Evaluation of Fire Resistant Hydraulic Fluid To Replace Conventional Mineral Oil in Nuclear Industry

Dissertation Titled
Evaluation of Fire Resistant Hydraulic Fluid to Replace

Conventional Mineral Oil in Nuclear Industry
Submitted
in partial fulfilment of
the requirements of the degree of
M. Tech. (Mechanical Engineering with

Specialization in Machine Design)
By
Zeeshan Ahmad
(132090007)
2014-2015
Under the guidance of
Dr. V.M.Phalle
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Veermata Jijabai Technological Institute
(Autonomous Institute Affiliated to University of Mumbai)
Mumbai 400019
Certificate
This is to certify that Zeeshan Ahmad Rizwan Ahmad (ID. No. 132090007) has completed
the dissertation titled Evaluation of Fire Resistant Hydraulic Fluid to Replace
Conventional Mineral Oil in Nuclear Industry to our satisfaction, as a partial fulfilment of
award of degree of M. Tech. Mechanical Engineering (Specialization in Machine Design)
under University of Mumbai.
Dr. V.M.Phalle
Supervisor
Department of Mechanical Engg.
V.J.T.I., Mumbai
Mr N. L. Soni
External Supervisor
Head, Fluid Power & Tribology Section
Refuelling Technology Division
Dr. Sanjay M.G.

Head
V.J.T.I., Mumbai
Dr. O. G. Kakde
Director,
V.J.T.I., Mumbai
Certificate of Approval
The dissertation on Evaluation of Fire Resistant Hydraulic Fluid to Replace
Conventional Mineral Oil in Nuclear Industry submitted by Mr. Zeeshan Ahmad
Rizwan Ahmad (ID. No. 132090007) is found to be satisfactory and is approved for the
Degree of Master of Technology in Mechanical Engineering with specialization in Machine
Design under University of Mumbai.
Dr. V.M.Phalle
Supervisor
V.J.T.I., Mumbai
(External Examiner)
Date:
Place: Mumbai
Evaluation of Fire Resistant Hydraulic Fluid to Replace Conventional Mineral Oil in Nuclear Industry
Zeeshan Ahmad
iii
Acknowledgment
First and foremost I would like to thank Dr. V.M.Phalle, Associate Professor & TPO,
Mechanical Engg. Dept., VJTI Mumbai, for his guidance, support and encouragement
throughout this work.
I thank Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai for giving me this
internship opportunity to carry out a research of this magnitude.
My sincere thanks to Mr N. L. Soni, Outstanding Scientist, Head-Fluid Power and Tribology
Section, Refuelling Technology Division, Mr. P. K. Mishra, Scientific officer (E), Mr. P. K.
Limaye, Scientific officer (H), Mr. Shiju Verghese Scientific officer (E), Mr. S.
Pandharikar, Scientific officer (F), and the entire Team, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre,
Mumbai for being supportive and giving me the freedom to experiment my ideas. Their
guidance and continuous encouragement throughout this period was invaluable for my
success. I am grateful to them for their advice and endless support in all parts of this
dissertation.
Last but not least, I would like to thank my family and friends for motivating and
having faith in me.
Zeeshan Ahmad
iv
Declaration of the Student

I declare that this written submission represents my ideas in my own words and where
others' ideas or words have been included, I have adequately cited and referenced the original
sources.
I also declare that I have adhered to all principles of academic honesty and integrity and
have not misrepresented or fabricated or falsified any idea / data / fact / source in my
submission.
I understand that any violation of the above will be cause for disciplinary action by the
Institute and can also evoke penal action from the sources which have thus not been properly
cited or from whom proper permission has not been taken when needed.
Zeeshan Ahmad
M.Tech (Machine design)
Roll No.: 132090007
Date:
Zeeshan Ahmad
v
Abstract
Hydraulic systems are extensively used in DAE like fuel handling control of various
reactors, reprocessing plants, nuclear waste management systems; nuclear fuel extrusion
presses and uranium mining etc. in many applications surrounding temperatures are high.
Conventional hydraulic oil manufactured from petroleum based fluid has poor fire resistant
characteristics and in high temperature applications this type of oil may be a big fire hazard.
Also, in some applications like AHWR fuelling machine snout, where ambient temperature is
quite high, lack of adequate cooling system may result in increase in operating temperature of
working hydraulic fluid leading to the loss of viscosity and hence lubrication apart from
thermal degradation of the hydraulic fluid. Petroleum based hydraulic fluids have poor
viscosity index and have limit in being used only up to 65oC. To reduce the fire hazards, nonflammable hydraulic fluids are best suited. Apart from the above difficulties gamma radiation
is the most severe operating condition in nuclear industry. So degradation of hydraulic fluid
because of gamma radiation will be dangerous and hazardous for the entire environment near
the nuclear reactor. In view of this it is essential to explore and evaluate synthetic hydraulic
fluid generally called as Fire Resistant Hydraulic Fluid (FRHF) for the utilization in fuelling
machine of AHWR as well as other hydraulic applications of DAE. There for this thesis work
mainly based on the evaluation and comparison of the properties of Fire resistant hydraulic
fluid and Petroleum based mineral oil.
Keywords: Evaluation of fire resistant hydraulic fluid, Radiation resistant lubricant, friction,
Wear, Viscosity measurement
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 1
Objective................................................................................................................................ 2
Summery................................................................................................................................ 2
2.
Literature Review ............................................................................................................... 4

2.1.
2.2.
2.3.
Classification of Hydraulic Fluids [1] ...................................................................... 4

2.1.1.
Classification by Physical Properties ................................................................ 5
2.1.2.
Classification by Chemical Properties .............................................................. 5
2.1.3.
Classification by Operating Characteristics ...................................................... 5
2.1.4.
Classification into Petroleum or Nonpetroleum Hydraulic Fluids ................... 6
2.1.5.
Classification by Fire-Resistance...................................................................... 7
Classification of Fire-Resistant Hydraulic Fluids, Their Properties and Uses [2] .. 7

2.2.1.
Introduction ....................................................................................................... 7
2.2.2.
Fire Hazards ...................................................................................................... 8
2.2.3.
Fire Resistance and Fire-Resistant Fluids ......................................................... 9
2.2.4.
Fire-Resistant Hydraulic Fluid Types for Industrial Applications ................... 9
Properties of Hydraulic Fluids and Their Effect on System Performance [6] ........ 10
2.3.1.
Density () ...................................................................................................... 11
2.3.2.
Viscosity ......................................................................................................... 12
2.3.3.
Viscosity Index [1] ........................................................................................... 13
2.4.
Requirements for Fire-Resistant Hydraulic Fluids [7] ........................................... 14
2.5.
Tribological Properties of Hydraulic Fluids.......................................................... 15
2.6.
2.5.1.
Lubrication Properties..................................................................................... 15
2.5.2.
Wear or Surface Damage ................................................................................ 18
2.5.3.
Prevention of Wear ......................................................................................... 19
2.5.4.
Test Methods for Lubricating Properties ........................................................ 20
Effect of Gamma Radiation on Properties of Hydraulic Fluid.............................. 24
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3.
Tribological Evaluation of Hydraulic Fluids .................................................................... 27

3.1.
Apparatus and Materials........................................................................................ 27
3.2.
Experimental Procedure ........................................................................................ 28

3.2.1.
3.3.
4.
1.
Test Procedure .................................................................................................... 29
2.
Test Parameters................................................................................................... 30
Measurement and Calculation of Wear [23] [24]....................................................... 30
3.3.1.
Wear Measurement of Ball Specimen ............................................................ 31
3.3.2.
Wear of Flat Specimen ................................................................................... 32
3.3.3.
Results and Discussion ................................................................................... 32
Gamma Irradiation of Hydraulic Fluids ........................................................................... 39

4.1.
4.2.
5.
Standard Testing Method ................................................................................ 28
Measurement of Properties of Synthetic Fire Resistant Hydraulic Oil (Oil-A) .... 39

4.1.1.
Effect of Gamma Radiation on Kinematic Viscosity ..................................... 39
4.1.2.
Effect Of Gamma Radiation On Viscosity Index .......................................... 40
4.1.3.
Appearance of Oil after Gamma Irradiation ................................................... 40
Measurement of Properties of Petroleum Based Hydraulic Fluid (Oil-B) ............ 40

4.2.1.
Effect of Gamma Radiation on Kinematic Viscosity ..................................... 40
4.2.2.
Effect Of Gamma Radiation On Viscosity Index .......................................... 41
4.2.3.
Appearance of Oil after Gamma Irradiation ................................................... 41
Conclusion and Future Scope ........................................................................................... 42

5.1.
Conclusion............................................................................................................. 42
5.2.
Future Scope .......................................................................................................... 43
6. References ............................................................................................................................ 45
Appendix I ................................................................................................................................ 47
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Coefficient of friction Vs. Stribeck parameter ....................................................... 17
Figure 2.2 Five bench-type friction and wear testers ...24
Figure 3.1 Measurement of plate and ball wear scar marks ................................................... 30
Figure 3.2 Lubrication regimes ............................................................................................... 37
Figure 3.3 Reciprocating wear & friction machine PLINT TE 70 .......................................... 47
Figure 3.4 Typical photographs indicating ball wear .............................................................. 47
Figure 3.5 3D profile of wear scar on SS-52100 steel flat sample .......................................... 47
Figure 3.6 Stribeck curve of Oil-A and Oil-B ......................................................................... 48
Figure 3.7 Effect of temperature on coefficient of friction 15 N / 10 Hz................................ 48
Figure 3.10 Load vs. wear rate of ball 27oC /10 Hz ................................................................ 50
Figure 3.11 Load vs. wear rate of ball 65oC /10 Hz ................................................................ 50
Figure 3.12 Load vs. wear rate of plate 27oC /10 Hz .............................................................. 51
Figure 3.13 Load vs. wear rate of plate 65oC /10 Hz .............................................................. 51
Figure 4.1 Percentage change in kinematic viscosity of Oil-A ............................................... 52
Figure 4.2 Viscosity index vs. gamma radiation dose ............................................................. 52
Figure 4.3 Change of appearance with gamma radiation dose ................................................ 52
Figure 4.4 Percentage change in kinematic viscosity of Oil-B ............................................... 53
Figure 4.5 Viscosity index vs. gamma radiation dose ............................................................. 53
Figure 4.6 Change of appearance with gamma radiation dose ................................................ 53
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Possible ignition sources ........................................................................................... 8
Table 2.2 ISO Classification of fire-resistant hydraulic fluids and their composition .............. 9
Table 2.3 Units of dynamic viscosity ...................................................................................... 12
Table 2.4 Units of kinematic viscosity .................................................................................... 13
Table 2.5 Radiation resistance of hydraulic fluids .................................................................. 25
Table 3.1 Test conditions for Oil-A and Oil-B........................................................................ 28
Table 3.2 ASTM std. parameters Vs. parameters used for this test ........................................ 30
Table 3.3 Experiment data for hydraulic Oil-A and Oil-B ...................................................... 33
Table 3.4 Experiment results of OIL-A and Oil-B .................................................................. 34
Table 4.1 Percentage change in kinematic viscosity of radiated oil sample from fresh oil .... 39
Table 4.2 Viscosity index of Oil-A ......................................................................................... 40
Table 4.3 Percentage change in kinematic viscosity of radiated oil sample from fresh oil .... 41
Table 4.4 Viscosity index of Oil-B.......................................................................................... 41
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NOMENCLATURE
Oil-A
Polyol Ester based synthetic Fire Resistant Hydraulic Fluid (FRHF) of

