INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH TO HUMAN COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

A) INTRODUCTION
The information processing approach to human cognitive development is the brain
child of cognitive psychologists. Cognitivism developed around the late 1950s at
a time when technology was advancing rapidly and the need to find alternate way
s of processing information. Hence, the cognitive school focused on knowledge vi
ewed as symbolic mental constructs in the students mind and the learning process
is the means by which these symbolic representations are committed to memory.
They therefore began likening the mind to a computer describing humans as inform
ation processors; human cognition is seen as a series of stages through which in
formation passes sequentially. The memory model which dominated the 1970’s and 8
0’s is the three component information processing system of Atkinson and Shiffri
n (1968, 1971) inspired by typical computer hardware architecture:
• Sensory Memory : Analogous to input devices such as a keyboard or more s
ophisticated devices like a voice recognition system
• Short Term Memory (STM) or working memory: Analogous to the CPU and it s
random-access memory (RAM)
• Long Term Memory (LTM) : Analogous to a storage device like a hard disk
In this model, information gets into our brain, is maintained briefly or for lon
ger periods of time, and is later activated for further use. This discussion sha
ll focus on how information is refined from the perspective of the cognitivists
and the application of this procedure in the teaching learning process to enhanc
e learning.
B) THE INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL
Child, (1999) posits that the information-processing model of memory postulates
two aspects. One relates to internal structures (mainly the brain) and the other
to the process related to these structures. The processes hypothesized in conte
mporary views about memory are encoding, storage and retrieval.
Encoding is the process whereby information is thought to be put into the memory
. The key to retrieving information is to first encode it into long-term memory.
Encoding “refers to the processes involved in the acquisition of material” (Rob
inson-Riegler & Robinson-Riegler, 2004, p. 212). Storage on the other hand is r
elated to the methods assumed to be involved in the retention of information and
retrieval relates to the process of recovery of stored information from memory.
Encoding and storage are necessary to acquire and retain information. But the c
rucial process in remembering is retrieval, without which we cannot access our m
emories. Unless we retrieve an experience, we do not really remember it. In the
broadest sense, retrieval refers to the use of stored information
ENCODING STORAGE RETRIEVAL
The progress of information through these storage systems is often referred to a
s the Information Processing Model, which can be mapped as:
COURTESY: http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/infoproc.html
Sensory Memory/ Register: This refers to the mental processing unit that receive
s information from the environment and stores it fleetingly. When our sense orga
ns, pick up a signal from the environment there is a momentary image registered.
This includes information from sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste. The corr
esponding process of attention and selective perception ensures that only partic
ular stimulation is conveyed to the next structure, the short-term memory. The r
emaining patterns of stimulation are thought to die away from the register. The
period over which the image is registered is very short, a few hundred milliseco
nds (Child, 1999). When sensations strike our eyes, they linger briefly in the v
isual system. This kind of sensory memory is called iconic memory and refers to
the usually brief visual persistence of information as it is being interpreted b
y the visual system. Echoic memory is the name applied to the same phenomenon in
the auditory domain: the brief mental echo that persists after information has
been heard. Similar systems are assumed to exist for other sensory systems (touc
h, taste, and smell), although researchers have studied these senses less thorou
ghly.
 Sperling (1960) demonstrated the existence of sensory memory in an experiment.
He asked subjects in the experiment to look at a blank screen. Then he flashed a
n array of 12 letters on the screen for one-twentieth of a second, arranged in t
he following pattern:
Subjects were then asked to recall as many letters from the image as they could.
Most people could only recall four or five letters accurately. Subjects knew th
ey had seen more letters, but they were unable to name them. Sperling hypothesiz
ed that the entire letter-array image registered briefly in sensory memory, but
the image faded too quickly for subjects to “see” all the letters. To test this
idea, he conducted another experiment in which he sounded a tone immediately aft
er flashing the image on the screen. A high tone directed subjects to report the
letters in the top row, a medium tone cued subjects to report the middle row, a
nd a low tone directed subjects to report letters in the bottom row. Sperling fo
und that subjects could accurately recall the letters in each row most of the ti
me, no matter which row the tone specified. Thus, all of the letters were moment
arily available in sensory memory. The information in sensory memory vanishes un
less it captures our attention and enters working memory.
