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Fall, 2008
Unit M3.3
Physical Bases of Elastic Properties
Readings:
A & J 4, 5, 6
MIT - 16.001/16.002
Fall, 2008
Unit M3.3 - p. 2
MIT - 16.001/16.002
Fall, 2008
Unit M3.3 - p. 3
MIT - 16.001/16.002
Fall, 2008
Figure M3.3-1
versus
Unit M3.3 - p. 4
MIT - 16.001/16.002
Fall, 2008
--> Lets first deal with the types of bonds. We can identify two generic
types:
Primary Bonds
Ionic, covalent or metallic
Have high melting temperatures (1000K)
e.g., metals, ceramics
Secondary Bonds
Hydrogen bonds, Van der Waals
Have lower melting temperatures (100 - 500K)
e.g., polymers
There are often a mixture of bond types in one material
--> How does one obtain the bond energy of different types for
different materials?
Quoted in chemistry databooks. Gives answer as to whether it
is favorable to form bonds for particular situations.
--> Lets first consider each of the three types of
Paul A. Lagace 2007
Unit M3.3 - p. 5
MIT - 16.001/16.002
Fall, 2008
Primary Bonds
Ionic Bonding
(e.g., alkali halides, magnesia, alumina)
Electrostatic attraction between ions
Electron goes from positive ion to negative ion
Figure M3.3-3 Example of Ionic Bond to form sodium chloride
Na
+ 5.14 eV
+11
4.02 eV
Cl
+17
Unit M3.3 - p. 6
MIT - 16.001/16.002
Fall, 2008
q2
Energy = Uatt = r Fdr =
4 o r
r
3. Repulsive Energy
There is a repulsive force due to the electronic charge distributions in
the atoms. This has the form:
Urep =
B
rn
Unit M3.3 - p. 7
MIT - 16.001/16.002
Fall, 2008
U = Ui + Uatt + Urep
q2
U =
4 o r
Figure M3.3-4
B
rn
net curve
Ui
ro
r
Uattractive
minimum point
at ro
stable region
(U < 0) no energy needed
to keep it there
Paul A. Lagace 2007
Unit M3.3 - p. 8
MIT - 16.001/16.002
Fall, 2008
Note: Ionic bonds are omni-directional -charged particles attract equally in all directions
leads to isotropic behavior, but different sized ions lead to nonisotropic behavior
The next bond type is the.
--> Covalent Bonding
(e.g., diamond, silicon, glasses, some metals, also polymer
chains)
Electron shared by two (or more) atoms
Very strong
Figure M3.3-5 Example of covalent bond to form hydrogen molecule
H2
H
H
r
+
1 electron
in orbit
1 electron
in orbit
2 electrons
in orbit
Unit M3.3 - p. 9
MIT - 16.001/16.002
Fall, 2008
The energy is again made of two parts (attractive and repulsive) and
can be expressed empirically as:
A
B
U = m + n
r
r
attractive
Figure M3.3-6
(with m < n)
(m > 2)
repulsive
net curve
ro
r
Uattractive
minimum point
at ro
stable region
(U < 0) no energy needed
to keep it there
Paul A. Lagace 2007
Unit M3.3 - p. 10
MIT - 16.001/16.002
Fall, 2008
For most other atoms (e.g., diamond), the shared orbital paths have
preferred directions and thus covalent bonds are generally highly
directional.
Note: Generally ceramics are bonded by a
mixture of ionic and covalent bonds.
the final primary bond type is the..
--> Metallic Bond
(dominant in metals and alloys)
A sea of free electrons which have left highest energy atoms
(making them ions)
Figure M3.3-7 Representation of free electrons in metallic bonding
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ = ions
= free electrons
Unit M3.3 - p. 11
MIT - 16.001/16.002
Fall, 2008
U =
A
B
+
rm
rn
attractive
(m < n)
repulsive
Notes:
Easy movement of electrons leads to high
electrical conductivity of metals
No directionality of this configuration (with
regard to bonds) omni-directional
Now lets quickly consider.