viscosity grade 68
Oil-B
Petroleum based mineral hydraulic fluid of viscosity grade 68
Density
Mass
Volume
Dynamic Viscosity
Kinematic Viscosity
V.I
Viscosity Index
*V/P
Stribeck Parameter
Sliding Velocity
Load/ Pressure
Vb
Volume Loss of Ball Specimen
Wear Scar Diameter of Ball
Radius of Ball
Wear Rate
Sliding Distance
Vf
Volume Loss of Plate Specimen
Length of Wear Scar on Plate
Width of Wear Scar on Plate
Depth of Wear Scar on Plate
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Organization Profile
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), Trombay has already made its impressions in
the world of science as one of the unique nuclear research institution where high quality
research and development is taking place in the areas of nuclear reactor design and
installation, fuel fabrication, chemical processing of depleted fuel and also acquired sufficient
expertise in the development of radioisotope application techniques in medicine, agriculture
and industries. Basic and advanced research investigations were in full progress in nuclear
physics, spectroscopy, solid state physics, chemical and life sciences, reactor engineering,
instrumentation, radiation safety and nuclear medicine etc. In a nutshell, BARC provides a
broad spectrum of scientific and technological activities extending from basic laboratory
bench scale research to scale up plant level operations and its functional domain covers all
walks of science and technology stretching from classical school of thoughts to the
emerging novel fields of interest. The core mandate of this institution is to provide Research
and Development support required to sustain one of the major peaceful applications of nuclear
energy viz. power generation. This includes conceptualization of the programs, finalization of
the design of the reactor and the peripheral components, preparation of computer generated
working models and their evaluation studies under simulated reactor running conditions,
identification, and selection and testing of materials and components for their risk analysis
under extreme conditions of reactor operating environments, development and testing of new
reactor fuel materials etc. Besides, BARC also extends its expertise to chemical processing of
spent fuels, safe disposal of nuclear waste besides developing new isotope application
techniques in industries, medicine, agriculture etc. Advanced frontline research in physical,
chemical and biological sciences are intensely being pursued in BARC in order to give the
nation a cutting edge in the fields of science and technology at the international levels. Thus,
BARC is a multifaceted institution wherein the in house research findings were further
translated into the development stage and finally through successful demonstration phase is
taken for deployment in the respective fields. Advanced equipment and instruments, well set
laboratories, vibrant ambience and availability of expertise from all fields of science and
engineering are the unique features of BARC committed in taking the nation to the new
horizons of knowledge and development.
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1. Introduction
The two main functions of hydraulic fluids are (a) to transmit power efficiently and (b)
to lubricate components. Petroleum based oils are excellent in meeting these requirements but
has the disadvantage of being combustible. Hydraulic systems are extensively used in DAE
like fuel handling control of various reactors, reprocessing plants, nuclear waste management
systems; nuclear fuel extrusion presses and uranium mining etc. Depending on the
requirements, various hydraulic fluids like petroleum based hydraulic fluids, invert emulsions
like oil in water and water in oil, water etc. are used in the hydraulic systems of DAE. Apart
from this, AHWR fuelling machine being a vertical assembly due to vertical reactor coolant
channels, any leakage of mineral based hydraulic oil (having flash point of 210 OC and fire
point approximately 230 OC) from the snout actuators in an environment of 285 OC (area
below the deck plate) will be a potential fire hazard. Even water based fire resistant hydraulic
fluids are also not suitable because of high vapour pressure and the additive oils are not fire
resistant. For these reasons fire resistant hydraulic fluids (FRHF) are now being employed in
such industries as nuclear, mining, die-casting and steel making where fire hazards exist,
Other factor now being considered in DAE application is degradation of oil because of
gamma irradiation. Petroleum based i.e. mineral based hydraulic fluid is predominantly used
in several nuclear facilities in system working in radioactive environment (which is not found
in general industries) consisting of Gamma and neutron irradiation. The effect of gamma and
neutron irradiation on these hydraulic fluids has never been evaluated in India. When a
system is used in radioactive environment, it may undergo several changes like change in
viscosity, chemical composition, acidity level etc. A research has been carried out to study
and compare the effect of Gamma radiation on the properties of polyol ester based fire
resistant hydraulic fluid (FRHF) of synthetic type and petroleum based mineral oil. For this
purpose both hydraulic fluids has been gamma irradiated at radiation level of 50 MRad inside
a Gamma Chamber located at ISOMED, south side of BARC. But for the future study and
scope of this thesis more oils need to be gamma irradiated at different radiation levels and
other properties like TAN NO., oxidation stability etc. need to be evaluated. This thesis work
discusses the effects of (50 MRad) gamma radiation on viscosity and tribological
characteristics of the fluids at various conditions.
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Objective
Study of different types of hydraulic fluids and their properties and selection of fire
resistant hydraulic fluid based on previous data available and system requirements.
Study of tribological behaviour of different hydraulic fluid and selection of standard

method of evaluating tribological properties based on our requirements.
Preparation and submission of report on tribological behaviour of hydraulic fluids.
Conclusion based on experimental data of both the hydraulic fluids.
Planning and preparation of sample for gamma radiation of hydraulic fluids inside a
gamma chamber located at ISOMED, south side of BARC.
Measurement of viscosity, viscosity index of radiated oil samples at different

temperatures and conclusion based on experimental data.
Summery
This section gives the summary of the work done in this project. It briefly covers the
literature reviewed, the measurement of properties of radiated oil samples and the tribological
evaluation of radiated oil samples.
Literature Reviewed
Essential sources of data as listed in the reference section were reviewed, which include
substantial information on concentrated efforts towards
Study of different types of hydraulic fluids
Selection of fire resistant hydraulic fluid
Study of properties of hydraulic fluids and their effect on system performance
Study of different tribological test methods as per ASTM and ISO standards
Study of effect of gamma radiation on properties of hydraulic fluids
The Tribological Evaluation of Hydraulic Fluids

This point covers the experimental work carried out to evaluate the wear characteristics
of fresh as well as gamma irradiated polyol ester based FRHF of synthetic type and Petroleum
based mineral oil of viscosity grade 68 at different test conditions. The tests were carried out
on Reciprocating Sliding Wear & Friction Machine (Plint TE-70). Bearing steel plate SS52100 and bearing steel balls SS-52100 of 1/2 inch diameter were used as fixed specimen and
moving specimen respectively. Optical microscopic examinations were carried out to measure
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wear scar on Ball specimen and 3 D profiles of flat sample wear scars were done, which were
used to calculate the Wear rate.
The Measurement of Properties of Gamma Radiated Oil Samples

Hydraulic fluid is the medium of power transmission in hydraulic equipment. Properties
of hydraulic fluid greatly affect the performance of equipment/ system, so knowledge of
properties of hydraulic fluid is very important. Out of several properties, viscosity is an
important property. Viscosity of fluid affects leakage, efficiency and energy consumption in
the system. To study the effect of Gamma radiation on viscosity of hydraulic fluid, polyol
ester based fire resistant hydraulic fluid (FRHF) of synthetic type and petroleum based
hydraulic fluid has been gamma irradiated at 50 MRad radiation level. The dynamic viscosity,
kinematic viscosity, has been evaluated for these irradiated fluid samples using Anton Paar
rotational Stabinger viscometer SVM 3000 available in Chemistry Division (ChD). Apart
from this, the effect of Gamma radiation on viscosity index (VI) and appearance of fluids has
also been evaluated.
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2. Literature Review
The hydraulic fluid is an essential and important component of any hydraulic power or
control system. No other component of the circuit must perform as many functions or meet as
many requirements as the hydraulic fluid. The hydraulic fluid must not only provide a
medium for efficient power transmission, but it must also lubricate, cool, protect from
corrosion, not leak excessively, and perform numerous other functions depending on the
system design. However, even if a hydraulic fluid can adequately perform these system
functions, it may still be less than satisfactory in terms of usage and compatibility factors. In
many hydraulic systems, it is necessary that the hydraulic fluid be nontoxic and fire-resistant.
It must be compatible with the structural materials of the system. The hydraulic fluid should
exhibit stable physical properties during a suitable period of use. It should be easy to handle
when in use and in storage, and it is desirable, of course, that it be readily available and
inexpensive. The selection of a hydraulic fluid is further complicated by the vast number of
liquids currently available. These range from water and mineral oils to special purpose
synthetic liquids. It is thus necessary for the system designer to have at least an elementary
understanding of the terminology prevalent in the specification of hydraulic fluids.
2.1. Classification of Hydraulic Fluids [1]

A wide range of liquids is available for use in hydraulic systems, and it is desirable to
employ a classification system to assist those using hydraulic fluids to determine if a liquid
under consideration may function satisfactorily for a particular application. However, the task
of selecting the most meaningful classification system is complicated by several factors. The
areas of application of hydraulic systems and the type of equipment used have become so
diverse that a classification useful in one area of application has little or no meaning in
another. In addition, the increasing number and types of hydraulic fluids available add to the
complexity of the task. In simple, low performance hydraulic systems, where operating
parameters are not severe, almost any liquid-water, water-based liquids, natural petroleum
products, or the more sophisticated synthetic liquids-may be used with varying degrees of
satisfaction. In other areas, where the operating parameters are very severe, only a limited
number of liquids may be considered and selection must be made with considerable care. In
addition, there are liquids which are used primarily for purposes other than as hydraulic
fluids, but which have properties permitting them to be employed for the latter purpose in
many applications. Because of the wide and vastly different areas of application, it is not
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surprising that hydraulic fluids have been classified by many different systems based on their
different characteristics such as physical properties, chemical types, operating capabilities,
utility, or specific applications. Although none of these groupings fully describe the properties
of a hydraulic fluid, they are still employed and assist in selecting fluids for use in specific
areas.
2.1.1. Classification by Physical Properties

A classification based on viscosity ranges was one of the earliest methods used since
petroleum products were the only hydraulic fluids widely used and viscosity was the most
important property of this class of hydraulic fluids. The viscosity method is accepted and used
as a means of classifying petroleum base hydraulic fluids by the fluid manufacturers, the
automotive industry, hydraulic component manufacturers, and hydraulic system designers and
builders. Hydraulic fluids grouped in this manner are generally specified as suitable for use in
a given application within a specified viscosity range. However, in the case of nonpetroleum
base synthetic fluids, a classification based on viscosity range alone is not sufficient because
of the importance of other properties.
2.1.2. Classification by Chemical Properties

Chemical classification of hydraulic fluids is extensively used by technical personnel,
such as chemists and petroleum engineers. Chemical classification assists them in predicting
general characteristics of a new hydraulic fluid or in developing a new hydraulic fluid for a
specific application. In chemical compounds such as hydraulic fluids, the physical properties
are dependent upon the compound structure and, accordingly, the physical properties of two
chemically similar fluids may not be the same. Within a given class of hydraulic fluids where
the chemical properties are similar, the physical properties of these fluids may vary greatly.
2.1.3. Classification by Operating Characteristics

When classifying hydraulic fluids according to operating characteristics, the most
common operational parameters used are the temperature limits and the fire-resistant
characteristics of the hydraulic fluid. The aerospace industry and the Air Force are the
principal users of the classification system based on operational temperatures and have
established the following system types:
Although this classification system has proved valuable and useful to some users, it
does not identify other properties of the liquids and one type may include several chemical
classes. Type I liquids include some petroleum hydrocarbons, phosphate esters, silicate esters,
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emulsions, water-base liquids, polyalkylene glycols, and halogenated hydrocarbons. Type II

liquids include petroleum hydrocarbons and silicate esters.
Type I
:- 65 to 160F
Type II
:- 65 to 275F
Type III
:- 65 to 400F
Type IV
:- 65 to 550F
Type V
:- 0 to 700F
Type VI
:- +40 to 1,000F (Proposed)
Type III liquids include the deep dewaxed highly refined hydrocarbons, synthetic
hydrocarbons, silicate esters, and silicones. Type IV liquid requirements have not been fully
met by any class of fluids. However, the deep dewaxed highly refined mineral oils covered
under MIL-H 27601A (-40 to + 550F) closely approach the Type IV requirements. Type V
and VI fluids have not been completely defined or tested. Some potential candidate fluids for
Type V are polyphenyl ethers, perfluoroalkylesters, and specially refined hydrocarbons.
Liquid metals have some potential for satisfying Type VI requirements. In general, there are
commercial hydraulic fluids readily available which operate satisfactorily over the
temperature ranges of Types I, II, and III hydraulic systems. However, for the higher
temperature ranges of Types IV, V, and VI, only a limited number of fluids are available and
those are usable only for relatively short durations. Extensive research programs are being
conducted to develop fluids (and components) which will be usable in Types IV, V, and VI
hydraulic systems. Classification of hydraulic fluids and systems based on operational
temperature ranges is not satisfactory in many cases, such as in industrial systems, since there
is no need for a -65F operational temperature requirement. However, it is important that
every hydraulic fluid have a definite operational temperature range established. Knowledge of
these temperature limits is necessary in selecting a hydraulic fluid for a specific application.
2.1.4. Classification into Petroleum or Nonpetroleum Hydraulic Fluids

One of the most widely used classifications of hydraulic fluids is based on a separation
into two general classes-petroleum and nonpetroleum. However, the petroleum class
hydraulic fluids may contain additives, even synthetic additives, without changing their
classifications. The nonpetroleum and/or synthetic class of hydraulic fluids includes a
considerably wider range of liquids since it contains those derived from nonpetroleum base
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liquids (water, castor oil) as well as the synthetic base liquids produced by major chemical
reactions, although the base material for some of these liquids may be a petroleum product.
2.1.5. Classification by Fire-Resistance

Hydraulic fluids can be classed as flammable or fire-resistant. However, this
classification is somewhat arbitrary since the degree of flammability depends on both the
specific fluid and the definition of "flammability". Generally, fire-resistant hydraulic fluids
are of three types-synthetic fluids, water-based fluids, and emulsions. Fire-resistant synthetic
fluids are fire-resistant because of their chemical nature and include phosphate esters,
chlorinated hydrocarbons, halogen-containing compounds, organophosphorus derivatives, and
mixtures of similar materials. The water-base fluids are solutions of various natural or
synthetic materials in water, and depend upon their water content for fire-resistance. Glycols,
polyglycols, and mixtures containing additives are the most common hydraulic fluids of this
type. Emulsion-type hydraulic fluids also depend upon water content for fire-resistance and
are water-in-oil mixtures made from petroleum hydrocarbons, but may contain various
additives to provide other desirable properties.
2.2. Classification of Fire-Resistant Hydraulic Fluids, Their

Properties and Uses [2]
2.2.1. Introduction
The development of fire-resistant hydraulic fluids commenced towards the end of the
Second World War, as a result of a search by the US military for less flammable fluids [3],
particularly for aircraft hydraulic applications. The investigations identified water-glycol
fluids and phosphate esters as the most promising candidates for further research
[4]
, and this
stimulated independent interest in their potential for general industrial usage. Since that time,
the industrial market for fire-resistant hydraulic fluids has expanded significantly and
undergone many changes. Some fluids, for example polychlorinated biphenyls, have come
and gone. Others, like the high water content fluids (particularly micro-emulsions and
chemical solutions) have been steadily developed and taken an increasing share of the market
for aqueous-based fluids. In the field of non-aqueous fluids, certain carboxylate or polyo1
esters have competed very successfully with phosphates. The changes continue into the
1990s, the latest resulting from the development of new spray ignition tests which will
probably influence a move away from polyol esters. These developments have taken place
against a backdrop of increasing severity in equipment operating conditions and, at the same
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time, a greater emphasis on workplace safety, including the handling and use of chemicals.
The transportation and disposal of waste material is also the subject of a growing volume of
legislation, and is therefore of considerable concern to the customer. In view of the continuing
technical developments and the complexity of environmental legislation, it is appropriate to
review and compare the performance of the different fire-resistant fluids that are currently in
wide commercial use.
2.2.2. Fire Hazards

