THE HUMAN CELL

Cell Membrane

The cell membrane is the outer coating of the cell and contains the
cytoplasm, substances within it and the organelle. It is a double-layered
membrane composed of proteins and lipids. The lipid molecules on the outer
and inner part (lipid bilayer) allow it to selectively transport substances in
and out of the cell.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a membranous structure that contains

a network of tubules and vesicles. Its structure is such that substances can
move through it and be kept in isolation from the rest of the cell until the
manufacturing processes conducted within are completed. There are two
types of endoplasmic reticulum rough (granular) and smooth (agranular).

The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER / granular ER) contains a

combination of proteins and enzymes. These parts of the endoplasmic
reticulum contain a number of ribosomes giving it a rough appearance.
Its function is to synthesize new proteins.
The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER / agranular ER) does not
have any attached ribosomes. Its function is to synthesize different
types of lipids (fats). The smooth ER also plays a role in carbohydrate
and drug metabolism.
Golgi Apparatus

The Golgi apparatus is a stacked collection of flat vesicles. It is closely

associated with the endoplasmic reticulum in that substances produced in
the ER are transported as vesicles and fuses with the Golgi apparatus. In this
way, the products from the ER are stored in the Golgi apparatus and
converted into different substances that are necessary for the cells various
functions.

Lysosomes

Lysosomes are vesicles that break off from the Golgi apparatus. It varies in
size and function depending on the type of cell. Lysosomes contain enzymes
that help with the digestion of nutrients in the cell and break down any
cellular debris or invading microorganisms like bacteria.

A structure that is similar to a lysosome is the secretory vesicle. It contains

enzymes that are not used within the cell but emptied outside of the cell, for
example the secretory vesicles of the pancreatic acinar cell
release digestive enzymes which help with the digestion of nutrients in the
gut.

Perioxisomes

These organelles are very similar to the lysosomes and contain enzymes that
act together in the form of hydrogen peroxide to neutralize substances that
may be toxic to the cell. Perioxisomes are formed directly from the
endoplasmic reticulum rather than from the Golgi apparatus like lysosomes.

Mitochondria

These are the powerhouses of the cell and break down nutrients to yield
energy. Apart from producing its own energy, it also produces a high-energy
compound called ATP (adenosine triphosphate) which can be used as a
simple energy source elsewhere. Mitochondria are composed of two
membranous layers an outer membrane that surrounds the structure and
an inner membrane that provides the physical sites of energy production.
The inner membrane has many infoldings that form shelves where enzymes
attach and oxidize nutrients. The mitochondria also contain DNA which
allows it to replicate where and when necessary.

Nucleus

The nucleus is the master control of the cell. It contains genes, collections of
DNA, which determines every aspect of human anatomy and physiology. The
DNA which is arranged into chromosomes also contains the blueprint specific
for each type of cell which allows for replication of the cell. Within the
nucleus is an area known as the nucleolus. It is not enclosed by a
membrane but is just an accumulation of RNA and proteins within the
nucleus. The nucleolus is the site where the ribosomal RNA is transcribed
from DNA and assembled.

Microfilaments and Microtubules

Microfilaments and microtubules are rigid protein substances that form

the internal skeleton of the cell known as the cytoskeleton. Some of these
microtubules also make up the centrioles and mitotic spindles within the
cell which are responsible for the division of the cytoplasm when the cell
divides. The microtubules are the central component of cilia, small hair-like
projections that protrude from the surface of certain cells. It is also the
central component of specialized cilia like the tail of the sperm cells which
beats in a manner to allow the cell to move in a fluid medium.