Short-Term Memory/Working Memory: This is the mental processing unit in which in
formation may be stored temporarily; the work space of the mind, where a decisio
n must be made to discard information or to transfer it to permanent storage, in
long-term memory. Psychologists originally used the term short-term memory to r
efer to the ability to hold information in mind over a brief period of time. As
conceptions of short-term memory expanded to include more than just the brief st
orage of information, psychologists created a new terminology. The term working
memory is now commonly used to refer to a broader system that both stores inform
ation briefly and allows manipulation and use of the stored information. Informa
tion can be kept circulating in working memory by rehearsing it. For example, su
ppose Esi looks up a telephone number in a directory. She can hold the number in
memory almost indefinitely by saying it over and over to herself but if somethi
ng distracts her for a moment, she may quickly lose it and have to look it up ag
ain. Forgetting can occur rapidly from working memory.
Recall or rehearsal of information in the Working Memory store is though
t to occur by passing the information through the limited capacity channel and r
e-entering it in the short-term store. Craik and Watkins (1973) cited in Child (
1999) have put forward a theory that rehearsals take two forms, namely, maintena
nce and elaborative rehearsal. Maintenance is like the empty repeating of inform
ation in order to retain it in short term memory for sufficient time to be of us
e. In elaborative rehearsal, the meaning of the information is involved and this
is more likely to assist in placing it in the LTM. Some studies show that peopl
e with a low Working Memory span have difficulty with some higher order cognitiv
e functions. One such study conducted by Daneman and Carpenter (1983), examined
the individual differences in the way readers incorporate consecutive words in t
heir existing account of a text. They found that people with a low Working Memor
y span were not as likely as people with a high Working Memory span to pick up o
n the correct explanation when the understandable phrase had some discrepancies.
They also found that high-span readers were better able to pick up on misinterp
retations than low-span readers.
Working memory has a basic limitation: It can hold only a limited amount
of information at one time. Early research on short-term storage of information
focused on memory span—how many items people can correctly recall in order. Res
earchers would show people increasingly long sequences of digits or letters and
then ask them to recall as many of the items as they could. Miller (1956) revie
wed many experiments on memory span and concluded that people could hold an aver
age of seven items in short-term memory. He referred to this limit as “the magic
al number seven, plus or minus two” because the results of the studies were so c
onsistent. More recent studies have attempted to separate true storage capacity
from processing capacity by using tests more complex than memory span. These stu
dies have estimated a somewhat lower short-term storage capacity than did the ea
rlier experiments. People can overcome such storage limitations by grouping info
rmation into chunks, or meaningful units.
Working memory is critical for mental work, or thinking. Suppose a pupil
is trying to solve the arithmetic problem 20 × 6 in his head. He probably would
need to perform some intermediate calculations in his head before arriving at t
he final answer. The ability to carry out these kinds of calculations depends on
working memory capacity, which varies individually.
Long-term memory: This is the encyclopedic mental processing unit in w
hich information may be stored permanently and from which it may be later retrie
ved. The prospect of information reaching the LTM stores depends on several fact
ors relating to the information. Four of these factors are the length of message
, the content, the opportunity for initial learning and the activity taking plac
e between successive units of information. Long messages are less likely to be r
emembered than short ones. Technical messages, the level of familiarity, the par
ticular sense or language of message are all significant for long –term storage.
Dale (1968) cited in Child (1999) says for material to enter long –term
storage, it has to survive an initial period during which retention loss can be
extremely rapid. He goes on to say that in order to survive the amount of mater
ial should be small, it should be as free as possible from inter-item acoustic c
onfusion it should be varied so that interference between successive messages ar
e minimized ; also an opportunity for a brief period of silent rehearsal should
be provided after each component of the message is presented.
There seems to be no finite capacity to long-term memory. People can lea
rn and retain new facts and skills throughout their lives. Although older adults
may show a decline in certain capacities—for example, recalling recent events—t
hey can still profit from experience even in old age. For example, vocabulary in
creases over the entire life span. The brain remains plastic and capable of new
learning throughout one’s lifetime, at least under normal conditions. However ce
rtain neurological diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease, can greatly diminish t
he capacity for new learning.