Many modern industrial processes involve high temperatures that represent a fire
hazard. Some common primary sources of ignition are listed in Table 1. As dangerous
processes become increasingly automated, hydraulic systems become more widely used and
manning levels are reduced. As a result, fire becomes an ever greater risk. When a source of
ignition comes into contact with a flammable fluid, e.g. as a result of a leak or spray, then the
risk of fire is considerable. In some cases, small fires can become major incidents through
secondary fire hazards, which can include fluid soaked into lagging, packaging, or other waste
material. The most frequently used hydraulic fluid is mineral oil but, in the vicinity of high
temperatures, it poses a major fire hazard. The use of mineral hydraulic oil in applications
involving temperatures greater than 250oC, or in the vicinity of such high temperature
processes, is highly dangerous. Many severe fires have been caused by escaping oil, usually in
the form of a mist or jet, arising from the failure of a high-pressure hose or pipe. The ignition
source need not be adjacent to the leak; the atomised mist or spray can travel considerable
distances, e.g. up to 12 metres (40 feet) from a leak in a system operating at a pressure of 70
bar, and systems operating at 350 bar are now quite common. The most serious consequences
occur when the escaping oil is ignited by a remote heat source and the fire propagates back to
the leak, resulting in a flamethrower effect, with potentially lethal consequences for personnel
in the vicinity.
Table 2.1 Possible ignition sources
Hot surfaces
Localised ignition sources
Hot/molten metal
Naked flames
Steam pipes
Electric arcs
Flue pipes
Frictional heating
Furnaces
Sparks from:
Heated dies
welding equipment
Exhaust manifolds
cutting equipment
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2.2.3. Fire Resistance and Fire-Resistant Fluids

Almost all organic compounds will ignite and burn if heated to sufficiently high
temperatures in the presence of air or oxygen. Combustion is the reaction of the compound
with oxygen with the release of heat. The ability of a material to withstand high temperatures
without burning is known, rather vaguely, as its fire resistance, and those liquids which ignite
at temperatures higher than does mineral oil are known as less flammable or fire-resistant
fluids. The terms, fire resistance and flammability involve several different aspects of fire
behaviour. These include:
(1) Ignitability or the ease of ignition. This will depend not only on the chemical composition
of the fluid and its physical properties, e.g. volatility, but also on the heat emitted by the
source of ignition.
(2) The ability for the flame to be propagated. This is mainly dependent on the heat released
by ignition and whether this is sufficient to volatilise and ignite more fluid (taking into
account the heat lost by conduction convection).
(3) Smoke and gas production: smoke may impede the escape of people caught in a fire, while
toxic gases, such as carbon monoxide, normally represent the most lethal hazard.
2.2.4. Fire-Resistant Hydraulic Fluid Types for Industrial Applications

There are number of different types of fire-resistant hydraulic fluids commercially
available. The current ISO classification (ISO Standard 6743 Part 4)
[5]
is given in Table 2,
together with a brief description of the different fluids.

Table 2.2 ISO Classification of fire-resistant hydraulic fluids and their composition
ISO
Fluid type
Composition
category
HFAE
Oil-in-water
(i) Opaque or translucent emulsions containing about
emulsions
5% oil phase and 95% water with small amounts of
emulsifiers, coupling agents, corrosion inhibitors,
extreme pressure and antiwear additives, antifoamants,
and possibly biocides, to enhance the performance.
(ii) Translucent micro-emulsions containing 2% oil
with a similar range of additives. Some micro
emulsions also contain a polymeric thickener to
increase viscosity
HFAS
Chemical solutions Mixtures of additives dissolved in water combined with
in water
polymeric thickeners to increase fluid viscosity.
Normally the water content is > 85%.
HFB
Water-in-oil
Emulsions of about 40% water dispersed in mineral oil
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emulsions
emulsions)
HFC
HFDR
HFDS
HFDT
HFDU
(invert together with a small amount of the additive types used

in HFA fluids. In addition, antioxidants may be
incorporated to reduce oil degradation.
Water
polymer The water content of these fluids varies from -35-50%
solutions
(water- with the balance being a glycol, e.g. Ethylene or
glycol fluids)
propylene glycol, and a polyglycol ether with small
amounts of additives. A typical product might be based
on 40% water, 40% glycol and 20% polyglycol ether.
Synthetic phosphate Fluids are normally based on triaryl phosphates
ester
fluids although low levels of trialkyl phosphates or alkylaryl
containing no water
phosphates may be present to improve low temperature
performance. Optionally, small amounts of high
temperature stabilisers, rust inhibitors and an
antifoamant may be present.
Synthetic chlorinated This category has been used for chlorinated aromatic
hydrocarbons
hydrocarbons. Mainly for ecotoxicological reasons,
containing no water
fluids in this category have almost disappeared from
general industrial use, and will not be discussed further
in this document.
Synthetic
fluids The same remarks apply as were made for HFDS
consisting
of fluids. Both these categories are expected to disappear
mixtures of HFD-R from the ISO Classification
and HFD-S fluids
Synthetic fluids of Polyol esters, also known as oleate esters, are organic
other compositions esters of polyols, e.g. Trimethylolpropane or
and containing no neopentyl glycol. These fluids contain a stabiliser
water
package and, frequently, a polymeric thickener to
improve fire-resistance. The ester content is usually
>98%. Very small amounts of other fluids, e.g.
Chlorofluorocarbons and perfluoroalkyl ethers, are
found in specialist or military applications and are
outside the scope of this comparison.
2.3. Properties of Hydraulic Fluids and Their Effect on System

Performance [6]
While selecting a hydraulic fluid one has to be aware of hydraulic fluid properties and
its effect on hydraulic system. Generally the hydraulic fluids have many properties and some
of the important properties are explained in detail below.
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2.3.1. Density ()
The density is defined as the mass of a unit volume of material at any given temperature
and pressure.
( )
( )
( )
In the metric system these units are g/cm3 or kg/m3. It is frequently more convenient to
express the density as specific gravity, which is defined by
Water has a specific gravity of one, so if a fluid is heavier than water, the specific
gravity value will be more than one. Anything lighter than water will have a value that is less
than one and the fluid will float above the water.
Effect of Density on System Performance

Density is of great importance when calculating flow of hydraulic fluids through
components such as valves, pumps, and motors. The density enters into the flow energy
equations and changes in density will affect the results obtained from the equations. Highdensity liquids may generally be eliminated from consideration because of weight limitations
imposed on the hydraulic system, especially in airborne systems.
Many other problems associated with density deviations are given, particularly in
hydraulic systems. These includes
Increased pumping power loss
As systems are designed to pump a fluid of a specific density, increase in density leads
to increase in fluid inertia and hence require more power to operate and hence, the efficiency
of the pump begins to change as well.
Increased stress on pumping elements
As density increase leads to the erosive potential of the fluid. In high turbulence or
high-velocity regions of a system, the fluid can begin to erode piping, valves or any other
surface in its path.
Thus, understanding the importance of density and how it relates to equipment is
essential for the reliability and health of your machines
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2.3.2. Viscosity
The most important property of the hydraulic fluid to be considered is viscosity of the
fluid. The main selection of fluid for the system depends on the viscosity of fluid. Viscosity is
the measure of resistance of fluid flow that is inverse measure of fluidity. For example honey
is very thick that means it is more viscous than water. Viscosity directly affects the system
(Especially pump and motor) wear, leakage, and most important efficiency thus, overall
performance. It has been well established that viscosity of hydraulic fluid decreases with
increase in the temperature. In general, effect of gamma radiation is not determined for
hydraulic fluids.
Effect of Viscosity on Hydraulic Fluid and System

Various components within a hydraulic system have competing requirements as to high
or low viscosity. High viscosity provides thick lubricating films and reduces internal leakage.
Low viscosity results in less internal friction, smaller pressure losses in pipes and valves, and
an increase in control action and component response. Thus, a compromise in viscosity
requirements must be made. The viscosity of the hydraulic fluid affects the response of
system components, and because its sensitivity to temperature usually imposes limitations on
the upper or lower operating temperature of any hydraulic system. Thus, viscosity must
always be considered in design calculations.
Types of Viscosity
a) Dynamic Viscosity or Absolute Viscosity ()
Viscosity measured under force induced flow expresses dynamic viscosity. It is a force
per unit area (shear stress) required to move one surface over another separated by unit
distance at a rate of unit distance per second is called dynamic viscosity.
Table 2.3 Units of dynamic viscosity

Unit System
Unit
SI
Pascal second (Pa s)
CGS
Poise (P)
ASTM
Centipoise (cP)
Relation
Pa.s = N/m2.s
Poise (P) = 0.1 Pascal second (Pa s)
Centipoise (cP) = 10-2 poise (P) = 10-3 Ns/m2
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b) Kinematic Viscosity ( )
Generally kinematic viscosity is used for measurements. Viscosity measured under
gravity induced is called kinematic viscosity. It is the ratio of dynamic viscosity () and
density ().
Table 2.4 Units of kinematic viscosity

Unit System Unit
Relation
SI
stokes (St) = cm2/s = 10-4 m2/s
CGS
stokes (St)
ASTM
centistokes (cSt) centistokes (cSt) = mm2/s = 10-6 m2/s
2.3.3. Viscosity Index [1]

The Viscosity Index (V.I) of a liquid is a number indicating the effect of a change in
temperature on viscosity. A low V.I signifies a relatively large change of viscosity with
temperature. A high V.I signifies a relatively small change of viscosity with temperature. The
convenience afforded by the use of a single number to express the viscosity-temperature
characteristics of a liquid has resulted in the widespread adoption of the viscosity index
system in the petroleum industry. The V.I is an empirical scale using two series of petroleum
fractions as standards. One fraction which seemed to have minimum viscosity-temperature
sensitivity was arbitrarily assigned a V.I of 100. The other fraction with maximum viscosity
temperature sensitivity was assigned a V.I of zero. At the time the index scale was developed,
all other petroleum fractions were expected to fall within the zero to 100 limits. Subsequently,
however, solvent refining, the use of additives, and synthetics have produced materials that
are outside the V.I scale in both directions. The V.I of a liquid with a given viscosity at 210T
is calculated by relating its viscosity at 100F to the viscosity at 100T for each of the standard
fractions having a viscosity at 210F equal to that of the unknown at 210F. The V.I is
calculated by the following equation.
(
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Where,
L = Viscosity at 100F of a petroleum fraction
of 0 V.I having the same viscosity at
210F as the fluid whose V.I is to be
calculated.
H = Viscosity at 100F of a petroleum fraction
of 100 V.I having the same viscosity at
210F as the fluid whose V.I is to be
calculated.
U = Viscosity at 100T of the fluid whose V.I is
to be calculated.
2.4. Requirements for Fire-Resistant Hydraulic Fluids [7]

To perform satisfactorily in hydraulic systems the functional fluid shall be fire-resistant
and possess the following properties
The functional fluid shall be fluid enough at all working temperatures to flow readily
through the system and to accommodate rapid changes in velocity and pressure.
At the same time the fluid shall be viscous enough at all working temperatures to prevent
unwanted leakage across working clearances wherever a pressure differential exists across
them.
The fluid shall be of sufficient viscosity and adequate film strength to lubricate working
parts effectively under both hydrodynamic and boundary conditions over the working
temperature range.
The fluid shall be compatible with construction materials used in the system and shall be
non-corrosive.
The fluid shall have thermal stability and be suitable for use at the highest expected
operating temperature.
The fluid shall have chemical stability to give adequate working life.
The fluid shall release entrained air readily and not provide stable foam.
The fluid shall separate readily from contaminants encountered in normal use without
chemical reaction.
The surface tension of the fluid shall below enough to give wettability but not low
enough to make sealing difficult.
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The fluid should preferably be shearing stable, i.e. its viscosity should not permanently
change unduly with applied shear in a system.
Fire-resistant (FR) fluids have been designed for safety reasons to replace conventional
mineral oils in all applications where hydraulic systems are operating in close proximity to
naked flames, molten material or other high-temperature sources, or specifically in hazardous
environments where fire and/or explosion risks have to be reduced to a minimum. It is also
necessary that such fluids shall resist spontaneous combustion if allowed to come into contact
with hot surfaces or absorbent materials into which the fluid may have become impregnated.
Fluids used as fire-resistant hydraulic media obtain their fire resistance by one of two
following means.
Either from the presence of water, or
From their chemical composition.
Water readily available and truly non-flammable fluid, was used in the earliest systems
but water has a very low viscosity and is a poor lubricant. Apart from the obvious temperature
limitation, the use of water also gave rise to problems of corrosion and erosion. For these
reasons, plain water cannot be used in systems the components of which need to be lubricated
by the hydraulic fluid. Even water based fire resistant hydraulic fluids are also not suitable
because of high vapour pressure and the additive oils are not fire resistant. There for keeping
all above difficulties in mind anhydrous FRHF of synthetic type (HFDU) i.e. polyol ester
based has been selected for the utilization in fuelling machine of AHWR as well as other
hydraulic applications of DAE.
2.5. Tribological Properties of Hydraulic Fluids

