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A Survey of Standard Repertoire for the Classical Guitar

There are few examples of analytical papers concerning classical
guitar repertoire that examine multiple pieces. This paper serves to fill
this void and provide a brief historical background and analysis for
selected pieces of standard guitar repertoire. It will provide musicians
and composers a more intimate understanding and model of how
compositions for the classical guitar work. The paper is an analysis of
Johann Sebastian Bachs Cello Suite No. 1 (BWV 1007), Isaac Albenizs
Asturias (Leyenda), Heitor Villa-Loboss The Five Preludes, and Nikita
Koshkins Usher Waltz.
The reasons for choosing these pieces are as follows. Asturias
(Leyenda) is one of the most easily recognizable pieces for the guitar.
It was brought to its popularity when arranged and performed by
Andrs Segovia and subsequently referenced in a song by The Doors.
J.S. Bachs Cello Suite No. 1 is included in this analysis due to its
immense popularity and because arrangements for the guitar are
intuitive. Additionally, the technique is much simpler than other
Baroque suites, thus it is frequently used by many guitarists as
introduction into large Baroque works. Villa-Lobos was a well
established composer in the early 20th century, was incredibly familiar
with the guitar, and is often considered one of the first big names in
composition to unleash the guitars potential. The Five Preludes are
included to illustrate his representative works. The last piece, Usher

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Waltz, became immensely popular after John Williams performed it in
his Seville Concert. This concert was broadcasted on British television
as part of a series The Film Profile of John Williams and brought Usher
Waltz to the public eye. Furthermore, Usher Waltz makes use of
expanded tonality and extended techniques, and is a good example of
modern guitar composition.
Historical background is included for all works because it is
essential to inform the performer and audience of the relevant context
surrounding each piece. This can be as broad as knowing the timeperiod a composer was alive or as focused as knowing how someone
lived his or her life as a child, and how that impacted their music
career. In addition to this, a well-informed performer can create a
stronger atmosphere in a performance, and a well-informed listener
has a much easier time internalizing that atmosphere.
Johann Sebastian Bachs Cello Suite No. 1 is the first piece this
paper will analyze. Johann Sebastian Bach was born in 1685 in
Eisenach, Saxe-Eisenach. Born into a musical family, his father Johann
Ambrosius Bach was a stadtpfeifer (literally town-piper) in Arnstadt,
later a violinist for the town of Efurt, and finally a court musician in
Eisenach (Hanford and Koster, 1995). It is presumed that Ambrosius
taught J.S. Bach violin and various other bowed string instruments
(Emery and Wolff). The importance of music in the Bach household
would not end at J.S. Bach. Two of his, sons Carl Philip Emanuel Bach

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and Johann Christoph Bach, are still important today because of their
respective contributions to the world of music.
While he was alive, J.S. Bach was most well known for being a
virtuoso organist. But, his compositions would be his claim to fame
from the 19th century on. Bachs compositional style was inspired by
Antonio Vivaldi and became the quintessential example of the late
Baroque style (Wolff). It incorporated heavy though not exclusive use
of the major/minor tonal system, frequent use of counterpoint, and the
adoption of popular music forms of the time (the chaconne, partita,
dance suite, passacaglia, etc.). His compositions are incredibly
expansive, so much so that scholars created the BWV or Bach-WerkVerzeichnis numerical catalogue. It functions as an index for all of
Bachs compositions and is organized by instrument, extending to a
massive 1,128 works.
The Six Suites for Unaccompanied Cello are near the top Bachs
most famous works. The suites were composed in 1720 while he
served as the Kapellmeister, or director of music, for Prince Leopold in
Cthen, Anhalt-Dessau (Soderberg). The suites were released by
Bachs wife Anna Magdalena and were written simultaneously with the
violin sonatas and partitas. These were all written for Prince Leopold
who was both a violin player and a viol de gamba player. Leopold was
very interested in music and used his political power to provide
resources to musicians (Hanford and Koster). This would not last long

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though, as Prince Leopolds support of musicians would decline due to
a new marriage and need for funding for the Prussian War. As a
consequence, and in addition to wanting to write more choral music,
Bach left Kthen for Leipzig (Hanford and Koster).
Cello Suite No. 1 follows a similar structure to most Baroque
dance suites; a prelude followed by several dances. The dances in
Cello Suite No. 1 are the Allemande, the Courante, the Sarabande,
Menuet I, Menuet II, and the Gigue. Bach composed these as stylized
dances, pieces that primarily function as concert repertoire but retain
similar characteristics to their original counterparts.
The focus of the following analysis will be two brief melodic
motives and the important role they play in tying movements together
to make the suite cohesive. The first motive, henceforth referred to as
Motive A, is a simple three-note motive that involves moving to an
upper or lower-neighbor tone then moving back to the starting pitch.

Example 1 Depicts opening measure. Motive A is represented in the red boxes.

From there, Motive A is presented very frequently. Bach takes

Motive A and inverts, modulates, and augments it all throughout the

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upcoming measures of the piece it is a very clear indication to the
performer that this motive will be important in the upcoming
movements (Example 2).