Psychologists once thought of long-term memory as a single system. Today, most r
esearchers distinguish three long-term memory systems: episodic memory, semantic
memory, and procedural memory.
Episodic memory refers to memories of specific episodes in one’s life and is wha
t most people think of as memory. Episodic memories are connected with a specifi
c time and place. If you were asked to recount everything you did yesterday, you
would rely on episodic memory to recall the events. Similarly, you would draw o
n episodic memory to describe a family vacation, the way you felt when you won a
n award, or the circumstances of a childhood accident. Episodic memory contains
the personal, autobiographical details of our lives.
Semantic memory refers to our general knowledge of the world and all of the fact
s we know. Semantic memory allows a person to know that cats have four legs, tha
t Kofi Annan was UN Secretary General, that 2 × 4 equals 8, and thousands of oth
er facts. Semantic memories are not tied to the particular time and place of lea
rning. The knowledge transcends the original context in which it was learned. F
or example, Knowing that Egypt has pyramids is a form of semantic memory, which
refers to our general knowledge of the world. In this respect, semantic memory d
iffers from episodic memory, which is closely tied to the time and place when it
was learned.
Procedural memory refers to the skills that humans possess. Weaving a ba
sket, casting a fishing net, riding a bicycle and swimming, are examples of proc
edural memory. Procedural memory is often contrasted with episodic and semantic
memory. Episodic and semantic memory are both classified as types of declarative
memory because people can consciously recall facts, events, and experiences and
then verbally declare or describe their recollections. In contrast, nondeclarat
ive, or procedural, memory is expressed through performance and typically does n
ot require a conscious effort to recall.
MEMORY TECHNIQUES AND STRATEGIES
Haven discussed the information processing approach; this section will f
ocus on how this knowledge can be put into practice by educators and learners to
enhance learning.
1. PULLING IT ALL TOGETHER. Organizing and ordering information can significantl
y improve memory. Imagine, for example, how difficult it would be to remember a
random list of 62 letters. On the other hand, it would not be difficult to memor
ize the first sentence in this paragraph (consisting of 62 letters). Similarly,
learning a large amount of unconnected and unorganized information from various
classes can be very challenging. By organizing and adding meaning to the materia
l prior to learning it, this can facilitate both storage and retrieval. In other
words, the material can be learned better and recalled easily. The following co
ncepts can help learners pull various information together in order to increase
understanding and organization. This can mean organizing material on paper, such
as when one makes an outline or idea web, or simply organizing material in ones
memory, such as learning it in a particular order or making intentional associa
tions between ideas.
2. THE FUNNEL APPROACH. This means learning general concepts before moving on to
specific details. When students study in this manner, they focus on getting a g
eneral framework or overview, before filling in the details. When they understan
d the general concepts first, the details make more sense. Rather than disconnec
ted bits of information to memorize, such as history dates, the material fits to
gether within the overall framework. Seeing how the smaller details relate to on
e another, they process the information more deeply (which helps them store, and
later retrieve it from memory). There are many learning strategies based on the
funnel approach. For example, the approach is used in previewing a chapter for
the major ideas as a way to enhance ones comprehension of details contained in t
he chapter. One may also notice that many textbook chapters are organized in a "
general to specific" format.
3. ORGANIZING THROUGH MEANING AND ASSOCIATION. Pupils can develop their cognitio
n by making associations between what they are learning and the environment in w
hich they are, between the information and their mental states, and between the
information and their stream of thoughts. When things are associated in memory,
thinking of one helps bring the other to mind. Whenever we retrace our path when
we have forgotten where we put an object such as our key, we approach the place
where we put it, we are suddenly able to remember the act of laying it down on
the table or putting it in our school bag. This is association. The memory of pu
tting the key down was associated with our memory of things in the environment.
We can make associations work for us by making them intentional. When we are hav
ing difficulty recalling new material, we can help bring it to mind by thinking
about what we have associated it with. In other words--retrace our mental path.
a) Deep processing--relating the material to ourselves. One way to process infor
mation more deeply, and also to create meaningful associations, is to think abou
t how the information can be personally meaningful. We might think about how the
new material relates to our life, our experience, or our goals. If we can link
new information to memories already stored ("mental hooks"), we will have more c
ues to recall the new material.
b) Grouping. This idea is probably best explained with an example. Let us take a
moment to complete the following exercise.