2.5.1. Lubrication Properties
Varying degrees of lubrication and wear preventing ability are needed for different
systems. The pump design, the system operating temperatures and pressures, component
design, and environmental conditions should all be considered when selecting a hydraulic
fluid. Two fundamental and distinct modes of lubrication are generally recognizedhydrodynamic and boundary lubrication. When hydrodynamic conditions exist, a liquid film
entirely separates the moving parts. In the boundary condition, contact exists between the
mating surfaces. The difference between hydrodynamic and boundary lubrication is clear;
however, there is no sharp line of demarcation, but rather a gradual transition between the
two.
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a) Hydrodynamic Lubrication
Hydrodynamic lubrication is "A system of lubrication in which the shape and relative
motion of the sliding surfaces cause the formation of a liquid film having sufficient pressure
to separate the surfaces"
[8]
. Under ideal hydrodynamic conditions of lubrication, there is
essentially no wear since the moving parts do not touch each other. Under these conditions,
the parameters of importance are liquid, viscosity, surface speed, and pressure. Most of the
theory of hydrodynamic lubrication is based on the early work of Tower and Reynolds. Full
hydrodynamic lubrication offers the significant advantage of low wear rates and low friction.
Hydraulic systems should be designed to take full advantage of hydrodynamic lubrication.
The coefficient of friction in hydrodynamic lubrication is of the order of 0.001 to 0.010 [9].
A hydraulic fluid should be a good lubricant so that friction and wear in a hydraulic
system are reduced to a minimum. The components of a hydraulic system contain many
surfaces which are in close contact and which move in such relation to each other that the
hydraulic fluid must separate and lubricate. The hydraulic fluid must also be a good wear
preventing lubricant. Wear in hydraulic pumps, cylinders, motor controls, valves, and other
components can result in increased leakage, loss of pressure, less accurate control, or failure.
Protection against wear is often a principal reason for selection of a particular hydraulic fluid
since most components of hydraulic systems operate at some time under conditions that can
lead to extreme wear, especially during starting and stopping of the system.
b) Transition From Hydrodynamic To Boundary Lubrication
A given liquid film between moving parts decreases in thickness as the pressure
increases, and/or the liquid viscosity decreases. As the film becomes thinner, a point is
reached where the laws of hydrodynamics no longer fully apply since the effects of surface or
boundary forces are no longer negligible. As the film becomes still thinner, a state is
ultimately reached where metal to metal contact occurs. These transitions influence the
coefficient of friction as shown in Figure 2.1. Here, the coefficient of friction is plotted as a
function of the dimensionless parameter V/P where , N, and P are the fluid viscosity,
relative surface speed, and pressure, respectively.
In the hydrodynamic region, the coefficient of friction is a linear function of V/P (see
Fig. 2.1). As V/P decreases, the film thickness is reduced and the curve begins to deviate
from linearity. As V/P is decreased further, a point is reached where both boundary and
hydrodynamic effects prevail in combination.
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Figure 2.1 Coefficient of friction Vs. Stribeck parameter

A further decrease in V/P will ultimately rupture the film and the curve will show a
sharp break upwards. The minimum point is then regarded as the start of the transition from
hydrodynamic to boundary lubrication. There is no sharp line of demarcation, but an
intermediate zone where hydrodynamic and boundary effects are both present. This zone is
sometimes called the semi-fluid, mixed-film, or quasi-hydrodynamic lubrication zone [9]. The
condition of full hydrodynamic lubrication is the most desirable; however, all of the factors
that make it possible are not always present. Sometimes speeds are so slow or pressures so
great that even a very b viscous liquid will not prevent metal-to-metal contact. Other cases of
stop-and-start operation, reversals of direction, or sharp pressure increases may cause the
collapse of any liquid film that had been established. These conditions are not conducive to
hydrodynamic lubrication and occur in almost all systems at one time or another.
c) Boundary Lubrication
Boundary lubrication is "A condition of lubrication in which the friction and wear
between two surfaces in relative motion is determined by the properties of the surfaces, and
by the properties of the lubricant other than viscosity"
[8]
. When boundary lubrication exists,
the coefficient of friction is independent of both liquid viscosity and sliding velocity. There
are different degrees of severity under which boundary lubrication will prevail. Some are only
moderate and others are extreme. Blok
[9]
classifies degrees of boundary lubrication on the
basis of the mechanical conditions. He lists the following degrees:

(1) Low pressure and low temperature, or mild boundary lubrication as found in low speed
sleeve bearings, leaf springs, and hinge joints.
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(2) High temperature boundary lubrication as found in cylinders of some steam and internal
combustion engines and in certain high speed sleeve bearings.
(3) High pressure boundary lubrication as generally found in cases involving rolling contact at
high pressures but with little frictional or external heat.
(4) High pressure and high temperature, or extreme boundary lubrication, as found in highly
loaded hypoid or other gears having high loads and a high degree of sliding friction.
The temperature and pressure at the region of contact are the factors that determine the
severity of the boundary lubrication. All types of boundary lubrication are characterized by
the rupture of the liquid film and some degree of metal-to-metal contact. The conditions of
boundary lubrication should be avoided where possible because of the resulting increase in
power consumption, and the high friction and wear that occur.
2.5.2. Wear or Surface Damage

According to DIN 50 320, or similarly in other terminology standards, wear is the
progressive removal of material from a surface in sliding or rolling contact against a counter
surface. As described in many textbooks, e.g., Zum Gahr (1987) and Hutchings (1992),
different types of wear may be separated by referring to the basic material removal
mechanisms, the wear mechanisms that cause the wear on a microscopic level. There are
many attempts to classify wear by wear mechanisms, but a commonly accepted first order
classification distinguishes between adhesive wear, abrasive wear, wear caused by surface
fatigue, and wear due to tribochemical reactions. Over a longer sliding distance, either one
mechanism alone, or a combination of several of these wear mechanisms, causes a continuous
removal of material from the mating surfaces, and thereby also adds to the friction force that
opposes the sliding. Such continuous, steady-state wear and friction conditions may be
quantified in terms of wear rates, i.e., removed material mass or volume per sliding distance
or time, or its inverse, the wear resistance, and in terms of friction forces or friction
coefficients.
However, not all types of tribological failures are due to wear in the sense of a
continuous material removal from tribosurfaces, and the tribological properties of the
materials in a component are not always best described by their wear resistances or friction
properties. Instead a broader study of the various types of surface damages that occur may be
more meaningful.
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2.5.3. Prevention of Wear

The complete elimination of wear is practically impossible. Minimum wear occurs
under conditions of hydrodynamic lubrication and maximum wear occurs under conditions of
boundary lubrication. However, there are several approaches by which the wear rate under
boundary lubrication conditions can be reduced to a satisfactory or controllable level. The
main factors which determine the rate of wear can be classified into two basic types
mechanical and lubrication. Proper consideration of these two factors can produce a wear rate
which is acceptable.
a) Mechanical Factors
The mechanical factors that affect the wear rate are the choice of materials, the surface
finish, and the operating conditions. Wear can often be reduced by a proper choice of
materials for the moving parts. In general, softer materials wear more rapidly than harder
materials. There is, however, no direct relationship between hardness and resistance to wear.
Materials also differ in their ability to resist the various types of wear. For example, materials
selected for their ability to resist abrasion might be more sensitive to corrosion. It is thus
necessary to select materials which would resist the most serious type of wear anticipated.
The combination of metals used can greatly influence the wear. Some metals are very
susceptible to wear when rubbed against them, while others are very susceptible to wear when
rubbed against different types of metals. In practice, the composition chosen for a given part
is influenced by many factors other than wear. Structural strength, weight, cost, and
availability may force a compromise between minimum wear and optimum performance.
Surface finish of the mating parts becomes particularly important during break-in or initial
wear periods. If one of the two mating surfaces has an initial rough finish, considerable wear
may take place. While it is generally desirable to have as smooth a surface as possible, there
are instances where surfaces of controlled roughness are desired so that a "wearing-in" or
mating of parts may occur during the initial run-in or breaking period. Operating conditions
of pressure, temperature, and rubbing speed also affect wear. Increased pressure generally
reduces film thickness and increases the extent of metal-to-metal contact and wear. High
temperature may cause wear due to a decrease in viscosity. Excessive high speeds may result
in overheating at local points. Moderate temperatures and pressures are, therefore, preferred
from a standpoint of wear. However, optimum conditions for wear may not be the optimum
conditions to achieve high efficiency or maximum power from a hydraulic system component.
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b) Lubrication Factors
Decreases in viscosity of a system operating under hydrodynamic lubrication will
decrease the thickness of the liquid film. If the decrease is sufficient to allow boundary
conditions to be reached, metal-to-metal contact occurs and wear increases. Viscosity,
therefore, would be expected to have an inverse effect on rate of wear-the greater the viscosity
the less would be the expected wear. Since wear is essentially a phenomenon resulting from
friction, it is expected that additives capable of reducing friction under boundary conditions
would simultaneously reduce wear. However, there can be instances where there is little or no
correlation between friction and wear under boundary lubrication conditions
[9]
. Some
additives effective in reducing friction have little effect upon wear, while others reduce wear
and have little effect upon friction. Lack of correlation is probably due to the fact that wear
takes place momentarily in isolated spots whereas friction is normally measured as an average
for a larger area and a longer time interval
[9]
. Hydraulic components made from iron alloys
other than stainless steel are subject to corrosion unless proper precautions are taken. Most
mineral-oil liquids do not have good antirust properties. Although they do offer protection,
they must be fortified with appropriate additives if any marked degree of rust prevention has
to be achieved [9].
2.5.4. Test Methods for Lubricating Properties

Numerous test methods have been proposed and several have been adopted for
evaluating the lubricating and wear reducing properties of fluids. The majority of these tests
have been developed for materials other than hydraulic fluids such as lubricants, greases, and,
in some cases, solid lubricants. However, the basic test procedures are adaptable to the
evaluation of hydraulic fluids, and several Military Specifications for hydraulic fluids call for
these tests or some modification of them. The test methods fall into three general categories
bench-type tests using non-simulating test elements, simulated hydraulic systems, and the
more elaborate load-carrying and scuffing tests. Standard test procedures, either ASTM or
Federal, have been written for some of the test methods. None of the test methods described
in the paragraphs which follow give any indications of the expected "life" of a lubricant or
liquid. The engineer or designer is expected to establish proper lubrication procedures and
lubricant change intervals. The problems become even more complicated in hydraulic systems
because the liquid is both a lubricant and a power transfer fluid. With hydraulic systems
operating with sophisticated hydraulic fluids and/or extreme operating conditions, falling back
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on "accepted practice" can be expensive, either in terms of wasted hydraulic fluids or

