4.

1
Heredity the passing of traits from parents of offspring
Genetics the branch of biology dealing with heredity and variation of
inherited characteristics
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) a molecule that carries genetic information in
cells
Gene a segment of DNA molecule that codes for a particular trait; found at
a specific location on a chromosome
Locus the location of a gene on a chromosome
Sexual reproduction the production of offspring from the fusion of 2 sex
cells (usually from 2 different parents); the genetic makeup of the offspring is
different from that of either parent
Polyploid having more than two sets of chromosomes; many plants are
polyploids
Asexual reproduction the production of offsprings from a single parent the
genetic makeup of the offspring is identical to that of the parent
-

DNA is the entire double stranded helix, Chromosome is one of the

strands, Genes are one part of the chromosome
Chromosomes vary in number, shape and size from species to
species
Haploid cells are the half the normal number of chromosomes
Diploid cells are 2 sets of chromosomes
Sexual reproduction
Number of parents
Resulting offspring
Advantage
- More genetic
variation
- Offspring are
different from
parents

Asexual reproduction
Number of parents
Resulting offspring

2 parents
Genetic makeup that is different from both
parents
Disadvantage
- Organisms must have specialized
organs for sexual reproduction
- Mating rituals can attract predators
- Offspring might inherit a combination
of genetic info making them weak and
unable to survive

Single parent
2 genetically identical daughter

Advantage
- Parent does not have to find a
mate
- Direct and invariable

cells to parent
Disadvantage
- Increased chances of
mutation
- Offspring compete for food
- Unfavorable conditions can
wipeout entire colonies

4.2
Cell Division
1. Interphase
- Cell have 2 sets of chromatin (DNA): Paternal DNA and Maternal DNA
- Cell preform normal function (growth, digestions excretion)
- Cell grows then prepares to divide
- 90% of cells life
2. Late Interphase
- Chromatin replicates
3. Prophase
- Nucleolus & nuclear membrane disappear
- Centrioles start to move to poles
- Chromatin stands coil getting shorter and thicker
- now called Chromatid
- Identical Chromatids join to form chromosomes
- first signs are when chromatin turn to chromatid
4. Metaphase
- Chromosomes line up at equator
- Centrioles start to make spindle fibres
- Spindle fibres attach to the centromere
5. Anaphase
- Spindle fibres attach to centromere of each chromosome pulling them
apart
- identical chromatids move to opposite poles
- same number and kind of chromosome are found ate each pole
6. Telophase
- Nuclear membrane encloses new set of chromatin
- Cytoplasm of the cell begins to divide as cell membrane pinches
inward
- Spindle fibres dissolve

7. Cytokinesis
- cell completely divides into two new cells
8. Interphase
- 2 identical daughter cells with the same DNA in the nucleus
Why do cells divide 4 main reasons?
1. Cells must grow (mitosis)
- all living things grow in size or number
- increase size means decreased surface area/volume ratio
- cells respond to this by cell division and making new cells
2. Maintenance (mitosis)
- cells age and die
- cells are lost
- new cells are produced to take their place
3. Repair (mitosis)
- cells become damaged, and new cells must be produced to replace
old, worn , and damaged cells
4. Reproduction (meiosis)
- sex cells (gametes) are produced to enable sexual reproduction
Meiosis
Purpose to create sex cells for sexual reproduction
Result sperm or egg cell (gamete) containing half the genetic information
(chromosomes)
-

Humans eggs and sperm have 23 chromosomes combine in

fertilization to form human zygote (46 chromosomes)
4 sperm cells are produced from meiosis
1 egg cell is produced and 3 polar body disintegrate from meiosis

Where
-

Only in sex organs

Somatic cells all other cells that undergo mitosis

Diploid full number of chromosomes (2n)

Haploid half the number of chromosomes (n)
Divisions
-

Mitosis has 1 division (PMAT)

Meiosis has 2 divisions (PMAT)1 and (PMAT)2

4.3
Gamete a sex cell; includes sperm cell in males and egg cells in female
Fertilization the formation of a zygote by joining together of two gametes
Zygote a cell produced by the fusion of two gametes
Meiosis a single cell division in which the resulting daughter cells have half
the number of chromosomes as the parent cell; results in the formation of
gametes or spores
Homologous chromosomes matching pairs of chromosomes, similar in size
and carrying information for the same genes
Tetrad a pair of homologous chromosomes each with 2 sister chromatids
Synapsis the physical pairing up of homologous chromosomes during
prophase 1 of meiosis
Crossing over the exchange of chromosome segments between
homologous pairs during synapsis
Gametogenesis the formation of genetic variable sex cells in meiosis 2
Spermatogenesis the production of mature sperm cells
Oogenesis the production of mature egg cells
Karyotype the chromosomes that differ in males and females of the same
species, the combination of sex chromosomes determines the sex of the
offspring
Sex chromosomes chromosomes that differ in males and females of the
same species; the combination of sex chromosomes determines the sex of
the offspring
Autosomes non-sex chromosomes
-

Two key processes that occur in sexual reproduction are the formation
of haploid sex cells which contain genetic information from both
parents and fertilization ( sex cells join to produce a zygote)

Difference between Sister chromatids and homologous chromosomes

Factor
Types of cells involved
Number of divisions in
a complete process
Number of duplications
of chromosomes
Number of cells
resulting from one
cycle
Chromosome number
of parent cell
Chromosome number
of resulting (daughter)
cells
Role of resulting cells
Function of Division
process

Mitosis
Somatic cells that
undergo mitosis
1

Meiosis
Gametes

2n

2n

2n

Whatever the function

of the parent cell
Grow, Maintenance,
Repair

Reproduction pass the

genetic information
Reproduce

4.4
Non-disjunction the failure of homologous chromosomes to move to
opposite poles of the cell during meiosis; results in an abnormal number of
chromosomes in the daughter cells
Trisomy a chromosomal abnormality in which there are these homologous
chromosomes in place of a homologous pair
Monosomy a chromosomal abnormality in which there is a single
chromosome in pace of a homologous pair

Down syndrome a chromosomal abnormality in which an individual has 3

copies of chromosome number 21; also referred to as trisomy 21
Prenatal testing testing for a genetic order that occurs prior to birth
Non-disjunction diseases
Down syndrome
Turner syndrome
Klinefelter syndrome
Patau syndrome
Edwards syndrome

Trisomy 21
One X chromosome and no Y
chromosome
Two X and one Y chromosomes
Trisomy 13
Trisomy 18

Happens when gametes produced have 22 or 24 chromosomes instead

of 23
Trisomy zygote has 47 chromosomes
Monosomy zygote has 45 chromosomes
Normal zygote has 46 chromosomes