Example 2 presents Motive A and its prevalent usage just within a two measure
excerpt. While not only forming the basis for many small excerpts such as this, it is
also used at major cadences to lead to the resolution.

The second motive is a contrasting idea that is presented in the

B section of the Prelude and expanded from there. This motive, which
will subsequently be referred to as Motive B, is one that involves
short excerpts of stepwise motion, typically in the form of a scale,
leading to either a descending or ascending arpeggio (Example 3).
Motive B, while presented in the Prelude, has a much greater influence
on the following movements, especially the Courante.

Example 3 Motive B as it is first presented in the suite

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The Allemande contains instances of Motive A and Motive B
within the first three measures (Example 4). The Allemande starts with
a descending diatonic scale leading into Motive A, then it leaps a
perfect fourth downward and beings Motive B. The final note of Motive
Bs arpeggio leads into Motive A and a repeat of the theme that was
just presented. This theme is repeated three times and makes up the
entirety of the first phrase. The immediacy and repetition of the two
motives are a clear sign of their importance in the movement.

Example 4 the combination of Motive A and Motive B. While only one instances of it
is marked in the red boxes, it is repeated immediately after.

The next notable instance of Motive A and Motive B is nearing

the final cadence of the A section. Bach begins an ascending diatonic
scale that turns into an ascending secondary dominant arpeggio
(Example 5). The ascending scale and arpeggio create a new inverted
version of Motive B. This variation only ascends as a way to create
more motion leading into the final cadence of the A section. In the
measure after Motive B is presented, Motive A begins on F# with a
lower neighbor tone. Since the final note in Motive A leads into a
descending D major arpeggio, Motive A is likely being used to
strengthen the modulation from G major to D major. This instance of

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the two motives is important, not only do we see them functioning as
the main melodic ideas for the piece in Example 4, but now in Example
5 they are utilized to get to major arrival points in the work.

Example 5 The music supports the theory of Motive A and Motive B being used at
important cadences, as we can see the final note, a G above the staff, is an eighth
note. These are infrequent in the top voice, and when they do appear they are
usually at major cadences, either on the resolution or on the V or other tense chord
before a resolution.

The Courante puts a spotlight on the two main motives. This

movement begins with an altered version of Motive B that reverses the
order of the arpeggio and stepwise motion. It starts on a descending G
major arpeggio and is followed by a brief stepwise motion that arrives
on a B, where again a G major chord is outlined and a short stepwise
idea is played (Example 6). This continues for the rest of the phrase,
until a contrasting idea appears that primarily involves Motive A. In it,
Motive A is repeated on beats one and two for two measures, followed
by a shortened version of Motive B and then Motive A leading into the
first cadence of the piece (Example 7). These two phrases and their

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variations are what make up the vast majority of the material in the
movement.

Example 6 the opening measures of the Courante, exposing Motive B as the main
motive of the movement

Example 7 The second phrase of the Courante, exposing Motive A. In the red box is
the implied line that incorporates Motive A leading into the first major cadence.

The Sarabande has fewer instances of the motives though when

they are used it is at important cadences. Motive A is used more than
Motive B. An inverted form of Motive A is presented in the very first
measure of the Sarabande (Example 8). Another notable example of
Motive A includes the first cadence to D major in the A section of the
movement (Example 9).

Example 8 and 9 Two separate instances of Motive A within the A section of

the movement.

Though the two motives appear frequently in Menuet I, the most

important examples of their use are in Menuet II. Menuet II has an A
section that has three implied lines, two of which present Motive A
(Example 10). In the B section the melodic idea changes and more
excerpts from Motive B, though Motive A is still used (Example 11).

Example 10 While just an excerpt of two measures, this same pattern makes
up the majority of the A section of Menuet II.

Example 11 The first excerpt shows Motive As usage within the B section of
Menuet II, and the second excerpt shows an example of Motive B. Motive B includes
some variation as the first note of the scale, A, is transposed down an octave.

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The final movement of the suite, the Gigue, has many instances
of the two motives. Motive A is frequently used at cadences, and the
most significant instance of its use is in the final cadence. Motives A
and B are combined in this cadence, which supports the idea that
these two motives are important to the framework of the suite. The
cadence begins as an ascending diatonic scale from D to B which
works as the first half of Motive B. Following this is Motive A starting on
a G and going to a lower neighbor, then immediately after the second
half of Motive B is presented as a descending G major arpeggio,
concluding the suite (Example 12).

Example 12 The final cadence of the suite incorporates an ascending

diatonic scale as part of Motive B, then Motive A which leads into the second half of
Motive B, a descending G major arpeggio.