damaged equipment.
Bench-Type Friction and Wear Testers

Several bench tests have been developed to measure the lubricating ability of liquids.
Each test employs a different type of apparatus that utilizes a unique combination of test
elements. The testers are similar in that two well-defined surfaces separated by a liquid film
are in motion with respect to each other. The coefficient of friction is usually determined by
measuring the restraining force on one of the test elements. Wear is determined by the loss in
weight of the parts or by the dimensions of the wear scar. Boundary lubrication characteristics
are determined by increasing the load on the surfaces until seizure occurs. Because of their
differences, the various bench testers do not necessarily rate a given series of liquids in the
same order, and results from a single test procedure can be misleading. Also, the results
obtained do not always correlate well with actual operation. In many instances, the results of
several different bench tests may be taken as a whole in determining the lubricating ability of
a given hydraulic fluid. Experience has shown that application of most of these test
procedures will separate those hydraulic fluids which are extremely poor lubricants from
those which are potentially good lubricants. Five of the more commonly used bench-type
testers and their test methods are described in the paragraphs which follow.
a) Timken Tester
Test Method: Federal Test Method 6505 [10] In the Timken test, a steel block is pressed
against a rotating, cylindrical steel ring (see Figure 2.2(A)). The test is run for 10 min at a
rubbing speed of 400 Ft./sec. The liquid is allowed to flow over the test pieces. In starting a
test, the motor is brought up to speed and a load is placed on the steel rub shoe block by
means of a weight and lever system. The test can be conducted as a wear test by running at a
set load until failure or as an EP- or load-carrying test by increasing the load until failure.
Federal Test Method 6505 [10] calls for the test to be conducted as a load-carrying test. Failure
is indicated by scoring on the test block or test ring. The results are reported as the load
(determined from the scar dimensions and. the load) applied just prior to scoring or pickup of
metal.
b) Almen Tester
In the Almen test, a cylindrical rod is rotated in a split bushing which is pressed against
it (see Figure 2.2(B)). Frictional force is measured by a restraining force on the split bushing.
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Two versions of the Almen test are conducted-the Almen EP test and the Almen wear test. In
the Almen EP test, the machine is run without and applied load for 30 sec as a break-in
period. Weights are added every 10 sec in multiples of 2 lb. until failure occurs as indicated
by seizure or sudden increase in torque. Test results are expressed as the torque and load
which causes seizure. In the Almen wear test, the machine is run without an applied load for
30 sec as a break-in period. Four 2-lb weights are added at 10-sec intervals. Operation is
continued for 20 min. Total weight loss of the journal and the bushings in mg are determined,
and are reported as the wear.
c) Falex Tester
Test Methods: Federal Test Method 3807 [11] Federal Test Method 3812 [12] In the Falex
test a cylindrical rod is rotated between two hard V-shaped bearing blocks which are pressed
against the rod (see Figure 2.2(C)). Friction torque is continuously monitored. Both the
journal and the V blocks are submerged in the liquid under test. The two Federal Test
Methods referenced above utilize the Falex Tester in the evaluation of solid film lubricants.
However, the basic procedures of the two tests are adaptable to the evaluation of liquids. The
test can be run in two ways-as a wear test and a load carrying test. For wear testing, the
machine is run at a specified load for a specified time. The amount of wear is determined as
the amount of adjustment that must be made in the loading system to maintain the desired
load. For the EP test, the load is increased continuously until seizure occurs. The test begins
with a break-in period for 3 min at 300 lb. load. The load is then increased to 500 lb. and held
for 1 min and then increased in 250-lb increments with a 1-min run until failure occurs.
Results are expressed in pounds load at seizure.
d) Four-ball Tester
Test Methods: ASTM D-2596-67T
[13]
Federal Test Method 6514
[14]
ASTM D-2266-
64T [15] In the four-ball machine (often called the "Shell" Four-ball Tester) a 1/2-in.-diameter
steel ball is rotated in contact with three stationary similar balls which are clamped in a fixed
position (see Figure 2.2(D)). The rubbing surfaces are submerged in the liquid to be tested.
The test can be operated as a wear test or an EP test. For a wear test, the machine is operated
at a specified temperature, load, and speed, with balls of given material. Federal Test Method
6514
[14]
and ASTM D-2226-64T
[15]
are used for determining the wear characteristics of
lubricating greases with the four-ball tester. The general procedures are adaptable to hydraulic
fluids as well as greases. They call for test conditions of 1,200 rpm, a load of 40 kg, a test
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temperature of 167F (75C), and a test time of 60 min. At the end of the test, the scar
diameter on the lower three balls is measured under a microscope. The average diameter in
millimetres is reported and is a measure of wear under the specified conditions. For the EP
test (ASTM D-2596-67T
[13]
) there is no provision for temperature control, and the test is
started at room temperature. A test run of 10-sec duration at a given load is usually made.
Scar diameters are measured and the Hertzian contact stresses are calculated. The load is
increased in increments, and the process is repeated until welding occurs. This load is called
the weld point or weld load. Many variations on the four-ball wear and EP tests are used.
Many liquid specifications call for a four-ball test as specified or with certain changes made in
the test time, load, speed, or temperature.
e) SAE Tester
Test Method: Federal Test Method 6501
[16]
In the SAE machine (see Figure 2.2(E)),
two cylinders aligned axially and in contact with each other are driven at different speeds.
One of the cylinders may be driven in either direction. The pieces revolve under a flooded
lubrication condition from the test liquid held in a cup. The load pressing the cylinders
together can be increased until failure occurs. This machine differs from the four-ball tester in
that a combination of rolling and sliding friction is involved. The ratio of sliding to rolling can
be changed by varying the relative speed of the two cylinders. Federal Test Method 6501
[16]
is a test procedure for determining the load-carrying capacity of gear lubricants using the SAE
tester. The same test procedures, however, are adaptable to any liquid lubricant or to hydraulic
fluids. The machine is started and operated at a light load for a 30-sec break-in period. The
automatic loading device then increases the load steadily until scoring occurs. The results are
expressed in terms of the average load needed to cause scoring based on three repeat tests.
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Figure 2.2 Five bench-type friction and wear testers
2.6. Effect of Gamma Radiation on Properties of Hydraulic Fluid

It has only been since the early 1950's that the radiation resistance of hydraulic fluids
has become important. In the design of modern weapon systems, aircraft, and mechanical
devices, hydraulic systems are frequently expected to be exposed to nuclear radiation. Of all
system components, the hydraulic fluid is the most susceptible to damage by radiation. Since
conventionally used hydraulic fluids and lubricants are especially susceptible, the effects of
radiation on their performance should be considered in the design of almost all systems.
However, there is no general requirement for radiation resistance in most hydraulic fluid
specifications.
Considerable basic work has been done on the radiation of simple organic structures.
With the more complicated molecular structures characteristic of lubricants, both petroleum
and synthetic, it has not been feasible to make studies of the precise reactions that occur. The
empirical observations are:[17] (a) viscosity may at first be decreased, but eventually increases,
(b) acidity increases, (c) volatility increases, (d) foaming tendencies increase, (e) coking
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tendencies generally increase but occasionally decrease, (f) flash points decrease, (g)
Autogeneous ignition temperatures decreases, and (h) oxidation stability decreases. In
addition to the listed changes in physical and chemical properties, gas is always liberated
[8]
for petroleum liquids the gases are frequently hydrogen and methane. The remaining products
of decomposition are frequently gels that tend to clog hydraulic systems. The formation of the
gases and gels presents a difficult design problem, and provisions must be made in the system
for their presence. Although some changes in lubricants have been found after radiation doses
of 107 (8.77 MRad) roentgens, the major effects are observed between 108 (87.7 MRad) and
109 (877 MRad) roentgens
[17] [18]
. Beyond 109 roentgens most liquid lubricants have been
damaged to the extent that they are completely unserviceable.

In general, petroleum lubricants are more resistant to radiation damage than other
lubricants. An exception is the polyphenyl ether family which is very resistant to damage.
Currently, the silicone liquids exhibit the poorest radiation resistance of all the high
temperature liquids [19]. Inclusion of atoms other than carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in the
molecule generally reduces radiation resistance. Table 2.5 presents data on the relative
radiation resistance of various hydraulic fluids.
Table 2.5 Radiation resistance of hydraulic fluids [20]
Fluid Type
Mineral Oils: MIL-H-5606
MIL-L-25598
Super-refined Mineral Oils:
Naphthenic and Paraffmic
Synthetic Hydrocarbons (Average)
Diesters: MIL-L-7808C
Triesters: MIL-L-9236B
Silicate Esters
Disiloxane-diesters: MLO-8515
Disiloxane: MLO-8200
Polysiloxanes
Chlorinated Silicones
Silicone Ester Blends: MLO-5998
Phosphate Esters
Polyphenyl Ethers
[21][22]
Relative Radiation
Resistance
Poor
Low
Poor
Poor
Poor
Poor
Poor
Poor
Poor
Poor
Poor
Poor
Poor
Excellent
Gamma irradiation leads to knocking down of bonding electrons from the
molecules and formation of radicals which leads to polymerization. The extent of effect of
gamma radiation on different types of hydraulic fluids is different. Research carried out by
California Research Corporation dated back in 1950s on hydraulic fluid have demonstrated
that during Gamma irradiation the viscosity of hydraulic fluid initially falls and then
Zeeshan Ahmad
25
increases. Development of nuclear radiation resistant hydraulic fluid had been conducted by
California Research Corporation on silicate based hydraulic fluid particularly ML-0-8200
fluid, after exposure to gamma radiation, they had concluded that the maximum permissible
gamma dose for ML-0-8200 fluid appears to be about 108 roentgens (88 MRad) or slightly
higher. At this level they feel that there is negligible change in viscosity. In addition to lab
testing of silicate fluid, pump testing of the 8200 fluid had been also conducted before and
after expose to 7.85x108 roentgens (688 MRad). In brief it was concluded that irradiation to
this level triples the viscosity but the fluid could still be used as hydraulic systems employing
New York air brake pumps with some reduction in wear to be expected. It was felt that
operation of pumps at temperature much below 0o F would be impaired. They have also
concluded that MIL -0-5606 mineral oil has very poor gamma radiation resistance even at low
doses.
Since the petroleum refining technology is well developed all over the world, there are
countless hydraulic fluid manufacturers dealing in either local or international market. But
these companies mainly focus on markets leading to product suitable for their condition and
industries. It has also been shown that the effect of radiation is different for base fluid
received from different crude reservoirs. So, data on radiation resistance of all the fluids
cannot be expected. Hence, it is necessary to determine the Gamma radiation resistance of the
hydraulic oil which is being used presently or proposed to be used in future in hydraulic
systems of nuclear installations.
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26
3. Tribological Evaluation of Hydraulic Fluids

Friction and wear are caused by complicated and multiplex sets of microscopic
interactions between surfaces that are in mechanical contact and slide against each other.
These interactions are the result of the materials, the geometrical and topographical
characteristics of the surfaces, and the overall conditions under which the surfaces are made to
slide against each other, e.g., loading, temperature, atmosphere, type of contact, etc. All
mechanical, physical, chemical, and geometrical aspects of the surface contact and of the
surrounding atmosphere affect the surface interactions and thereby also the tribological
characteristics of the system. Therefore, friction and wear are not simply materials parameters
available in handbooks; they are unique characteristics of the tribological system in which
they are measured.
Reason to Perform a Tribotest?

Ranking of materials for existing equipment
Selection of material for new application
General, application independent, characterization of wear and friction properties of
material
Study of wear mechanism appearing in selected tribological application
It follows from the systems aspect of wear and friction, i.e., the insight that tribological
properties depend on the whole tribosystem and not merely on the materials, that any
tribological testing should be preceded by a thorough evaluation of the characteristics of the
system to be evaluated and the purposes of the test; A tribotest should always be designed to
meet a defined need. One such need to perform a tribotest may be to rank a set of materials in
terms of their friction and wear properties in a certain, well defined system, either with the
purpose of selecting a material for an existing piece of machinery, which the tribotest then
should imitate, or to select a tribological material for a construction under development, for
which field tests or component tests are impossible
3.1. Apparatus and Materials

This experiment has been carried out at Refueling Technology Division (RTD), BARC
Mumbai, under a lubricated medium using reciprocating sliding wear and friction machine.
Bearing steel plate SS-52100 and bearing steel balls SS-52100 of 1/2 inch (12.7 mm)
diameter were used as fixed specimen and moving specimen respectively at the load of 15 N
and 25N with varying the frequency values at 10, 20 and 10 Hz. The sliding speed and total
Zeeshan Ahmad
27
distance is kept constant therefore duration of test at each frequency were 20000s, 10000s,
and 20000s respectively. The coefficients of friction, both, static and dynamic were measured
during the test. The wear for both moving and fixed specimen was measured after each test.
Also after each test the wear scar on specimen was scanned with a Taylor and Hobson make
profilometer and the wear volume was calculated from the 3-D profile of the wear track. The
ball scars were also examined using an optical microscope. The other test conditions are given
in table1.
Table 3.1 Test conditions for Oil-A and Oil-B
Oil Name
Oil-A
FRHF
POE
Oil-B
Mineral
Oil-A
FRHF
POE
Temperature
(C)
65
65
90
Load(N)
Frequency
(Hz)
15
15
25
15
15
25
15
15
25
10
20
10
10
20
10
10
20
10
Sliding
Distance
(M)
400
400
400
400
400
400
400
400
400
Stroke
Length
(MM)
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Time (Sec)
20000
10000
20000
20000
10000
20000
20000
10000
20000
3.2. Experimental Procedure

3.2.1. Standard Testing Method
The tests were carried using ASTM Designation G 133 05. The test method used
according to ASTM standards is as follows.
1. This test method involves two specimens a flat specimen and a spherically ended
specimen (here in called the ball specimen), which slides against the flat specimen.
These specimen moves relative to one another in a linear, back & forth sliding motion,
under a prescribed set of conditions see fig1.
2. In this test method, the load is applied vertically downward through the ball specimen
against the horizontally mounted flat specimen. The normal load, stroke length, frequency
and type of oscillation, test temperature, lubricant, test duration and atmospheric
environment (including relative humidity range) are selected from one of two procedures.
3. Since this test method involves reciprocating sliding where changes in the sliding velocity
and direction of motion occur during the test, constant velocity conditions are not
maintained. The ball carrier is driven by an electro-magnetic oscillator. The frequency
range is 5 to 100 Hz and stroke range is 0.05 to 1 mm. The type of the motion produced
Zeeshan Ahmad
28
by the drive system is sinusoidal. When the load exceeds the power of oscillator, the
oscillator compensates by reducing amplitude and maintaining the frequency. So
sometimes actual sliding distance varies from the theoretical sliding distance.
4. Dimensional changes for both ball and flat specimens are used to calculate wear volumes
and wear rates.
5. Friction forces are measured during the test and may be used to assess changes in the
contact conditions or the kinetic friction coefficient as a function of time.
1. Test Procedure
The following test procedure was followed as per ASTM standard G133 - 05
1) Specimens on which experiments were carried out (e.g. plate & ball) were cleaned
thoroughly using acetone and ultrasonic cleaning machine. The samples were dried by
using hot air.
2) The sample bath was cleaned using acetone & was dried with hot air.
3) The specimens were cleaned after they were secured in place in the test fixture by wiping
with acetone and then with lint free tissue paper. It is possible that during mounting, some
contamination was inadvertently placed on them, and this final cleaning will alleviate the
problem. The ball tip was inspected with a hand lens after it was mounted to ensure that
there were no defects in the contact area.
4) The ball specimen was gently lowered upon the flat specimen & it was also ensured that
the reciprocating drive shaft motion was horizontal & parallel to the surface of flat
specimen. The test load was applied. It was confirmed that the desired oscillating speed
had been set before starting the test.
5) The tests done for Oil-A and Oil-B are not in full compliance with the provisions of Test
Method G 133, Procedure B, because the normal force in these tests were 15N and 25 N,
instead of 200 N as prescribed by the standard and the stroke length was 1mm instead of
10 mm, therefore test duration was 20000 s and 10000 s for frequency of 10 Hz and 20 Hz
respectively instead of 33min 20s as per standard for same sliding distance of 400 m.
oscillating frequency was 10 Hz and 20 Hz instead of 10 Hz. The temperature was kept
constant at 65 0C & relative humidity was 60 % instead of 150 0C 20C and 40 to 60 %.
All other provisions of Test Method G133 have been followed.
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29
2. Test Parameters
Table 3.2 ASTM std. parameters Vs. parameters used for this test
Sr. Parameter
As per ASTM Standard ( Procedure Parameters Used For
No.
B)
This Test
Applied Normal Force-
200 N
15 N, 25 N
Ball Tip Radius
4.76 mm
in (12.7 mm)
Stroke Length
10 mm
1 mm
Test Duration
sliding Distance 400 m
sliding Distance 400

m
Frequency
of 10 Hz
10,20,10 Hz
oscillation
6
Type
produced
of
motion Not Specified. It can be Sinusoidal

by
the velocity profile, triangular velocity
oscillating drive system

7
Ambient
Sinusoidal velocity
profile
profile
relative 40 to 60 %
60%
humidity
8
Ambient Temperatures
150 2C
65C,90C
Medium
Lubrication
Lubrication
3.3. Measurement and Calculation of Wear
[23] [24]
After the tests the wear scar dimensions of ball were measured under optical microscope
and dimensions of wear scar were noted, which were used to calculate wear volume and wear
rate of ball.
Figure 3.1 Measurement of plate and ball wear scar marks
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30
3.3.1. Wear Measurement of Ball Specimen