EXERCISE: GROUPING
Read the following list of sports one time. When you are done, write down as man
y of the sports as you can without looking back at the list.
Snow Skiing Basketball Tennis
Long Jump Bobsledding 100-Meter Dash
Hockey Baseball Ice Skate
Discus Golf High Jump
Volleyball Javelin Soccer
Luge Curling Cricket
Decathlon Hurdles
Note the number of sports you remembered correctly.
We can organize material by grouping similar concepts, or related ideas, togethe
r. Arranging the material into related groups helps our memory by organizing the
information. For example, in the exercise we just completed, we could have grou
ped all of the sports into one of the following categories: a) Winter sports, b)
Track and Field sports, and c)Sports using a ball. Keeping these categories in
mind if we try the exercise again we will be able to remember more of the sports
. Of course, in this instance, we created a list with the intention of demonstra
ting grouping; thus, there were 6 or 7 sports in each category. Still, with a li
ttle thought, this strategy can be used in a variety of ways. For example, these
sports can be grouped into individual sports, team sports, sports one may enjoy
, and sports one may dislike. There are sports requiring a great deal of equipme
nt, and sports requiring little or none. Whenever we are trying to remember list
s for a test, the concepts and words may or may not have a natural organization.
Therefore, we may need to be creative when making associations. Finally, the pr
ocess of organizing a list into groups can often help us to understand the relat
ionship between the concepts better.
4. VIVID ASSOCIATIONS. When learning something new and unfamiliar, it is good to
try pairing it with something we know very well, such as images, puns and music
. The association does not have to make logical sense. Often times it is associa
tions that are particularly humorous, or silly that stay in your mind. Some peop
le remember names this way. For example, they may remember the name "Robert Gree
n" by picturing Robert playing golf (on the green), wearing green clothes, or co
vered in green paint. Or suppose for an anatomy course a student has to recall n
ames of the veins in the human body, and the first one on the list is "pancreati
c" followed by "right gastroepipeloic" and "left gastroepipeloic" and so on. The
student can picture a frying pan being creative--maybe painting a picture with
bright paints and bold strokes. If the frying pan is working in a studio, pictur
e gas pipes with little padlocks on them (gastroepipeloic) in the left and right
studio corners....
VIVID ASSOCIATIONS: LEARNING THE NAMES OF CLASSMATES
1. Pick names of classmates with whom you are unfamiliar.
2. For each name, brainstorm some words or ideas that you can associate with the
name. For example, if one student s name is Teresa Martinez, you might think of
Mother Teresa, a Martin (a type of bird), Mars the planet, a Martini (the drink
), the word "terrific," Martinique, etc.
3. Once you have brainstormed several ideas, you can begin to think of ways that
some of the associations can be combined to remember the name. In the above exa
mple, you could create a visual association by picturing Mother Teresa standing
on the beach at Martinique.
4. Do this for each person, and you will have a great way to remember the names
of your new classmates!
5. ACTIVE LEARNING. Active learning facilitates our memory by helping us attend
to and process information. All of the memory techniques we have discussed requi
re active learning. Even if we attend every lecture and read every assignment, t
here is no guarantee that we will learn and remember the information. Although w
e may passively absorb some material, to ensure that we remember important infor
mation requires being active and involved, that is attending to and thinking abo
ut what we are learning.
6. VISUAL MEMORY. Some people remember information best when it is encoded visua
lly; if that is the case for an individual like Kwame, then he has to code infor
mation in this manner. But even if a student does not consider himself specifica
lly "a visual learner," he may find that including visual memory can still help.
After all, it is one more way of encoding and storing information--and one more
way of retrieving it for a test. Other aids to visual memory include diagrams,
tables and outlines. Often these are provided in texts, so students should take
advantage of pictures, cartoons, charts, graphs, or any other visual material. W
e can also draw many of these things ourselves. For example, try to visualize ho
w the ideas relate to each other and draw a graph, chart, picture, or some other
representation of the material. We may even want to make it a habit to convert
difficult material into actual pictures or diagrams in our notes, or to convert
words into mental images on the blackboard of our minds.