J.S. Bachs Cello Suite No. 1 is an incredibly complex piece of

music and was one of Bachs most defining works. These suites are
some of the most significant non-keyboard works for any solo
instrument to come out of the Baroque Era. The suites translate to the
guitar very well when considering both the cello and guitar are stringed
instruments that have a similar range and dark tone. The suite has
been arranged many times for the guitar and, as such, has evolved

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over the past one-hundred years in different ways. In the mid-20th
century, when Andrs Segovia arranged it for guitar, he arranged it in
such a way that it would take advantage of the of the guitars
strengths. Segovia arranged the piece into the key of D major, and
added an incredibly rich accompaniment that turned the piece into a
new, modern piece in a romantic style. He included new octaves and
new ideas to emphasize a full sound, going so far as removing the
pedal tone in the Prelude of the suite, opting instead for a new melodic
bass line.
Another well-known interpretation is Micheal Lorimers 1973
arrangement. The emerging paradigm then was modesty. His
arrangement adds notes and fills out lines like Segovias, but does so
with Bachs intentions in mind. The piece was transposed to D major to
better accommodate the guitar, much like Segovias version. No pedal
points are altered, and if a bass line is added it adheres to the rules of
counterpoint to fit Bachs compositional style. Chords may be filled out
to utilize the two extra strings the guitar has and though the added
tones may not strictly adhere to voice leading rules they are still
modest changes.
Cello Suite No. 1 is a piece that has been arranged on many
instruments, but the intuitive nature of the piece makes it standard
guitar repertoire. The suite is a stepping-stone into more complicated

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Baroque suites and at the same time a suite that is rife with complexity
and depth.
Isaac Albeniz was born in Camprodon, Spain on May 2, 1860.
Purportedly a child prodigy, Albeniz played the pianoforte so well at
less than four years of age that listeners often thought it was a scam
and a man behind a curtain was playing instead of Albeniz (JeanAubry). His life as a child prodigy put him on the fast track to success
as he began his studies at a conservatory in Madrid at age eight.
During his time there, he came upon many books that would spark his
love of travel and adventure, and it did not take him long to embark on
this passion (Jean-Aubry). At age nine, he took a train to the town of
Escurial to perform a recital. When he went to return home he
accidentally took a train going the opposite direction, and ended up
performing two impromptu concerts at the places he stopped. His trip
was extended even longer when he was robbed of all the money he
had earned performing. Not wanting to return home empty handed, he
decided it best to go back out and continue to perform to earn back
the lost money (Jean-Aubry).
The traveling he did would certainly not stop here, as it would
become one of the most defining characteristics of his career.
Enamored with Spanish culture in particular, Albeniz travelled all
around Spain during his performance career after school, well known
as a virtuoso pianist. From there on his travel would expand, visiting

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countries rich with Latin culture like Cuba and Puerto Rico, in addition
to countries such as England and France (Clark 1992).
All of the traveling Albeniz would do would lead to the creation of
one of his most well known works Op. 47 or Suite Espaola. The suite
is composed of eight movements; Granada, Catalua, Sevilla, Cdiz,
Asturias, Aragn, Castilla, and Cuba. All of which are meant to depict a
different region of Hispanic geography, and because of this each
reflects a small amount of the cultural identity that Albeniz
encountered in these regions while performing concerts.
Unfortunately, as it seems with many well-received compositions
that pre-date the twentieth century, it could never be as simple as
that. Several of the movements of the suite were not ever intended to
be in the suite, nor are they about the regions they are meant to be
about. Cdiz, Aragn, Castilla, and Asturias were added in to the suite
by Hofmeister, the company that published many of Albenizs pieces,
after Albenizs death in 1909. Most likely Albeniz had promised a
completed suite for Hofmeister but never quite finished the entirety of
the work, or unable to finish it before his death.
Hofmeister took various other works that Albeniz wrote and
inserted them into the suite with the new titles. Asturias specifically
comes from Chants dEspagne (or Songs of Spain) and is originally
entitled Preludio. It gets all the more complicated because Preludio was
most likely intended to depict a region of Spain other than Asturias.

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Instead, Preludio is meant to represent the Alhambra Palace, which is
located in Granada, Spain (Yates). So ironically, Asturias is about
Granada, which has its own movement, Granada, and Asturias (the
region) is not the subject of any of the movements.
The subtitle of Asturias (Leyenda) may hold more credence to
the meaning behind the piece than the given name. Leyenda
(translated as legend) is meant to represent a party inside the
Alhambra Palace. The A section is meant to depict the Romani people
of Spain, Gitanos, living inside the palace playing and dancing
flamenco. Albeniz wrote that the B section is meant to emulate the
guzla, the lazy dragging of the fingers across the strings. And above
all, heartbreaking lament out of tune (Clark).
It is not exactly known when the first performance of a guitar
arrangement of this piece occurred. What we do know is that Asturias
(Leyenda) was performed and arranged first by Severino Garca Fortea
though Andres Segovia was the man that brought the piece to fame on
the guitar (Yates). It is not certain when Segovia arranged his version
of the piece, though we do know the earliest known performance by
Segovia was in October of 1924 (Yates).
For analysis this paper will dissect the guitar arrangement
created by Andrs Segovia and edited by Richard Provost. The paper
will attempt to understand why certain aspects of it were changed from