Owing to the nature of this type of test, the wear on ball specimen may not be circular
or flat always therefore refer the following which applies.
1. If the ball appears flat but not circular, the average of the maximum and minimum
dimensions of the scar is taken as effective ball scar diameter (D).
2. Pin scar measurement may be made by removing the ball specimen holder and placing the
wear scar portion under the microscope. A calibrated ocular or a photo-micrograph of
known magnification may be used to measure scar dimensions.
As per ASTM G99-05(2010) Volume loss of Ball in mm3 is calculated using following
formula
(
)
)
Where,
Vb = Wear volume for ball scar of diameter D in mm3

D = Ball scar diameter in mm
R = Ball radius in mm
This is an approximate geometric relation that is correct to 1 % for (wear scar

diameter/ball radius) <0.3, and is correct to 5 % for (wear scar diameter/ball radius) <0.7. The
exact equation is as given below
( )
Where,
D = Wear scar diameter
R = Radius of Ball
Wear rate of ball is calculated using following formula.
Where,
k = Wear rate of ball in mm3/Newton. Meter

Vb = Wear volume for ball scar of diameter D in mm3
P = Load in N
L = Sliding Distance in mm
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31
3.3.2. Wear of Flat Specimen

Wear of Flat specimen is calculated using following formula
(
Where,
w = width of wear scar in mm

d = depth of wear scar in mm
l = length of wear scar in mm
3.3.3. Results and Discussion

The Tribological experiment to compare and qualify the FRHF over mineral oil is
basically based on bench type friction and wear testing machine. The friction and wear
machine available at Fluid Power and Tribology Section, BARC is based on ASTM G 133
05. The experiment procedure and standards for this type of test has been explained in
previous sections of this thesis. The data generated and recorded and the results are presented
in tubular form. Based on data generated the friction characteristics and wear characteristics
of hydraulic fluid has been discussed.
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32
1. Calculation Table
Table 3.3 Experiment data for hydraulic Oil-A and Oil-B
Experiment data of OIL-A (Fresh)
Oil Name
Temperature
(C)
27
FRHF
65
90
Load(N)
Frequency
(Hz)
Sliding
Distance
mm
15
10
15
Coefficient of friction
Ball wear (All Dimensions are in mm)
Static
Dynamic
Std
Deviation
406843
0.098
0.079
0.005
20
796292
0.1
0.095
25
10
396894
0.092
15
10
404564
15
20
25
Horiz. Div.
Ver. Div.
Scar Dia
Wear Vol
10.08
10.13
0.5052
0.000503
0.002
11.11
11.22
0.5582
0.073
0.004
12.23
12.84
0.095
0.089
0.001
9.54
821301
0.092
0.095
0.003
10
392425
0.095
0.086
15
10
402394
0.102
15
20
809571
25
10
394075
Wear
Rate of
Ball
mm/N.m
Plate wear (All Dimensions are in mm)

Length
Width
Wear Vol
Wear Rate
8.25E-08
2.03137
0.5455
0.04247493
0.002816001
0.000750
6.28E-08
2.18296
0.561
0.046199469
0.003084189
0.6264
0.001190
1.20E-07
2.09879
0.642
0.06923943
0.004788899
10.91
0.5103
0.000524
8.63E-08
2.1328
0.5065
0.034000613
0.002214819
10.68
11.04
0.5430
0.000672
5.45E-08
2.35244
0.552
0.044011446
0.002926361
0.001
11.39
11.70
0.5772
0.000858
8.74E-08
2.03012
0.585
0.052386092
0.003534531
0.081
0.002
7.65
8.63
0.4062
0.000210
3.49E-08
1.88652
0.4315
0.021022812
0.00132268
0.108
0.096
0.002
9.27
9.91
0.4792
0.000407
3.35E-08
2.12278
0.4955
0.031833133
0.00206324
0.097
0.073
0.006
12.57
13.10
0.6416
0.001309
1.33E-07
2.11286
0.655
0.07353131
0.005114159
Experiment data of OIL-B (Fresh)
Oil Name
Temperature
(C)
27
ENKLO
65
Load(N)
Frequency(Hz)
Sliding
Distance
mm
15
10
15
Coefficient of friction
Ball wear (All Dimensions are in mm)
Static
Dynamic
Std
Deviation
402805
0.092
0.081
0.001
7.67
8.71
0.4087
0.000216
20
815936
0.1
0.092
0.001
7.85
8.73
0.4140
25
10
394257
0.082
0.077
0.001
9.22
9.52
15
10
406606
0.099
0.088
0.001
7.77
15
20
815043
0.115
0.1
0.002
25
10
396345
0.105
0.086
0.001
Horiz. Dim.
Ver. Dim.
Scar Dia
Wear Vol
Wear
Rate of
Ball
mm/N.m
Plate wear (All Dimensions are in mm)

Length
Width
Wear Vol
Wear Rate
3.57E-08
1.93517
0.4355
0.021612892
0.001362368
0.000227
1.85E-08
2.21603
0.4365
0.021762117
0.001372419
0.4683
0.000372
3.77E-08
1.89689
0.476
0.028220796
0.001812786
6.58
0.3576
0.000126
2.07E-08
2.11317
0.329
0.009318287
0.000557977
7.37
8.53
0.3964
0.000191
1.56E-08
2.00826
0.4265
0.020300443
0.001274222
7.49
8.89
0.4080
0.000214
2.16E-08
1.97427
0.4445
0.022980724
0.001454721
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33
2. Result Table
Table 3.4 Experiment results of OIL-A and Oil-B
Experiment results of OIL-A (Fresh)
Oil Name
Temperature
(C)
27
FRHF
65
90
Load
N
Speed
Hz
15
15
25
15
15
25
15
15
25
10
20
10
10
20
10
10
20
10
Ball
Radius
mm
6.35
6.35
6.35
6.35
6.35
6.35
6.35
6.35
6.35
Ball Scar
Dia. Mm
Vol Loss of
Ball mm
Wear Rate of
Ball mm/N.m
Vol Loss of
Plate mm
Wear Rate of
Plate mm/N.m
0.5052
0.5582
0.6264
0.5103
0.5430
0.5772
0.4062
0.4792
0.6416
0.006138002
0.004180506
0.007733228
0.005150618
0.005807625
0.006562792
0.003261244
0.004526375
0.011027409
0.000503
0.000750
0.001190
0.000524
0.000672
0.000858
0.000210
0.000407
0.001309
8.25E-08
6.28E-08
1.20E-07
8.63E-08
5.45E-08
8.74E-08
3.49E-08
3.35E-08
1.33E-07
0.04247493
0.04619947
0.06923943
0.03400061
0.04401145
0.05238609
0.02102281
0.03183313
0.07353131
0.002816001
0.003084189
0.004788899
0.002214819
0.002926361
0.003534531
0.00132268
0.00206324
0.005114159
Wear Rate
mm/N.m
3.57E-08
1.85E-08
3.77E-08
2.07E-08
1.56E-08
2.16E-08
Vol Loss of
Plate mm
0.02161289
0.02176212
0.0282208
0.00931829
0.02030044
0.02298072
Wear Rate of
Plate mm/N.m
0.001362368
0.001372419
0.001812786
0.000557977
0.001274222
0.001454721
Experiment results of OIL-B (Fresh)

Oil Name
Temperature
(C)
27
ENKLO
65
Load
N
15
15
25
15
15
25
Speed
Hz
10
20
10
10
20
10
Ball
Radius
6.35
6.35
6.35
6.35
6.35
6.35
Ball Scar
Dia. Mm
0.4087
0.4140
0.4683
0.3576
0.3964
0.4080
h
0.003301686
0.003384054
0.004319509
0.002535555
0.003111278
0.00330209
Vol Loss
mm
0.000216
0.000227
0.000372
0.000126
0.000191
0.000214
Zeeshan Ahmad
34
3. Discussion
The Tribological experiments were performed on sliding friction and wear machine
under lubrication. Bearing steel plate SS-52100 and bearing steel balls SS-52100 of 1/2 inch
(12.7 mm) diameter were used as fixed specimen and moving specimen respectively. The
other experimental conditions are mentioned in above table. The major candidate for
calculation and discussion in this experiment is friction and wear. The calculation were made
and presented in table. The data were recorded and the graphs were plotted based on the data
available.
Friction Characteristics
1. Stribeck Curve
Two types of hydraulic oils were investigated in this experiment. Figures 3.5 to 3.8
show the friction characteristics of the two oils. Figure.3.5 summarizes the effect of load,
temperature, and lubricant on the friction behaviour. The data is presented in a Stribeck type
format. The Stribeck curve is a plot of the friction as it relates to viscosity, speed and load. On
the vertical axis is the friction coefficient and the horizontal axis shows a parameter that
combines the other variables: V/P. In this formula, is the fluid viscosity corresponds to
temperature, V is the relative speed of the surfaces, and P is the load on the interface per unit
width. Basically, as you move to the right on the horizontal axis, the effects of increased
speed or increased viscosity or reduced load are seen. The zero point on the horizontal axis
corresponds to static friction. The stribeck curve shown in figure 3.5 is divided in to three
regimes.
1. Boundary lubrication (Regime 1) two surfaces mostly are in contact with each other
even though a fluid is present
2. Mixed lubrication (Regime 2) two surfaces are partly separated, partly in contact
3. Hydrodynamic lubrication (Regime 3) two surfaces are separated by a fluid film
Boundary Lubrication (Regime 1)
Boundary lubrication occurs when the lubricating film is about same thickness as the
surface roughness such that the high points (asperities) on the solid surfaces contact. This is
generally an undesirable operating regime for a hydrostatic or hydrodynamic bearing, since it
leads to increased friction, energy loss, wear and material damage. In actual stribeck curve the
coefficient of friction in this regime is constant and of very high magnitude because of
starting friction of machine. But in figure 3.5 the coefficient of friction is increasing in this
Zeeshan Ahmad
35
regime because of increase in sliding speed and decrease in load the viscosity is kept constant
in this regime. Both the hydraulic fluids are performing almost equally in this regime and over
the entire curve. The peak in this regime for OIL-B is because of lower viscosity and viscosity
index as compared to OIL-A, the other conditions are same.
Mixed Lubrication (Regime 2)
As the speed and viscosity increase, or the load decreases, the surfaces will begin to
separate, and a fluid film begins to form. The film is still very thin, but acts to support more
and more of the load. Mixed lubrication is the result, and is easily seen on the Stribeck curve
shown in figure 3.5 as a sharp drop in friction coefficient. The friction in this regime is more
in case of OIL-B compared to OIL-A because of lower viscosity. The drop in friction is a
result of decreasing surface contact and more fluid lubrication. The surfaces will continue to
separate as the speed or viscosity increase until there is a full fluid film and no surface
contact. The friction coefficient will reach its minimum and there is a transition to
hydrodynamic lubrication. At this point, the load on the interface is entirely supported by the
fluid film. There is low friction and no wear in hydrodynamic lubrication since there is a full
fluid film and no solid-solid contact.
Hydrodynamic Lubrication (Regime 3)
One might notice that the Stribeck curve in figure 3.5 shows the friction increasing in
the hydrodynamic regime for both the oils, the increase in coefficient of friction for OIL-A is
more in this regime as compared to OIL-B. This is due to fluid drag (friction produced by the
fluid) - higher speed and high Viscosity may result in thicker fluid film, but it also increases
the fluid drag on the moving surfaces. For example, think about how much harder it is to run
in a pool of water than it is to walk. Likewise, a higher viscosity will increase the fluid film
thickness, but it will also increase the drag. Again, think about the difference between walking
in air and walking in a pool of water.
To understand hydrodynamic lubrication, we first should look at the figure 3.2. We
know that a surface will have tiny asperities or peaks that will contact if two plates are placed
together. If one of the plates were to slide over the other, then friction would increase, the
asperities would break and the surfaces would wear. In hydrodynamic lubrication, a fluid film
separates the surfaces, prevents wear and reduces friction. The hydrodynamic film is formed
when the geometry, surface motion and fluid viscosity combine to increase the fluid pressure
enough to support the load. The increased pressure forces the surfaces apart and prevents
surface contact. Therefore, in hydrodynamic lubrication, one surface floats over the other
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36
surface. The hydrodynamic lubrication is the desirable condition for operating machines as it
leads to less wear of parts.
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.2 Lubrication regimes
(c)
2. Effect Of Temperature On Coefficient Of Friction