Secondary Bonds
First consider.
Unit M3.3 - p. 12
MIT - 16.001/16.002
Fall, 2008
next.
--> Hydrogen Bonding
Hydrogen atom gives up charge to nearest oxygen atom
Occurs in water and other polar liquids
Paul A. Lagace 2007
Unit M3.3 - p. 13
MIT - 16.001/16.002
Fall, 2008
Figure M3.3-9
+
H + O
H
O
and the neighboring H+ acts as a bridging
bond between neighboring O s
+
H
U =
A
B
+
m
n
r
r
attractive
(m < n)
repulsive
Unit M3.3 - p. 14
MIT - 16.001/16.002
Fall, 2008
--> One can get force by noting that force is the derivative of energy:
dU
F=
dr
Figure M3.3-10
inflection point
ro = equilibrium
distance
F
( = dU/dr)
Fmax
attraction
repulsion
dU/dr 0 as r
Unit M3.3 - p. 15
MIT - 16.001/16.002
Fall, 2008
dF
d 2U
Stiffness
of bond = Sbond = dr = dr2
This is linear in a region near the equilibrium
distance r
will return to this point (i.e., linear
elastic modulus)
--> Lets now consider material types and how atoms are arranged
(structure) and the types of bonds as well.
Unit M3.3 - p. 16
MIT - 16.001/16.002
Fall, 2008
Unit M3.3 - p. 17
MIT - 16.001/16.002
Fall, 2008
The second layer will logically occur such that the 2nd-layer atoms fit in the
gaps of the 1st-layer atoms
Figure M3.3-12
Unit M3.3 - p. 18
MIT - 16.001/16.002
Fall, 2008
Figure M3.3-13
.
.
Unit M3.3 - p. 19
MIT - 16.001/16.002
Fall, 2008
Yields Face-centered-cubic: 1 - 2 - 3 - 1 - 2 - 3
Figure M3.3-15
Unit M3.3 - p. 20
MIT - 16.001/16.002
Fall, 2008
Unit M3.3 - p. 21
MIT - 16.001/16.002
Fall, 2008
Notes:
- Packing is not necessarily close-packed (have directional
bonds, different sized atoms)
- A material can have more than one structure depending on
temperature and mixture (e.g., tin)
- Density of solid reflects mass of atoms and density of
packing
--> Finally, lets consider general characteristics of the two material
classes:
Metals:
- metallic bonds (strong and stiff)
- dense packing
- mobile electrons allow good thermal and electrical
conductivity
- crystals form grains which make up the bulk material
Unit M3.3 - p. 22
MIT - 16.001/16.002
Fall, 2008
Ceramics:
- ionic or covalent bonds (stiff but brittle)
- chemically stable (primary bonds very stable)
- electrons not mobile low thermal and electrical
conductivity
Now consider.
Unit M3.3 - p. 23
MIT - 16.001/16.002
Fall, 2008
3 behaviors:
--> Thermoplastics
- chains linked by Van der Waals bonds (weak) via side atoms
- chains are generally randomly distributed
Unit M3.3 - p. 24
MIT - 16.001/16.002
Fall, 2008
Figure M3.3-17
T
glass transition
temperature
Unit M3.3 - p. 25
MIT - 16.001/16.002
Fall, 2008
covalent bonds
Unit M3.3 - p. 26
MIT - 16.001/16.002
Fall, 2008
Estimate of Moduli
Earlier we looked at atomic bonds, their energy, resulting force and
stiffness.
