Slow train
Fast train
Summation
Un-fused tetanus
Fused tetanus
When a muscle is activated voluntarily under isometric conditions, motor units tend to become
active in a fixed order.
The recruitment order is correlated with the amount of force that a motor unit can produce.
Motor unit force is related to the number of muscle fibers and the size of the muscle fibers that it
comprises.
The motor unit that produces the smallest force is recruited first. It remains active and the next
motor unit is recruited as the total muscle force increases. The motor units that produce the largest
forces are the last to be recruited. As total muscle force increases, each newly recruited unit
contributes an increment in force, which is a similar percentage of the total muscle force. In this way
force can be increased smoothly.
frequency of activation
recruitment strategy of
different motor units
Pennation angle
The arrangement of the muscle fibres has an important role to play. The muscle fibre direction is not always
in the same direction as the line of pull of the muscle.
When the line of action of the muscle does not match the line of action of the fibres then the muscle is
known as pennate.
There are a number of sub-classifications but the important property of these pennate muscles is the angle
of pennation: the angle between the two lines of action.
Fig.1. The internal architecture of skeletal muscles: (A) non-pennate; (B, E, F) unipennate; (C) bipennate.
Physiological cross-section
The maximum force a muscle can generate depends on its physiological cross-section area (PCA): area of the
fibers perpendicular to fiber direction.
In a non-pennate muscle this is simply the area of a slice taken in the middle of a muscle perpendicular to the
line of pull (fig.1A).
In a pennate muscle this would miss some of the muscle fibers (fig.2). In this case the cross-sectional area would
need to be taken perpendicular (at right angles) to the average fiber direction so as to include all the fibers in the
muscle (fig.1B,1C).
Fig.2
Fig.1: PCA for fusiform (A), unipinnate (B) and bipinnate (C) muscles.
Fiber length
Length-tension and force-velocity curves for muscles with different architectural properties:
Long fibers
Short fibers
Large PCSA
Small PCSA
Length-tension and force-velocity curves for muscles with different architectural properties:
Long fibers and Small PCSA
Short fibers and Large PCSA
Long fibers,
Small PCA
Muscle Shorthening
Muscle Force
Muscle Force
Short fibers,
Large PCA
Short fibers, Large
PCA
Long fibers,
Small PCA
Muscle Velocity
B. A. Garner and M. G. Pandy. Annals of Biomedical Engineering, Vol. 31, pp. 207220, 2003
B. A. Garner and M. G. Pandy. Annals of Biomedical Engineering, Vol. 31, pp. 207220, 2003
B. A. Garner and M. G. Pandy. Annals of Biomedical Engineering, Vol. 31, pp. 207220, 2003
Muscle force
moment arm
r
F
aF
Joint center of
rotation
Muscle
force
Example
Biceps brachii
r
F
r
F
ROM
ROM
muscle
shortening
muscle
shortening
Effect of muscle moment arm on joint angular velocity and range of motion
With increasing muscle moment arm joint angular velocity increases
large
ROM
small
ROM
lengthen muscle
Example:
Muscles that cross the elbow
Estimated operating ranges of the
elbow flexors over 100 of elbow
flexion and of the extensors over 90
flexion. Estimated fascicle excursions
were normalized by optimal fascicle
length (l0M) and super-imposed on a
normalized force-length curve based
on the sarcomere lengths measured
from the five extended specimens.
The variation in force-generating
capacity during elbow flexion is
expressed as a proportion of peak
isometric force (F0M). Results shown
are averages of the 10 extremities in
this study. Both muscle moment arm
and optimal fascicle length determine
how much of the isometric forcelength curve each muscle uses.
M = aF F
Forza muscolare
Braccio della forza
muscolare
r
F
aF
Centro di rotazione
articolare
Regola di equilibrio:
In esercizi con sovraccarico, in condizioni di equilibrio articolare, il momento della forza muscolare uguale
in modulo al momento della forza esterna.