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piano editions. The analysis will also attempt look for the pieces
prototypical late-Romantic Era elements.
The first and most obvious change is that this particular guitar
arrangement was transposed from G minor to E minor. The lowest pitch
the guitar can produce in standard tuning is an E, allowing Segovia to
utilize the frequent tonic pedal points to the best of the guitars ability.
A second major change to the piece is the way the accompaniment
works throughout. The original version contains rapid octave Ds.
Segovia changes this to a sixteenth note triplet figure providing a
much easier arpeggio and added depth to compensate for short
sustain of the guitar. There are also several parts which were changed
due to the fact that they would present an unrealistic challenge to the
performer. For example, the A section ends with an ascending
sixteenth note D major arpeggio (B major in the guitar version) the
rapid succession of these 16th notes would be very challenging for a
guitarist when combined with the pizzicato of Segovias arrangement.

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The piece starts with a simple melody which contains only five

unique notes. Due to its repetition, it is evident that this melody forms
the foundation for the A section. Though the melody is fairly stagnant
throughout the piece, the harmonic content shifts in order to build
intensity. The piece begins in E minor, modulates to B major with a 3note tremolo, returns briefly to E minor and then cadences strongly on
B major. It finishes with a passage switching back and forth quickly

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between a B major chord and a German augmented sixth chord, Ger+6,
which was very popular in the late-Romantic Era and is a chord which
is comprised of a # and a which both resolve to a . This gives the
chord a very strong pre-dominant function and provides for powerful
cadences the repetition of the Ger+6 and its resolution to the
dominant confirm the modulation to B major. The final B of this phrase
stays as the pedal point until the end of the A section where there is an
ascending 3-octave B major arpeggio.

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The B section begins with a melodic line centered around a B

major chord. This section, while focused on B major, is most likely still
in E minor. The most important piece of evidence that suggests this is
the use of both D and D#. Albeniz utilizes D in the melody and D# for
the sole purpose of creating B major chords. The D#s, and thus, the B
major chords, occur most frequently at half-cadences. The most
apparent instance of one of these half-cadences is at the end of the
octave motive. The cadence is made up of a French augmented sixth
chord, or Fr+6, which is composed of #, , , and . The Fr+6 functions as a
strong pre-dominant with its #, , and all resolving to . With this in
mind, we would assume that the Fr+6 would resolve to a dominant
chord, and that dominant would in turn resolve to a tonic. This isnt the
case however; the Fr+6 resolves to the dominant but the dominant
doesnt resolve to the tonic, and instead resolves to G major. The mood

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created by these half-cadences and the ambiguity of key is a clear
contrast to what was presented in the A section.
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Following this, Albeniz creates a section that is much more

Spanish sounding, using an E major dominant Phrygian mode, the

Spanish Phrygian mode, or an E major scale with a , , and . The
Spanish Phrygian is a great example of music in the late-Romantic
Era, not only is it using a mode of the harmonic minor scale, but it is
also an example of the prevalent nationalism that was incorporated in
much of the music of the time. Using this mode, the E major begins to
function as a dominant and leads to an A minor. The A minor brings us
back to E minor, and the B section ends with a half-cadence and the
return of the B major chord.
The coda calls back the beginning of the B section with its slow
chordal section and emphasis on G major, A minor, and E minor. It also
includes some other characteristics that are typical of the lateRomantic era. The first and foremost is that the second phrase utilizes
a Neopolitan Sixth chord, N6, which is II chord with a sixth above it.
This is a musical reference to the Spanish Phrygian mode that occurred
in the B section, a mode that is easily recognizable for its II chord.
While these instances alone are not all of the important romantic
elements of the piece, they are important and technical enough to give
a finer understanding to the expanded harmonic vocabulary of the
late-Romantic Era and the yearning for cultural identity.

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Heitor Villa-Lobos was born in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil on March 5,
1887 (The Musical Times). As a child Villa-Lobos was primarily selftaught. His father, who was a self-taught musician as well, taught him
the cello (Fraga 1996). Villa-Lobos would become very interested in
the popular music of the time, the choro. He had hopes of participating
in jam sessions with well-known chores (choro players). The choro,
which is translated as little cry or little lament were popular music
pieces with origins in Rio de Janeiro. Oxford Music Dictionary describes
the choro as a piece with rhythmic patterns (syncopated binary
figures), although tempo and instrumentation are distinguishing
features and virtuoso improvisation of instrumental variations
and the resulting imaginative counterpoint Unfortunately, when
Villa-Lobos was just fourteen years old his home life and musical career
came to a standstill. His father passed away and his mother attempted
to prevent him from playing the guitar in fear that it would turn him
into a scoundrel (Meirinhos).
As a result of this, Villa-Lobos fled his mothers home and lived
with his aunt (Meirinhos). From there his career would be defined by his
travels, as he traversed all throughout Brazil in order to gain a better
understanding of his countrys native music (Fraga). In this time, he
would write many pieces, including one of his most famous, Suite
Populaire Brasilienne a piece which contained five choros based off of
different European dances, such as the waltz, mazurka, and gavotte.