Unit M3.3 - p. 27
MIT - 16.001/16.002
Fall, 2008
Figure M3.3-18
r - ro
F
F
r
S
r - ro
We had:
d 2U
dF
S0 =
= 2
dr r= r0
dr r =r0
So near r0 :
Paul A. Lagace 2007
F = S0 ( r r0 )
Unit M3.3 - p. 28
MIT - 16.001/16.002
Fall, 2008
End View
ro
ro
r
ro
F
=
N
A
=
Paul A. Lagace 2007
F
r02
r02
Unit M3.3 - p. 29
MIT - 16.001/16.002
Fall, 2008
= r r0
=
Recall:
r r0
=
r0
r0
F = S0 ( r r0 )
r02 = S0 (r r0 )
S
= 0
r0
or:
r r
0
r0
S0
=
r0
S0
E =
r0
Paul A. Lagace 2007
Unit M3.3 - p. 30
MIT - 16.001/16.002
Fall, 2008
q2
B
U = Ui
+ n
4 0 r
r
with B =
q2 r0n1
4 n 0
q2
q 2 r0n1
U =
+
4 0 r
4 n 0 r n
dU
q2
q2 r0n1
F =
=
2
n +1
dr
4 0 r
4 0 r
dF
S0 =
=
dr
Paul A. Lagace 2007
d 2U
2q 2
=
2
dr
4 0 r 3
2 n1
(
)
n
+
1
q
(NOTE: F =r00 at r = r0)
4 0 r n+ 2
Unit M3.3 - p. 31
dU
q2
q2 r0n1
F =
=
2
dr
4 0 r
4 0 rn +1
MIT - 16.001/16.002
dF
S0 =
=
dr
d 2U
2q 2
=
2
3
dr
4 0 r
Fall, 2008
(n + 1) q2 r0n1
4 0 r
n+ 2
evaluate at r = r0
2q 2
q 2 (n + 1)
q2
S0 =
+
=
= S0
4 0 r03
4 0 r03
4 0 r03
with = (n 1)
Since there are atomic interactions between more than just one
neighbor, actually find various values of .
(Good value = 0.58)
q = 1.6 x 10-19 C
0 = 8.854 x 10-12 Fm-1
For ionic materials, ro 2.5 x 10-10 m
Unit M3.3 - p. 32
MIT - 16.001/16.002
Fall, 2008
So [N/m]
Approximate E [GPa]
Covalent C-C
180
1000
Ionic
9-21
30-70
Metallic
15-40
30-150
H-Bond
(Fiber) Composites
A composite is a combination of more than one type of material
(beyond atomic level). Often seen in fibrous form:
Paul A. Lagace 2007
Unit M3.3 - p. 33
MIT - 16.001/16.002
Fall, 2008
--> Aligned/Unidirectional
fibers ( ceramic -- graphite, glass
polymer -- kevlar
metal -- boron )
in
gives orthotropy
--> Random (long or chopped)
Unit M3.3 - p. 34
MIT - 16.001/16.002
Fall, 2008
--> Particulate
- gives isotropy
- gain in properties but not as much as fibrous
Consider aligned case and resulting modulus (homogenized at ply level -do not recognize individual fibers and matrix)
Define:
volume fraction of fibers = vf
volume fraction of matrix = vm = 1 - vf
To determine effective moduli, use Rule of Mixtures
Unit M3.3 - p. 35
MIT - 16.001/16.002
Fall, 2008
Figure M3.3-20
matrix
fiber
F
Paul A. Lagace 2007
Unit M3.3 - p. 36
MIT - 16.001/16.002
Fall, 2008
results in:
fiber = matrix
So:
E Lcomp
longitudinal
(parallel to fibers)
= E f v f + Em (1 v f )
Unit M3.3 - p. 37
MIT - 16.001/16.002
Fall, 2008
Figure M3.3-21
(f = m = comp)
F
fiber
Paul A. Lagace 2007
matrix
Unit M3.3 - p. 38
MIT - 16.001/16.002
Fall, 2008
comp = v f f + v m m
comp
comp
= vf
Ef
ETcomp =
(1 v )
f
1
vf
+
Ef
(1 v )
f
comp
Em
E f Em
=
Emv f + E f (1 v f )
Em
transverse
(perpendicular to fibers)
Note the very large (potentially) difference between the two values
(orthotropy).
Depends on:
Ef
Em
Vf
Now that weve looked at the (micro) structure of materials, lets go back and look
at our description of the macroscopic stress-strain behavior and explain it based
on the microstructure.
Paul A. Lagace 2007
Unit M3.3 - p. 39