M a( est ) = 0
bF F bR R = 0
bF F = bR R
F=
bR
R
bF
r
F
r
F
bF
r
R
bR
r
R
Forza muscolare
Carico esterno = peso
dellavambraccio e del manubrio
applicato nel cenrto di massa del
sistema avambraccio + manubrio
M a( est ) = I
bF F bR R = I
= accelerazione angolare
= Momento di inerzia
F=
r
F
bF
bR R + I
bF
bR
r
R
bF F = bR R = 0 costante
In particolare:
( = velocit angolare)
Capitolo 4:
FORZA MUSCOLARE
Aspetti geometrici:
4.1 - Punto di applicazione, direzione, verso
4.2 - Braccio della forza muscolare
4.3 - Angolo di trazione
Intensit e regolazione della forza muscolare:
4.4 - Curva lunghezza-tensione
4.5 - Curva forza-velocit
4.6 - Livello di attivazione
4.7 - Parametri dellarchitettura del muscolo
4.8 - Momento della forza muscolare
Valutazione della forza muscolare:
4.9 - Elettromiografia
4.10 - Modelli biomeccanici
4.9 Elettromiografia
Elettromiografia di superficie
Scatola
interconnessione
Software
Elettrodi
Unit
centrale
RF
Vas
vastus medialis (VasMed), vastus intermedius (VasInt), vastus lateralis (VasLat), rectus femoris (RF).
GRA
TLF &
SAR
BFSH
BFLH
MEM
TEN
Gas
vastus medialis (VasMed), vastus intermedius (VasInt), vastus lateralis (VasLat), rectus femoris (RF), biceps femoris
long head (BFLH), biceps femoris short head (BFSH), semimembranosus (MEM), semitendinosus (TEN), medial
gastrocnemius (GasMed), lateral gastrocnemius (GasLat), and tensor fascia latae (TFL). Also included in the model
but not shown are sartorius (SAR) and gracilis (GRA).
Modello biomeccanico
The muscles of the leg is modeled by thirteen actuators (34):
vastus medialis (VasMed), vastus intermedius (VasInt), vastus
lateralis (VasLat), rectus femoris (RF), biceps femoris long head
(BFLH), biceps femoris short head (BFSH), semimembranosus
(MEM), semitendinosus (TEN), medial gastrocnemius
(GasMed), lateral gastrocnemius (GasLat), and tensor fascia
latae (TFL). Also included in the model but not shown are
sartorius (SAR) and gracilis (GRA).
Capitolo 5:
CARICHI ARTICOLARI
5.1 - Carico articolare: forze di contatto e tensione dei legamenti
5.2 - Determinazione del carico articolare
Esempio:
Forze di contatto
tibiofemorali
Superficie di contatto
tibiofemorale
Esempio
Legamenti che contribuiscono al carico articolare
dellarticolazione tibiofemorale
Punto di applicazione:
Superfici articolari di contatto
Punti di inserzione dei legamenti
Verso
Dalla superficie articolare verso il segmento anatomico adiacente
Dallinserzione del legamento verso lorigine
Incognite:
Intensit
Direzione
Modelli biomeccanici
Carichi esterni
Parametri anatomici: bracci a angoli di trazione delle forze
Intensit delle forze muscolari (misure elettromiografiche, modelli meccanici del muscolo)
Ricavare:
Carichi esterni
Parametri anatomici: bracci a angoli di trazione delle forze muscolari
Cinematica: traiettorie, velocit ed accelerazioni angolari
Ricavare:
Capitolo 6:
APPLICAZIONI
6.1 - Strength training equipment (leg-extension modificato)
6.2 - Ergonomia
6.3 - Supporti per la riabilitazione del ginocchio in acqua
6.4 - Cardio equipment (cardio wave)
cable
knee
cam
hip
resistance rod
selected weight stack
resistance pad
shank
r
R
cable
knee
cam
Isokinetic
dynamometer
hip
resistance rod
resistance pad
shank
r
R
cable
knee
cam
Isokinetic
dynamometer
hip
resistance rod
resistance pad
shank
r
R
Progetto di ricerca
Calcolo delle componenti di (compressione, trazione e taglio) delle sollecitazioni articolari mediante modelli
biomeccanici.