The effect of temperature on coefficient of friction for both hydraulic oils has been
shown in bar graph from figures 3.6 to 3.8 along with load and speed. The oil-A is tested at
three temperature values viz., 27oC, 65oC, 90oC while oil-B is tested at only two temperature
values, because the limiting operating temperature of oil-B is only 65oC. As we see all the
three graphs have similar trend. When the temperature is increasing the coefficient of friction
also increases for both hydraulic fluids because of lower viscosity value. Figures 3.6 to 3.8
corresponds to three different load and speed conditions they are 15N/10Hz, 25N/10Hz and
15N/20Hz respectively. The trend for coefficient of friction in all three graphs is similar. The
coefficient of friction for both hydraulic oil is reducing when we increase the load and
keeping speed constant at all temperature as explained in stribeck curve. But keeping load
constant and increasing speed, the coefficient of friction increases, this is due to fluid drag
(friction produced by the fluid) - higher speed and high Viscosity may result in thicker fluid
film, but it also increases the fluid drag on the moving surfaces and results in higher friction
between the layers of fluid.
Both hydraulic fluids are performing in similar manner when we are talking about
friction characteristics at any conditions, but the desirable condition of operation for both
hydraulic oil is hydrodynamic lubrication. The temperature in this regime is room temperature
with 3 combinations of speed and load. The other test temperature might result in boundary or
mixed lubrication zone that may not be desirable as it may result in more wear.
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37
Wear Characteristics
The friction and wear experiment on hydraulic Oil-A and Oil-B has been performed on
reciprocating and sliding friction and wear machine. The standard procedure for this machine
has been discussed in section 3.2.1. The calculations for wear volume and wear rate of both
steel ball and steel plate have been made based on ASTM standard and research papers. The
data generated and the calculations during this experiment have been presented in tabulated
form in table 7 and 8. Based on calculations the have been plotted in figures 3.9 to 3.12.
Figure 3.3 and 3.4 shows the effective wear scar on steel ball and 3d profile of wear scar
on steel plate respectively. The trend found for wear rate for both hydraulic oils at any
condition is almost of similar order. Figure 3.9 to 3.12 shows the change in the volumetric
wear rates with the applied load measured at different temperatures. The wear rates were mild
at all conditions.
The wear rate at load of 15N as well as 25N should be less at room temperature 27C as
compared to 65C because of high viscosity of oil but it is not, the wear rate is more at room
temperature because of oxide layer formation at higher temperature of oil which prevents
wear of ball as well as plate. The effect of load on wear rate is clear in both cases of oils as
well as temperatures; the wear rate is increasing with increase in load. Both hydraulic oils
have similar trend for wear also in case of Oil-A the wear rate is more at all conditions as
compared to Oil-B. But the difference in wear rate of both hydraulic fluids is of order 10-7 it
means it is almost negligible. We can easily conclude that the wear characteristic of both
hydraulic fluids is same in all aspects.
Though the tribological evaluation is important aspect for an oil to be qualified for use
in hydraulic system, but there are other aspects need to be considered if the oil is to be used in
nuclear industry. Among such aspects radiation resistant is a very important criterion for an
oil to be qualified to use in nuclear industry. For initial study of radiation resistant both
hydraulic oils have been gamma irradiated at 50MRad radiation level with dose rate of 0.2
MRad/hr.
Zeeshan Ahmad
38
4. Gamma Irradiation of Hydraulic Fluids

Since based on Tribological result only it is not possible to evaluate a hydraulic fluid for
nuclear industry application, other factors are also need to be studied among all other factors
gamma irradiation is the most severe and hazardous factor for nuclear industry. It has been
cited in literature review that gamma irradiation leads to knocking down of bonding electrons
from the molecules and formation of radicals which leads to polymerization. It has been also
cited in literature that viscosity is most affected property of hydraulic fluid because of gamma
irradiation there for there is real need to study the effect of gamma irradiation on viscosity as
well as other properties of hydraulic fluid. For initial studies two samples (each of 200 ml) of
FRHF synthetic hydraulic fluid and petroleum based mineral hydraulic fluid contained in
glass bottles (67 mm dia) have been irradiated in Gamma Chamber of ISOMED with a dose
rate of 2.0 kGy/hr. (0.2 MRad/hr.). The dose level was 50 MRad. Glass bottles were capped
with glass stoppers. The irradiation was carried out at room temperature.
4.1. Measurement of Properties of Synthetic Fire Resistant Hydraulic Oil

(Oil-A)
The test sample viscosity was adopted as the primary parameter of radiation changes,
since the viscosity is a sensitive index characterizing the chemical structure of oils. Also,
changes in colour, density and Total Acid Number (TAN) are other criteria for study. In this
report TAN and density are not studied. Stabinger viscometer SVM 3000 is capable of
determining and displaying dynamic & kinematic viscosities and density of the fluid at a set
temperature simultaneously. These properties have been measured for fresh as well as 50
MRad oil samples for temperature range of 15 C (288 K) to 100 C (373 K).
4.1.1. Effect of Gamma Radiation on Kinematic Viscosity

Table 4.1 Gives the percentage variation of kinematic viscosity for fresh as well as
radiated oil sample with respect to temperature in temperature range of 15-100 C (288K to
373K)
Table 4.1 Percentage change in kinematic viscosity of radiated oil sample from fresh oil
Sr.No.
Temp.
10
11
12
13
14
15
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
72
80
92
100
288
293
298
303
308
313
318
323
328
333
338
345
353
365
373
% change in
61.22 59.99 58.17 56.70 55.30 54.03 52.20 50.93 49.61 48.40 49.24 45.39 43.55 41.19 39.82
viscosity
*
Data propriety in nature [25]
Zeeshan Ahmad
39
The behaviour of the kinematic viscosity for 50 MRad radiation level as compared with
fresh oil is plotted in figure 4.1. It can be observed that the highest viscosity at any
temperature correspond to 50 MRad of oil. It can also be observed that the kinematic viscosity
of the oil for at a given temperature for 50 MRad radiation level has drastically increased. It is
found after the evaluation of figure 4.1 that at the low temperature ranges (below room
temperature) the percentage change in kinematic viscosity is higher as compared to that in
higher temperature range. It is found that the change in kinematic viscosity is approx. 40-60
% as compared to fresh fluid and since only 10% variation is allowed in ISO standard, 40-60
% change over a 50 MRad dose is significantly high. Hence, it can be concluded that the
kinematic viscosity of this oil is not resistive to radiation levels of 50 MRad or more than that.
4.1.2. Effect Of Gamma Radiation On Viscosity Index

Table 4.2 gives the viscosity index (VI) of Oil-A for fresh oil as well as 50 MRad of
radiation dose oil.
Table 4.2 Viscosity index of Oil-A
Viscosity Index of Oil-A
Radiation dose
Viscosity Index
Fresh Oil
143.3
50 MRad
145.8
It is found that the viscosity index has slightly changed for radiation level. It means that
the viscosity index of Oil-A oil is not affected by radiation dose up to a level of 50 MRad.
4.1.3. Appearance of Oil after Gamma Irradiation

Figure 4.3 gives the effect of radiation on the appearance of the Oil-A. It is clear that
there is no significant change in colour of the oil. The oil has to be further analysed for
presence of oxidation compounds using TAN and oxidation stability testing methods.
4.2. Measurement of Properties of Petroleum Based Hydraulic Fluid (Oil-B)

Similar to FRHF synthetic type of oil, petroleum based oil has also been gamma
irradiated for 50 MRad of radiation and properties has been measured for fresh as well as 50
MRad radiation oil using SVM 3000 Anton Paar Stabinger viscometer.
4.2.1. Effect of Gamma Radiation on Kinematic Viscosity

Table 4.3 Gives the percentage variation of kinematic viscosity for fresh as well as
radiated oil sample with respect to temperature in temperature range of 15-100 C (288K to
373K). The behaviour of the kinematic viscosity for 50 MRad radiation level as compared
Zeeshan Ahmad
40
with fresh oil is plotted in figure 4.4. It can be observed that the highest viscosity at any
temperature
Table 4.3 Percentage change in kinematic viscosity of radiated oil sample from fresh oil
Sr.No.
1
15
288
2
20
293
3
25
298
4
30
303
5
35
308
6
40
313
7
45
318
8
50
323
9
55
328
10
60
333
11
65
338
12
72
345
13
80
353
14
92
365
15
100
373
C
K
% change in
7.93 7.70 7.22 7.12 6.66 6.42 5.93 5.91 5.57 5.54 5.25 4.68 4.42 4.40 4.22
viscosity
*
Data propriety in nature [25]
Temp.
correspond to 50 MRad of oil. It can also be observed that the kinematic viscosity of the oil
for at a given temperature for 50 MRad radiation level has slightly increased. It is found after
the evaluation of figure 4.4 that at the low temperature ranges (below room temperature) the
percentage change in kinematic viscosity is higher as compared to that in higher temperature
range. Though it is found that the change in kinematic viscosity is approx. 5-8 % as compared
to fresh fluid and since 10% variation is allowed in ISO standard, 5-8 % change over a 50
MRad dose is insignificant. Hence, it can be concluded that the kinematic viscosity of this oil
may be resistive to radiation levels up to 50 MRad.
4.2.2. Effect Of Gamma Radiation On Viscosity Index

Table 4.4 gives the viscosity index (VI) of Oil-B for fresh oil as well as 50 MRad of
radiation dose oil.
Table 4.4 Viscosity index of Oil-B
Viscosity Index of Oil-B
Radiation dose
Viscosity Index
Fresh Oil
101.7
50 MRad
101.1
It is found that the viscosity index has not changed for radiation level. It means that the
viscosity index of mineral oil is not affected by radiation dose up to a level of 50 MRad.
4.2.3. Appearance of Oil after Gamma Irradiation

Fig. 4.6 gives the effect of radiation on the appearance of the Oil-B. It is clear that the
oil has under gone significant colour change which may be due to polymerisation as well as
oxidation of the oil. The oil has to be further analysed for presence of oxidation compounds
using TAN and oxidation stability testing methods.
Zeeshan Ahmad
41
5. Conclusion and Future Scope

5.1. Conclusion
The oil-a is no doubt a fire resistant hydraulic fluid having very high flash and fire point
of approximately 260oC and 310oC respectively in comparison with oil-b having same at
210oC and 230oC respectively, it can be used as hydraulic fluid if there is no issue of
compatibility or degradation because of gamma irradiation. But if such problems are arises
then without experimental evaluation we cannot use this oil in to hydraulic system. Nuclear
industry like DAE is one such industry where these types of problems are very common.
Hence before being put this oil into actual system the oil has been evaluated using two
deferent methodologies and conclusion has been made based on these two methodologies.
Tribological evaluation
a) Tribological Evaluation
The tribological evaluation for qualifying hydraulic Oil-A and Oil-B has been done on
sliding friction and wear machine TE-70. Friction and wear were the major candidate for
qualifying the oils.
As discussed in previous chapter, the friction characteristics of the two oils are almost
same. The stribeck curve shows that both Oil-A and Oil-B have similar operating
conditions in hydrodynamic regime.
The wear characteristics shows that the wear rate of ball and plate under Oil-A lubrication
is high as compared to Oil-B but the order of wear rate is very low for both oils and is of
order 10-7, which is condition of mild wear. Hence it can be acceptable.
Based on tribological experiment it can be concluded that both hydraulic oils are similar in
tribological behaviour, Oil-A has the advantage of being fire resistant. There for Oil-B can
be replaced by Oil-A if there is chances of fire hazard or the operating temperature is high.
b) Radiation Resistant
Based on only tribological evaluation it is not possible to recommend or replace one
hydraulic fluid over the other if the hydraulic fluids are going to be used in nuclear industry,
there are other factors need to be consider. Among such factors gamma irradiation is the most
severe and hazardous factor which can degrade the hydraulic fluid and it will be hazardous
and dangerous for the entire environment near the nuclear reactor. For the purpose of initial
study of effect of gamma irradiation on hydraulic oils both oils have been gamma irradiated at
Zeeshan Ahmad
42
initial level of only 50 MRad in Gamma Chamber of ISOMED and the properties have been
measured and compared with each other. The conclusion made on this is as follow.
The viscosity of Oil-A has changed tremendously as compared to Oil-B. There is
approximately 40% to 60% change in viscosity over the temperature range of 15oC to
100oC for Oil-A, whereas viscosity of Oil-B changes only 6% to 8% over the same
temperature range.
Hence it is clear that Oil-A is not a radiation resistant whereas Oil-B is radiation resistant
up to 50 MRad level.
It is found after the evaluation that for both oils at low temperature ranges (below room
temperature); the percentage change in viscosity is higher as compared to that in higher
temperature range. This may be advantageous for Oil-A when the operating temperature is
high, because of higher viscosity it can be act as a lubricant for hydraulic system even in
radioactive environment, whereas this may not be possible for Oil-B because of low
viscosity value at high temperature.
The viscosity index of the Oil-A after gamma irradiation has improved whereas viscosity
index of Oil-B remains constant. Due to this variation in viscosity over the temperature
range is reduced for Oil-A compared to Oil-B.
Based on above discussion it is concluded that up to 50 MRad radiation level Oil-A can be
used as hydraulic fluid in replacement of Oil-B in nuclear industry when the operating
temperature is high.
5.2. Future Scope

The test procedure discussed in this report for sliding friction and wear measurement can
be used for general purpose friction and wear test under lubricated or dry condition.
The data available in this report can be used for selection of hydraulic oils for other
applications also.
The properties of hydraulic oils will required to be evaluated at more radiation levels, for
this purpose it is planned to irradiate hydraulic oils at 5, 25, 100, 200, 300, 400 and 600
MRad radiation levels.
The appearance of oil is not a major concern in this report but in future the oil has to be
further analysed for presence of oxidation compounds using TAN and Oxidation Stability
test.
Zeeshan Ahmad
43
Change-over of a system from one hydraulic oil to another can create problems unless
consideration is given to circuit and component design.
For this purpose, a Fire Resistant Hydraulic Fluid Test Facility (FRHTF) will be developed
by RTD at Engineering Hall 3. In this facility hydraulic performance, compatibility with
existing hydraulic components, and high temperature operability will be tested by
evaluating the changes in properties of the hydraulic oils after being used in this facility
test setups.
The test facility will be designed to be operated without any operator.
A man machine interface (MMI) will be required to design to run this test facility 24x7
without any operator assistance.
Zeeshan Ahmad
44
6. References
[1] Engineering Design Handbook of Hydraulic Fluids, Headquarters, U.S. Army Materiel Command, April
1971.
[2] W.D. Phillips, A Comparison of Fire-resistant Hydraulic Fluids for Hazardous Industrial Environments.
Part 1. Fire resistance and lubrication properties, FMC Corporation (UK) Ltd.
[3] Sullivan, M.V., Wolfe, J.K., and Zisman, W.A., Flammability of the higher boiling liquids and their
mists, Zng. Eng. Chem., 39, 12 (1947), 1607-14.
[4] Murphy, C.M., and Zisman, W.A., Synthetic hydraulic fluids, Product Engineering, 21, 9 (1950), 109-13.
[5] Lubricants, Industrial Oils and Related Products (Class L) Classification Part 4: Family H (Hydraulic
Systems), ISO Standard 6743.
[6] Santosh Javalagi and Swaroop Reddy Singireddy, Hydraulic fluid properties and its influence on system
performance, Linkping University.
[7] Hydraulic Fluid Power Fire-Resistant (Fr) Fluids Guidelines for Use, Bureau of Indian Standards,
New Delhi-110002.
[8] Friction, Wear, and Lubrication: Terms and Definitions, Research Group on Wear of Engineering
Materials, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development.
[9] H. H. Zuidema, The Performance of Lubricating Oil, Reinhold Publishing Corp., N. Y., 1959.
[10] Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test Method No. 6505.
[13] ASTM Standards 1969, Designation D-2596- 67T, Part 17, p. 970, Philadelphia, American Society for
Testing Materials, 1969.
[15] ASTM Standards 1967, Designation D-2266- 64T, Part 17, p. 799, Philadelphia, American Society for
Testing Materials, 1967.
[17] H. Gisser, The Effects of Nuclear Radiation in Lubricants, Conference on Effects of Nuclear Radiation on
Materials, Watertown Arsenal, 1967.
[18] R. C. Gunderson and A. W. Hart, Synthetic Lubricants, Reinhold Publishing Corp., N.Y., 1962.
[19] Roger E. Hatton, Introduction to Hydraulic Fluids, Reinhold Publishing Corp., N. Y., 1962.
[20] Charles Spar, Hydraulic Fluids and Their Applications, ASME Publication 64 WA/LUB-14.
[21] R.O .Bolt and J.G. Carrol, Effect of radiation on aircraft lubrications and fuels, California Research
Corporation, WADC Technical Report No 56- 646, Part II, ASTIA Document No. AD 151176. April 1958.
Zeeshan Ahmad
45
[22] William L. R. Rice, Nuclear Radiation Resistant Lubricants, California Research Corporation, WADC
Technical Report No 57-299, ASTIA Document No. AD 118329 May 1957.
[23] S. Sharma, S. Sangal, K. Mondal, On the optical microscopic method for the determination of ball-on-flat
surface linearly reciprocating sliding wear volume, Wear 300 (2013) 8289
[24] ASTM G133-05(2010), Standard Test Method for Linearly Reciprocating Ball-on-Flat Sliding Wear,
ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2010, www.astm.org
[25] Zeeshan Ahmad, P.K.Mishra, Determination of Effect of Gamma Radiation on Petroleum based Hydraulic
Fluid - ENKLO-68 RTD Report, BARC, Mumbai
[26] Hutchings, I.M. (1992), Tribology Friction and Wear of Engineering Materials, Edward Arnold,
London.
[27] Zum Gahr, K.-H. (1987), Microstructure and Wear of Materials, Tribology Series 10, Elsevier,
Amsterdam.
[28] http://www.viscopedia.com/methods/measuring-principles/
Zeeshan Ahmad
46
Appendix I
Figures and Graphs
TE70 Reciprocating wear & friction machine
Figure 3.3 Reciprocating wear & friction machine PLINT TE 70
Ball SS-52100, 15 N, 10 Hz, 20000 sec
Ball SS-52100, 25 N, 10 Hz, 20000 sec
Figure 3.4 Typical photographs indicating ball wear
Figure 3.5 3D profile of wear scar on SS-52100 steel flat sample
Zeeshan Ahmad
47
Effect of Temperature on Coefficient of Friction

Stribeck Curve for OIL-A and OIL-B
0.11
OIL-A
Coefficient of Friction
0.1
OIL-B
0.09
0.08
0.07
Regime 1 Regime 2
0.06
Regime 3
0.05
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
*V/P(Stribeck Parameter)
Figure 3.6 Stribeck curve of Oil-A and Oil-B

15 N / 10 Hz
0.081
0.08
Oil-A
0.089 0.088
0.09
0.081
Oil-B
0.079
0.07
0.06
0.05
27
65
90
Temperature (C)
Figure 3.7 Effect of temperature on coefficient of friction 15 N / 10 Hz
Zeeshan Ahmad
48
0.1

25 N / 10 Hz
Oil-A
0.09
Oil-B
0.086 0.086
0.08
0.077
0.073
0.073
0.07
0.06
0.05
27
65
90
Temperature (C)

15 N / 20 Hz
0.095
Oil-A
0.1
0.102
0.096
0.095
Oil-B
0.092
0.089
0.076
0.063
0.05
27
65
90
Temperature (C)
Zeeshan Ahmad
49
Effect of Load on Wear Rate

1. Ball
Load Vs. Wear Rate of Ball
27C /10 Hz
10-7
1.50
OIL-A
1.20
OIL-B
Wear Rate(mm/Nm)
1.20
0.90
0.83
0.60
0.38
0.36
0.30
0.00
15
Load (N)
25
Figure 3.10 Load vs. wear rate of ball 27C /10 Hz

Load Vs. Wear Rate of Ball
65C /10 Hz
1.50
OIL-A
OIL-B
Wear Rate(mm/Nm)
1.20
0.90
0.87
0.86
0.60
0.30
0.22
0.21
0.00
15
25
Load (N)
Figure 3.11 Load vs. wear rate of ball 65C /10 Hz
Zeeshan Ahmad
50
Effect of Load on Wear Rate

2. Plate
Load Vs. Wear Rate of Plate
27C /10 Hz
10-3
6.00
OIL-A
4.79
Wear Rate(mm/Nm)
5.00
OIL-B
4.00
2.82
3.00
1.81
2.00
1.36
1.00
0.00
15
25
Load (N)
Figure 3.12 Load vs. wear rate of plate 27C /10 Hz
-3
10
Load Vs. Wear Rate of Plate

65C /10 Hz
5.00
Wear Rate(mm/Nm)
OIL-A
OIL-B
4.00
3.53
3.00
2.21
2.00
1.00
1.45
0.56
0.00
15
25
Load (N)
Figure 3.13 Load vs. wear rate of plate 65C /10 Hz
Zeeshan Ahmad
51
Effect of Radiation on Viscosity of Oil

Oil-A
Percentage Change in Kinematic Viscosity of Oil-A
80
Percentage Change in Viscosity
50 MRad
60
40
20
-20
280
300
320
340
360
380
Temperature ( K)
Figure 4.1 Percentage change in kinematic viscosity of Oil-A
Viscosity Index
145.8
146
Fresh (0 MRad)
Viscosity Index
145
50 Mrad
144
143.3
143
142
Fresh (0 MRad)
50 Mrad
Radiation Dose
Figure 4.2 Viscosity index vs. gamma radiation dose
Figure 4.3 Change of appearance

with gamma radiation dose
Zeeshan Ahmad
52
Oil-B
Percentage Change In Kinematic Viscosity of Oil-B
10
Percentage Change In Viscosity
50 MRad
8
6
4
2
0
-2
280
300
320
340
360
380
Temperature (K)
Figure 4.4 Percentage change in kinematic viscosity of Oil-B
Viscosity Index
101.8
Fresh (0 MRad)
Viscosity Index
101.6
50 Mrad
101.4
101.2
101
100.8
Fresh (0 MRad)
50 Mrad
Radiation Dose
Figure 4.5 Viscosity index vs. gamma radiation dose
Figure
4.6
Change
of
appearance
with
gamma
radiation dose
Zeeshan Ahmad
53

Evaluation of Fire Resistant Hydraulic Fluid To Replace Conventional Mineral Oil in Nuclear Industry

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Dissertation Titled

Evaluation of Fire Resistant Hydraulic Fluid to Replace

M. Tech. (Mechanical Engineering with

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Dr. Sanjay M.G.

Declaration of the Student

Literature Review ............................................................................................................... 4

Classification of Hydraulic Fluids [1] ...................................................................... 4

Classification by Physical Properties ................................................................ 5

Classification by Chemical Properties .............................................................. 5

Classification by Operating Characteristics ...................................................... 5

Classification into Petroleum or Nonpetroleum Hydraulic Fluids ................... 6

Classification of Fire-Resistant Hydraulic Fluids, Their Properties and Uses [2] .. 7

Fire Hazards ...................................................................................................... 8

Fire Resistance and Fire-Resistant Fluids ......................................................... 9

Fire-Resistant Hydraulic Fluid Types for Industrial Applications ................... 9

Viscosity Index [1] ........................................................................................... 13

Requirements for Fire-Resistant Hydraulic Fluids [7] ........................................... 14

Tribological Properties of Hydraulic Fluids.......................................................... 15

Wear or Surface Damage ................................................................................ 18

Prevention of Wear ......................................................................................... 19

Test Methods for Lubricating Properties ........................................................ 20

Effect of Gamma Radiation on Properties of Hydraulic Fluid.............................. 24

Tribological Evaluation of Hydraulic Fluids .................................................................... 27

Apparatus and Materials........................................................................................ 27

Experimental Procedure ........................................................................................ 28

Test Procedure .................................................................................................... 29

Wear Measurement of Ball Specimen ............................................................ 31

Wear of Flat Specimen ................................................................................... 32

Results and Discussion ................................................................................... 32

Gamma Irradiation of Hydraulic Fluids ........................................................................... 39

Standard Testing Method ................................................................................ 28

Measurement of Properties of Synthetic Fire Resistant Hydraulic Oil (Oil-A) .... 39

Effect of Gamma Radiation on Kinematic Viscosity ..................................... 39

Effect Of Gamma Radiation On Viscosity Index .......................................... 40

Appearance of Oil after Gamma Irradiation ................................................... 40

Measurement of Properties of Petroleum Based Hydraulic Fluid (Oil-B) ............ 40

Effect of Gamma Radiation on Kinematic Viscosity ..................................... 40

Effect Of Gamma Radiation On Viscosity Index .......................................... 41

Appearance of Oil after Gamma Irradiation ................................................... 41

Conclusion and Future Scope ........................................................................................... 42

Future Scope .......................................................................................................... 43

Polyol Ester based synthetic Fire Resistant Hydraulic Fluid (FRHF) of

Petroleum based mineral hydraulic fluid of viscosity grade 68

Volume Loss of Ball Specimen

Wear Scar Diameter of Ball

Volume Loss of Plate Specimen

Length of Wear Scar on Plate

Width of Wear Scar on Plate

Depth of Wear Scar on Plate

Study of tribological behaviour of different hydraulic fluid and selection of standard

Preparation and submission of report on tribological behaviour of hydraulic fluids.

Conclusion based on experimental data of both the hydraulic fluids.

Measurement of viscosity, viscosity index of radiated oil samples at different

Study of different types of hydraulic fluids

Selection of fire resistant hydraulic fluid

Study of properties of hydraulic fluids and their effect on system performance

Study of effect of gamma radiation on properties of hydraulic fluids

The Tribological Evaluation of Hydraulic Fluids

The Measurement of Properties of Gamma Radiated Oil Samples

2.1. Classification of Hydraulic Fluids [1]

2.1.1. Classification by Physical Properties

2.1.2. Classification by Chemical Properties