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Villa-Lobos was funded partially by the government and elites to
travel to Paris (Fraga 1996). Villa-Lobos would meet many famous
composers and musicians, including Prokofiev, Edgar Varse, and
Andrs Segovia. He would end up writing another famous set of pieces
for guitar there The Twelve Etudes dedicated to Andrs Segovia.
When he finally returned to Brazil Villa-Lobos combined his
experiences in Brazil and Europe to create a new set of pieces: The Six
Preludes. The Six Preludes were written by Villa-Lobos in Rio de Janeiro,
1940 though one of the pieces, the sixth and final prelude, went
missing and has not been recovered to this day. Thus, often the set is
commonly referred to today as The Five Preludes.
Each prelude has its own unique subtitle: Prelude 1 Lyrical
Melody, Prelude 2 Melodia Capadocia, Prelude 3 Homage to Bach,
Prelude 4 Homage to the Brazilian Indian, and Prelude 5 Homage to
Brazilian Social Life. Each of these subtitles speaks to the sections,
especially in the context of an analysis. The goal of the subsequent
analyses will be to find musical representations of the subtitles within
each of the preludes.
Prelude 1 or Lyrical Melody is arguably the most popular of the
five preludes. The A section of the piece begins on E minor with the
melody in the bass line and open chords on top in a boom-chic style
of sorts. If we look at Villa-Lobos other works and his musical
background it becomes very apparent that the bass line melody is

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meant to replicate the sound of a cello, while the plucked chords on
top are a piano accompaniment. This cello-like melody is the lyrical
melody of this piece as is evident by its simplicity, repetition,
frequent stepwise motion, and its inherent beauty.
Prelude 2, or Melodia Capadocia/Homage to the Brazilian
Scoundrel, seems to call back to certain aspects of Prelude 1 with its
E major key signature and ternary form. Programmatically, the piece
suggests contrasting regions of Brazil the first of which being the
beaches of Rio de Janeiro which manifests itself in the A section as
slow, relaxed, even carefree with the amount of rubato and ritards
used. Villa-Lobos takes this so far as to include a measure that is
essentially unmetered, as it contains a scale that is longer than the
time signature should allow.
In contrast, the B section fulfills the subtitle Homage to the
Brazilian Scoundrel. The section is fast and lacks the tonal security of
the A section. The B section also contains a melody which is just an
octave and fifth, with a constant arpeggio on top that always consists
of an open B and E string. The melody with the arpeggio is parallel
motion of a major chord, with a centricity around F# major. The
contrasting open B and E strings in addition to all chords being major
and the speedy arpeggio make for a hectic, fast-paced B section
reflective of hustlers and scoundrels in the inner city.

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Prelude 3 is slightly different than the last in terms of form, as it
is in binary form (AB) as opposed to ternary form (ABA). Additionally,
while the key signature presents us with A minor, the tonality is not
clearly solidified until the final measure. Because it is an Homage to
Bach, both of these things are very appropriate. The A section
includes repetitious motives along with quick modulations and notated
Baroque ornamentation. The most notable of these are the
appoggiaturas. These appoggiaturas are very important, as evidenced
by the fact that they are used in the opening measure of the piece and
repeated frequently. Additionally, the A section is reminiscent of a
French overture. The inclusion of dotted rhythms, frequent pauses, and
an unmetered feel are all evidence of this. The B section of the piece
reminiscent of a Bach organ toccata slowed down to half-speed, with a
pedal point in the top voice and a descending line underneath it.
Prelude 4, subtitled Homage to the Brazilian Indian is in E
minor and is in an ABAA form. The piece is marked as lento and
contains longer rhythms, contrasting most of the other preludes. It is
also much more sparse that the previous preludes, so much so that the
majority of the A section is monophonic. When accompaniment does
appear, it seems to suggest music of the Brazilian Indians. This is due
to the rhythms, dotted eighth-sixteenths, which were meant to
emulate the sound of the human heartbeat close to nature, and
reflective of a lot of native Indian music. The B section is contrasting

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only in rhythm and feel, as it is still in the key of E minor. It contains a
constant sixteenth-note arpeggio that ascends and descends on the
fourth string, then ascends and descends on the sixth string until the
melody from the A theme appears in only harmonics. Following this is
the return of A section, which closes out the piece.
The final prelude, Prelude 5, or Homage to Brazilian Social Life,
can also be seen as an homage to the beginnings of Villa-Loboss
career. The piece is in the form of a waltz-choro. Evidence of this
includes its fast 6/4 meter with an emphasis on one and four in
addition to a contrapuntal bass line. Villa-Lobos had originally written a
waltz-choro as part of his Suite Populaire Brasilienne though much
slower and in a minor sonority. This one is upbeat and in a major key,
though it is contrasted by the B section of the prelude which is in Bminor. This prelude is unique in that it is in an ABCA form, with the C
section having much faster rhythms with a lot of ascending eighth note
arpeggios and a triplet-eighth note scale ascending to a repeat of the C
section. The fifth prelude concludes with a literal repeat of the A
section.
Another important work from the 20th century is Nikita Koshkins
Usher Waltz. Nikita Koshkin was born in Moscow, Soviet Russia in 1956.
While he purportedly fell in love with the works of Stravinsky and
Shostakovich at the age of four, rock guitar would be his passion until
he was about fourteen years old (LaFave). When Koshkin was fourteen

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he received his first classical guitar along with recordings of Andrs
Segovia. Classical guitar became his passion and he would go on to
study at the Moscow College of Music. Koshkin received his first
breakthrough when guitarist Vladimir Mikulka premiered his suite The
Princes Toys in 1980 (LaFave). Over a decade later in 1993 he would
have another major breakthrough when John Williams performed Usher
Waltz on his biography John Williams: The Seville Concert and Film
Profile.
Usher Waltz is a programmatic piece meant to depict the short
story by Edgar Allen Poe, The Fall of the House of Usher. The story, told
in the first-person, involves a man visiting his old childhood friend
Roderick Usher who is suffering from severe mental illnesses. The
narrator describes Ushers wealthy family history and the mansion he
lives in, decrepit though unusually structurally sound. The narrator
then visits Roderick and finds out the details of his affliction nervous
agitation, dramatic mood swings, paranoia, and hypersensitivity to all
stimuli. Roderick states the last condition was passed down his family
tree due to many consanguineous relationships. In addition to this, his
sister, Lady Madeline, is suffering from severe illness and rapidly
deteriorating health; she dies at the outset of the story. As the
narrative goes on, the narrator helps Roderick bury Lady Madeline
within the house. Rodericks mental illness continues to grow worse
and the narrator begins to feel unhinged as well, until the climax of the

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story. The narrator, reading to Roderick on a stormy night in hopes of
calming him down, is interrupted by Lady Madeline bursting through
the door. The narrator immediately runs away from the house as fast
as he can, and it crumbles in the distance.
The aim of the following analysis will be to find relationships
between the story and its musical counterpart. The analysis will
examine compositional devices that are unique to twentieth century
works. Finally, the analysis will examine how Koshkins background in
rock and jazz affected Usher Waltz.
The piece adheres to a tonal center but very frequently utilizes
chromaticism instead of chordal progression. Koshkin uses the
chromaticism in order to create not only a sense of motion but to
illustrate the insanity that is occurring within the story. This is most
prominent in the bass line which drives most of the harmonic motion in
the work. Bass lines including chromatic tones ascending to a
dominant or secondary dominant chord are common. They often
resolve to the tonic and then quickly return to the dominant and
resolve again.
The piece is in a loose rondo form. The A section consists of a
clear A minor tonal center contrasting this is the B section which has
a C major tonal center. From here there are phrases which have an A
minor tonal center and are another instance of the A section. The C
section briefly modulates to D minor and returns to A minor another

2
A section. The D section is similar to the C section due to the fact they
both have a shared tonal center of D minor. The piece modulates back
to A minor, and then modulates to E minor in the E section, only to
finally resolve back to A minor in the coda.
In addition to these shared tonal centers, there is a motive that
occurs frequently in the bass line that distinguishes the A section from
the rest. This motive, as shown in Example 13, is presented in the first
instance of the A section and occurs in some fashion in the subsequent
instances of A. Koshkin uses the motive to tie sections together and
support the rondo form.

Example 13 The motive utilizes chromaticism to built to the pre-dominant and

dominant.

Examples 14 and 15 depict different instances of this motive.

Example 14 has a very literal interpretation of the motive, while
Example 15 is more clouded. Example 15 focuses on three pitches in
the motive, E, A, and Bb. Koshkin is using only the E and Bb here as a
way to tonicize A minor, since both E and Bb serve a dominant
function. This new, shorter instance of the motive serves to push the
piece forward and build more tension.

Example 14 The motive presented again. Koshkin uses this motive quite literally in
its second appearance, almost as a way to acclimate the listener to it before radically
changing it.

Example 15 A shorter instance of the motive. The melody supports the A minor
tonal center here. The phrase starts on an A minor triad and the first four pitches are
A and its upper and lower neighbor.

As far as the programmatic aspect of the piece, the B section

clearly depicts part of the story. At one point Roderick plays The Last
Waltz by Carl Maria von Weber and the reader discovers that when
Roderick plays the guitar he is unaffected by his ailments. This part of
the story is depicted in the B section of Usher Waltz. The only instance
where we get a stable modulation to a major key is in the B section,
and there is almost no chromaticism present here either. Both of these
things support the idea that this section is meant to depict Roderick
calmly playing the guitar.
Another notable instance of the music depicting the story is in
the final pages of the piece. The loud strummed chords leading into

2
section only of harmonics serve as the climax of the story and are most
likely meant to depict the scene when Lady Madeline, who is
supposedly dead, enters the room where Roderick and the narrator
are. Following this is a quiet section that imitates previous material in
the piece, possibly harkening back to when Lady Madeline was alive.
This section is all done in harmonics as well, creating a ghostly,
ethereal atmosphere which is very appropriate for what it is depicting.
The music not only gives us an understanding of the story, but a
great understanding of Koshkins background as well. For example the
introductory theme, which is often repeated throughout the work, has
an arpeggiated E major dominant 7th sharp 9 chord. This chord was
popularized by Jimi Hendrixs song Purple Haze and has a much greater
presence in rock and jazz music now than it did in classical.
Furthermore, Koshkin frequently includes strummed barre chords which
are very common in rock music. Finally, there are instances where the
performer is directed to alternate the pitch by pulling the string
sideways, an incredibly common technique on the electric guitar that
is rarely used on a classical.
The pieces analyzed in this paper not only cover diverse eras of
music but diverse compositional styles as well. Each composer, while
not necessarily writing for the guitar, produced a piece that works
fluently for it. Learning about these composers, analyzing their pieces,
and assessing compositional styles presents what works well on guitar

2
and why it works well. Not only is this beneficial for someone
potentially composing for the guitar, but anyone that is vaguely
interested or just wants to listen to its performance. A more
knowledgeable listener likely appreciates and understands a
performance or work more clearly, and it is for that reason surveys of
multiple works are essential.

Bibliography
Bach, Johann Sebastian. Six Cello Suites, BWV1007 BWV1012. Edited by Anna
Magdalena. Manuscript, n.d. (ca 1726).
The first score of the cello suites, as released by Anna Magdalena, J.S. Bachs
second wife.
Bach, Johann Sebastian. Six Cello Suites, BWV1007 BWV1012. Edited by Kellner,
Johann Peter. Manuscript, n.d. (ca 1726).
An edition of the cello suites released by Johann Peter Kellner, a contemporary of
J.S. Bach. This edition proves to be a good alternate to the Magdalena edition.
Subsequent editions incorporate ideas from both. For example the Anna
Magdalena edition has no ascending diatonic scale before the final cadence in the
Gigue, while the Kellner edition does. When examining recordings and other
editions of the suites, performers and arrangers typically include the scale in the
final cadence. With this in mind, it is evident that no edition is definitively
right.
Christoph Wolff, and Walter Emery. "Childhood" Bach. Grove Music Online. Oxford
Music Online. Oxford University Press. Web. 22 Apr. 2014.

A biography on J.S. Bach by Wolff and Emery. The section used in this paper is
on Johann Sebastian Bachs childhood and was referenced for the purposes of
uncovering some of his family history. The section itself covers J.S. Bachs
education both in the context of music and outside of it. The biography reveals
that most music education J.S. Bach received is conjecture, though it is likely that
he was taught by his father. The biography goes on to discuss the passing of J.S.
Bachs father and how J.S. Bach was then put in the custody of his brother J.C.
Bach. Wolff and Emery write that at the age of fifteen J.S. Bach was taught organ
by his brother J.C. Bach and support this claim with an account from J.S. Bachs
son. Wolff and Emery state J.S. Bach learned how to compose as a copyist. They
conclude the section by stating that it is likely J.S. Bach composed his first piece
when he was fifteen, and support this with the claim that BWV749, 750, and 756
closely resembled the compositional style of Johann Pachelbel, his teachers
teacher, and were likely the first pieces he composed.
Clark, Walter Aaron, Albniz: Portrait of a Romantic (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998), p.
65, fn. 132.
Cited in Yates article, Clark provides first-hand sources and explanations to
certain aspects of Asturias. Specifically used in this paper is Clarks quote of a
letter between Albeniz and a friend that explains the inspiration behind the B
section of Leyenda. Albeniz states that the B section is meant to represent a man
playing a guzla, a Middle Eastern instrument, in the Alhambra Palace. It also goes
on to state that Albeniz often thought of himself of Moorish descent, piquing his
interesting in the Middle Eastern instrument and the Alhambra Palace.
Fraga, Orlando. Heitor Villa-Lobos: A Survey of His Guitar Music. Heitor Villa-Lobos: A
Survey of His Guitar Music. Electronic Ethnomusicological Review, Sept. 1996.
Web. 04 Apr. 2014.
Fraga begins his survey by giving a brief biography of Villa-Lobos. He does this
by first describing the scene where Villa-Lobos would grow up, Rio de Janeiro.
Fraga describes it as a place that was dominated by music and the choro. VillaLobos was primarily self-taught, and Fraga details how most of Villa-Loboss
inspirations come from his travels within his home country of Brazil. Beyond this
Fraga details Villa-Loboss time spent studying in Paris and the people he met
there. Fraga ends the biography section of the paper with Villa-Lobos return to
Brazil and explains how it has changed from when he was there before. Following
this, Fraga lists all of Villa-Lobos guitar works and addresses each in a sentence
or two in addition to giving an excerpt from each one. For most of these, Fraga
just highlights what he believes is interesting and unique and each piece.
Hanford, Jan, and Jan Koster. "J.S. Bach: Biography." Eisenach (1685 - 1695). N.p.,
1995. Web. 04 Apr. 2014.

3
Another biography about J.S. Bach, this one was referenced just for the section on
Eisenach, and describes Bachs life at an early age. It is a much more straightforward source than Clark and Emerys work and provides a nice secondary
source. While there are no major discrepancies between the two, one may provide
more detail on certain aspects that the other does not have.
Jean-Aubry, G. "Isaac Albeniz (1860-1909)." Musical Times. 1 Dec 1917: 535-538. Print.
Jean-Aubry gives a biography of Isaac Albeniz and his various travels. Aubry
provides interesting personal stories that help add depth in addition to outlining
Albeniz personality. Most interesting though is that Jean-Aubry discusses Albeniz
change in careers. Albeniz was a virtuoso pianist for a large portion of his life, so
much so that he was very close to his contemporary and idol Franz Liszt. This
changed later in his life when he moved to Paris and devoted his time to
composition and personal enjoyment. Jean-Aubry crystallizes this point with a
first-hand account of himself listening to Albeniz play Iberia. Albeniz composed
it late in his life when he had long given up the virtuoso career, and Jean-Aubry
states that when he heard it performed by Albeniz he was tapping his feet,
laughing, and very ecstatic about it. For the purposes of this paper, Jean-Aubrys
work was used as a biographical resource and a way to find personal accounts and
interactions with Albeniz. Furthermore, the source clearly has a goal in mind as he
attempts to highlight the career change Albeniz made adding a new perspective to
Albenizs life.
Koshkin, Usher. Usher Waltz. Published by G. Schirmer, Inc. Manuscript, 1989.
An edition of Usher Waltz, used in this paper for musical examples.
LaFave, Kenneth. Nikita Koshkin Composer & Guitarist. (n.d.). Accessed April 28,
2014. (http://physiology.med.unc.edu/tgs/artists/koshkin/nikita_koshkin_bio.html)
This source is a short biography of Nikita Koshkin. LaFave goes into detail on
Koshkins influences in addition to his musical training. Beyond this, LaFave
states that Koshkin got his fame through Vladimir Mikulkas performance of his
piece The Princes Toys. For the purposes of this paper, it was used primarily for
historical background.
Meirinhos, Eduardo, "Primary Sources and Editions of Suite Popular Brasileira, Choros
No. 1, and Five Preludes, by Heitor Villa-Lobos: A Comparative Survey of
Differences" (2003). Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations. Paper 2500.
Meirinhos dissertation is similar to Fragas paper but done in much more detail
and with a much narrower focus. Meirinhos goal is to create a comparative
analysis of original transcripts and later editions. Additionally, Meirinhos details
things that were originally in the score but removed by Villa-Lobos. Meirinhos

3
states he wants a contextualization of the guitar in the life and work of the
composer. In the context of this paper, Meirinhos work is used for its biography
and to provide a second source for Villa-Lobos history.
Poe, Edgar Allen. The Fall of the House of Usher 1839. Taken from the University of
Virginias website.
The text of The Fall of the House of Usher by Edgar Allen Poe. The source is
used in this paper in order to create a synopsis of the story. This provides the
reader with more context and creates an appropriate atmosphere around Usher
Waltz by Nikita Koshkin.
Soderberg, Stephen. "The Bach Cello Suites." The Bach Cello Suites. The Library of
Congress, n.d. Web. 04 Apr. 2014.
The goal of this short description of the Cello Suites is to make the listener ask
more questions about why Bach did what he did. Soderberg frames some ideas
stating that the cello suites may not have been composed for anyone and may not
have been performed when he was alive but then attempts to make the reader
dig deeper. Leading off the previous example, he may ask the question Does that
mean Bach performed these suites on his own? Why did he even write them? to
get the reader to research and form an opinion from that research. Furthermore,
Soderberg presents a brief analysis in order to show the depth of Bachs
compositions and to attempt to make the listener analyze them more. While
Soderbergs work is only cited in this paper for some biographical information, it
forms the basis for why this paper focuses on Motive A and Motive B. Why are
these two motives used so frequently? How might they be altered and then
presented elsewhere? Making the reader or listener question why the composer
does something is the best way learn quickly.
Yates, Stanley. "Everything You Wanted to Know About Albeniz's Leyenda." Stanley
Yates - Albeniz's Leyenda. N.p., 2000. Web. 04 Apr. 2014.
A comprehensive work on Albenizs history, the context of
Asturias (Leyenda) and Asturias subsequent guitar
transcriptions. Yates is provides invaluable information on how
Asturias (Leyenda) is likely not meant to depict the Asturias
region of Spain and provides first-hand accounts as proof. He
details the likelihood that it was Albenizs publishers that
renamed works and put them in the Suite Espaola. Furthermore,
Yates creates a comparative analysis of guitar transcriptions like
Segovias with the original score by Albeniz and goes through
what was changed and why it was changed. Yates work was
used in this paper not only as a biographical source but for the
well-supported ideas he has on the programmatic aspect as well.