Schema meccanico
r
FPT
r
F
Forza muscolare
r
R Carico esterno
r
Carico articolare
angolo di trazione
angolo articolare
r
R
r
F
1 &&
FF =
I a + RbR
bF
FbF = RbR
r
R
bR >> bF
bR
F=
R
bF
F >> R
r
TF
r r r
r
maG = R + F + FT
r
r
r r
r
TF = FT = R + F maG
r
F
r
r
r r
TF = FT = R + F
T
T
= componente di taglio
del carico articolare
r
R
r
R
= componente assiale
del carico articolare
r
TF
r
F
PCL stress
ACL stress
aR
r
R
aR
r
R
r
R
dy &&
d2y &2
I
+
I
+
a
m
+
a
m
+
a
m
g
+
m
gl
sin(
)
+
m
gl
sin(
M
C W
C W
C W
M
GM
GM
S
GS
GS
S
aPT
d
d2
1
dy &&
d2y &2
+
+
a
m
g
+
m
gl
sin(
)
I M + aC mW
+ aC mW
C
W
M
G
G
M
M
aR
d
d2
PCL
stress
ACL
stress
90 flex
full ext.
90 flex
full ext.
dy &&
d2y &2
+
+
+
+
sin(
)
+
sin(
)
I
I
a
m
a
m
a
m
g
m
gl
m
gl
M
C W
C W
C W
M
GM
GM
S
GS
GS
S
aPT
d
d2
1
+
aR
dy &&
d2y &2
sin(
)
+
+
+
I
a
m
a
m
a
m
g
m
gl
C W
C W
C W
M
GM
GM
M
d
d 2
aR
r
R
(a R ) OPT
dy &&
d2y &2
+ aC mW g + mM glGM sin( + GM )
I M + aC mW
+ aC mW
d
d 2
=
sin( + GS )
dy &&
d2y &2
+ aC mW g + mM glGM sin( + GM ) + mS glGS sin( + GS ) mS lGS && mS g sin( + GS )
+ aC mW
I S + I M + aC mW
2
a PT
d
d
Tensione del tendine rotuleo, ovvero, forza complessiva del quadricipite femorale
FPT
1
=
aPT
dy &&
d2y &2
I
+
I
+
a
m
+
a
m
+
a
m
g
+
m
gl
sin(
)
+
m
gl
sin(
S
M
C
W
C
W
C
W
M
G
GM
S
G
G
M
S
S
d
d2
E indipendente da aR
aR
Epossibile minimizzare il carico articolare
(spostamento del punto di applicazione della resistenza)
senza interferire con lottimizzazione della forza muscolare (progettazione del profilo della cam)
r
R
dy &&
d2y &2
+
+
+
+
sin(
)
+
sin(
)
I
I
a
m
a
m
a
m
g
m
gl
m
gl
M
C W
C W
C W
M
GM
GM
S
GS
GS
S
aPT
d
d 2
E indipendente da aR
ed approssimativamente coincide
con la tensione del tendine rotuleo
aR
r
R
6.2 Ergonomia
hip
: traction angle
knee
Lx
Lz
z
z: flexion-extension axis
x: longitudinal
shank axis
: joint angle
Conclusions
In conclusion, this work highlights that aquatic exercises can be safely and usefully utilized in the
rehabilitation program following ACL surgery. However, the shape, the dimensions, the density, the surface
roughness and the location of the resistive device must be carefully selected, according to the indications
established in the present study.
Conclusioni
I modelli biomeccanici consentono
di valutare in modo non invasivo i carichi articolari durante esercizi statici o dinamici
in presenza di carichi esterni
Capitolo 7:
ASPETTI FUNZIONALI
7.1 - Ciclo allungamento-accorciamento
7.2 - Muscoli poliarticolari
7.3 - Co-contrazione
Two-joint muscle couple the motion at the two joints that they cross.
Thus, two-joint muscle may refine the coordination.
The shortening velocity of two-joint muscle may be less than that of its one-joint synergists.
Thus, the two-joint muscle are higher on the force-velocity relation compared with the one-joint muscle and hence are capable
of exerting a force that is a greater proportion of the isometric maximum within the joint ROM.
Two-joint muscle can redistribute muscle torque, joint power, and mechanical energy throughout a limb
Activation of one-joint muscles 1 and 3 produce extensor torque at knee and hip
Co-activation of two-joint muscle 5 results in a reduction in the net torque at the
hip but an increase in the net torque at the knee.
Thus, two-joint muscle 5 is described as redistributing some of the extensor torque
and power from the hip to the knee.
7.3 Co-activation
Definition:
Concurrent activation of the muscles around a joint, usually involving the agonist and antagonist muscles.
Importance:
It is frequently used in many different activities.
Advantages: