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Contents

2.5

Solar Radiation at a Given Location ............................................ 21

2.5.1 Daily Radiation Pattern ..................................................... 21
2.6 Annual Variation in Solar Radiation ............................................ 22
2.7 Optimal Tilt for Solar Equipment ................................................ 23
2.8 Monthly Averaged Global Radiation at Optimal Tilt ................. 25
Exercises .................................................................................................... 26

Contents
Preface .............................................................................................................. xi
List of Abbreviations ...................................................................................... xiii
1. BASICS OF ENERGY ............................................................................ 1
1.1 Energy and Power ........................................................................... 2
1.2 Estimation of Energy Bill ............................................................... 4
1.3 Conventional Energy Sources ......................................................... 5
1.4 Limited Fossil Fuels ........................................................................ 5
1.4.1 Quality of Fuel .................................................................... 7
1.4.2 Environmental Impact of Fossil Fuels ............................... 7
1.5 Solar Energy Alternatives ............................................................... 8
1.6 Other Energy Alternatives ............................................................. 10
1.6.1 Nuclear Energy .................................................................. 10
1.6.2 Tidal and Geothermal Energy .......................................... 10
1.7 Worldwide Energy Production ...................................................... 11
1.8 Energy Scenario of India .............................................................. 11
1.8.1 Current Energy Situation .................................................. 11
1.8.2 Solar Energy Sources ........................................................ 12
Exercises .................................................................................................... 13
2. SOLAR RADIATION ............................................................................ 17
2.1 Solar Spectrum ............................................................................... 18
2.2 Extraterrestrial Radiation ............................................................... 18
2.3 Radiation on the Earth Surface .................................................... 19
2.4 Global, Direct and Diffuse Solar Radiation ................................. 21

3. SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC TECHNOLOGIES ................................. 28

3.1 Solar PV Technology: Advantages and Limitations.................... 29
3.2 Brief History of the Technology .................................................. 30
3.3 Basics of Technology .................................................................... 32
3.3.1 The Amount of Power Generated .................................... 32
3.3.2 The Rated Power and Actual Power from a Module ..... 33
3.3.3 Generating More Power Using Solar PV ........................ 34
3.3.4 Protection of Solar Cells .................................................. 35
3.4 Solar PV Systems and their Components .................................... 36
3.4.1 Solar PV Module Ratings and Cost ................................. 37
3.4.2 Battery Ratings and Cost .................................................. 38
3.4.3 Inverter Ratings and Cost ................................................. 38
3.4.4 Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) ...................... 39
3.5 Solar PV Lantern ........................................................................... 40
3.5.1 Design and costing ............................................................ 40
3.6 Stand-alone PV System: Home Lighting and Other Usage ........ 41
3.6.1 Solar PV System Designing ............................................. 41
3.6.2 Case Study ......................................................................... 42
3.6.3 Cost Estimation of a PV System ..................................... 44
3.7 Solar PV Water Pumping System ................................................ 45
3.7.1 Design of Solar PV Pumping System ............................. 46
3.7.2 Case Study ......................................................................... 47
Exercises .................................................................................................... 49
4. SOLAR THERMAL TECHNOLOGIES ............................................. 55
4.1 Solar Thermal Energy Systems .................................................... 56
4.2 Absorption and Radiation .............................................................. 58
4.2.1 Heat Gain and Loss ........................................................... 59
4.3 Solar Cooking Systems .................................................................. 60
4.3.1 Principle of Cooking ......................................................... 60
4.3.2 Cooking by Boiling ........................................................... 61
4.3.3 Speed of Cooking .............................................................. 62
4.3.4 Energy Required for Cooking .......................................... 62
4.4 Types of Solar Cooker .................................................................. 64
4.4.1 Box Type Solar Cooker .................................................... 64
4.4.2 Dish Type Solar Cooker ................................................... 69
4.4.3 Heat Transfer Type Solar Cooker .................................... 72

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Contents

ix

4.5

Solar Distillation System ............................................................... 74

4.5.1 Water Categories ................................................................ 74
4.5.2 Distillation: Natural Process for Purifying Water ........... 75
4.6 Operation of Solar Distillation ..................................................... 76
4.6.1 Components and Specifications ........................................ 77
4.6.2 Solar Still Design and Costing ......................................... 78
4.6.3 Economics of Solar Still .................................................. 80
4.7 Solar Heating Systems (Hot water) .............................................. 81
4.7.1 Principle of Conversion .................................................... 82
4.7.2 Applications ........................................................................ 82
4.7.3 Operation of Solar Water Heater (flat plate) .................. 83
4.7.4 Types of Heating Systems ................................................ 84
4.7.5 Components and Specifications of Solar
Water Heater ...................................................................... 87
4.7.6 Design and Costing of Solar Heating Systems ............... 88
4.7.7 Installation and Maintenance ............................................. 92
4.8 Maintenance .................................................................................... 93
Exercises .................................................................................................... 93

5. WIND ENERGY ................................................................................... 100

5.1 Wind Flow ................................................................................... 101
5.1.1 Motion of Wind ............................................................... 101
5.1.2 Vertical Wind Speed Variation ...................................... 102
5.1.3 Distribution of Wind Speeds .......................................... 103
5.2 Power in the Wind ...................................................................... 103
5.2.1 Conversion of Wind Power: Wind Turbine .................. 104
5.2.2 Efficiency of Wind Power Conversion: Cp .................. 104
5.3 Types of Wind Turbines ............................................................. 106
5.3.1 Components of a Wind Turbine .................................... 108
5.3.2 Worldwide Wind Installations ........................................ 110
5.4 Wind Turbine Sizing and Systems Design ................................ 111
5.4.1 Energy Derived from a Wind Turbine .......................... 111
5.4.2 Annual Energy Production: Approximate and
Accurate ............................................................................ 112
5.4.3 Estimation of Required Wind Turbine
Power Rating ................................................................... 114
Exercises .................................................................................................. 116
6. BIOMASS ENERGY ............................................................................ 120
6.1 Introduction .................................................................................. 120
6.2 Types of Biomass and Their Applications ................................. 122
6.3 Energy Content of Biomass ........................................................ 122

Contents

6.4

Biomass as a Source of Energy ................................................. 123

6.4.1 Conversion of Biomass into a Suitable Form ............... 123
6.4.2 Types of Conversion Processes ...................................... 124
6.4.3 Direct Combustion of Biomass ....................................... 124
6.5 Biomass-based Fuels .................................................................... 125
6.5.1 Charcoal Production ........................................................ 125
6.5.2 Formation of Producer Gas (Gasification) .................... 126
6.5.3 Biogas production ............................................................ 126
6.5.4 Production of Ethanol ..................................................... 127
6.5.5 Production of Methanol .................................................. 128
6.5.6 Calorific Value of Biomass Based Fuels ....................... 128
6.6 Application of Biomass Energy: Biogas .................................... 128
6.6.1 Structure of a Biogas Plant ............................................ 129
6.6.2 Design of a Biogas Plant ................................................ 130
6.6.3 Costing and Payback Period ........................................... 132
Exercises .................................................................................................. 133

Appendix A: Monthly Averaged Daily Solar Radiation ......................... 135

Appendix B: Global Annual Solar Radiation Map of India ................ 139
Appendix C: Wind Energy Distribution Map of India .......................... 140
Appendix D: Typical Power Ratings of Energy Appliances .................. 141
Appendix E: Physical Constants and Conversion Factors ..................... 142
Appendix F: Subsidies and Manufacturers ............................................. 143
Index .............................................................................................................. 151