Finally, using our visual memory can be as simple as writing out vocabulary word
s, theories, or algebraic formulas. This allows us to not only practice (repeat)
the information but also to see the way it looks on the page (developing a visu
al memory that we may be able to retrieve later). Another advantage is that it h
elps us take an active role in learning the material. When we draw our ideas on
paper or write down things we are trying to remember, we have the opportunity to
think about the information more deeply.
7. TALK IT OUT. When trying to memorize something, it can help to actually recit
e the information aloud. We might repeat ideas verbatim (when we need to do rote
memorization), or we can repeat ideas in our own words (and thus ensure that we
have a true understanding of the information). Repeating information aloud can
help us encode the information (auditory encoding) and identify how well we have
learned it. Some students often declare that they know the test information and
are surprised when they "freeze" and cannot give adequate responses. For some s
tudents, this "freezing" may be a result of test anxiety. For others, however, i
t may be a result of overestimating how well they know the material. If we recit
e the information aloud from memory (answering questions, defining words, or usi
ng flash cards), it is often quite clear how well we know it. If we stumble in o
ur responses, have to look up answers, or can only give a vague response, then w
e know that we need to study more.
Although reciting aloud can be a helpful memory technique, some people avoid it
out of fear of appearing foolish ("what if someone sees me talking to myself?").
If this applies to us, it is advisable to work with a friend or study group. An
other advantage of working with someone else is that they can inform us when we
are missing important concepts or misunderstanding an idea. However it is worth
noting that studying with others does not work for everyone. For example, some s
tudents may become anxious or intimidated in study groups and would be more comf
ortable studying alone.
8. VISUALIZE YOURSELF TEACHING THE MATERIAL. An effective way to enhance recall
and understanding of dense material is to teach it to an imaginary audience. By
doing so, we are forced to organize the material in a way that makes sense to us
and to anticipate potential questions that may be asked by our students. Moreov
er, by articulating our lecture aloud, we will uncover gaps in our comprehension
(and recall) of the material. After we have mastered a particular section from
our textbooks, we should try delivering an organized lecture on any topic from t
hat section. Then check for accuracy. We should not forget to anticipate questio
ns that students might ask about the material as a way of anticipating potential
test questions.
USING THE INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH IN THE CLASSROOM
1. Gain the students attention
• Use cues to signal when you are ready to begin.
• Move around the room and use voice inflections.
2. Bring to mind relevant prior learning.
• Review previous day s lesson.
• Have a discussion about previously covered content.
3. Point out important information
• Provide handouts.
• Write on the board or do power point presentation
4. Present information in an organized manner
• Show a logical sequence to concepts and skills.
• Go from simple to complex when presenting new material.
5. Show students how to categorize (chunk) related information.
• Present information in categories.
• Teach inductive reasoning.
6. Provide opportunities for students to elaborate on new information.
• Connect new information to something already known.
• Look for similarities and differences among concepts.
7. Show students how to use coding when memorizing lists.
• Make up silly sentences with first letters of each word in the list.
• Use mental imagery techniques such as the keyword method.
8. Provide for repetition of learning.
• State important principles several times in different ways during presen
tation of information (STM).
• Have items on each day s lesson from previous lesson (LTM).
• Schedule periodic reviews of previously learned concepts and skills (LTM
).
9. Provide opportunities for overlearning of fundamental concepts and skills.
• Use daily drills for arithmetic facts.
• Play form of trivial pursuit with content related to class.
CONCLUSION
In sum, it stands clear from the discussion so far that the human inform
ation processing approach to cognitive development is a sine qua non in the teac
hing/ learning process. The winnowing processes involved in refining information
calls for a concerted effort on the part of both the teacher and the learner wh
ich will result in the proper storage and retrieval of information. Only by lear
ning a piece of information in a meaningful, organized way are learners able to
store and retrieve it. Employing memory improving techniques makes learning fun
rather than a daunting task. It is therefore incumbent on every teacher to sheph
erd learners in this direction.

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http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/infoproc.html Retrieved: 18:03:2010