Neutron

Diffusion and
Moderation
Simon
Cster
Outline

Neutron Diffusion and Moderation

Ficks Law
The
Equation of
Continuity

Simon Cster

The
Diffusion
Equation
Solutions to
The
Diffusion
Equation
The Group
Diffusion
Method

April 11, 2013

Neutron
Diffusion and
Moderation
Simon
Cster
Outline

Ficks Law

The Equation of Continuity

The Diffusion Equation

Solutions to The Diffusion Equation

The Group Diffusion Method

Ficks Law
The
Equation of
Continuity
The
Diffusion
Equation
Solutions to
The
Diffusion
Equation
The Group
Diffusion
Method

Ficks Law
Neutron
Diffusion and
Moderation
Simon
Cster

Diffusion theory is based on Ficks Law

Outline
Ficks Law
The
Equation of
Continuity
The
Diffusion
Equation
Solutions to
The
Diffusion
Equation
The Group
Diffusion
Method

Solute will diffuse from high concentration to low

Ficks Law
J = D,
where D is the diffusion coefficient, is the neutron flux and J
is the neutron current density vector.

The Equation of Continuity

Neutron
Diffusion and
Moderation
Simon
Cster
Outline

Since neutrons do not disappear (-decay neglected) the

following must be true for an arbitrary volume V .

Ficks Law
The
Equation of
Continuity
The
Diffusion
Equation
Solutions to
The
Diffusion
Equation
The Group
Diffusion
Method

[Rate of change in number of neutrons inV ]

[rate of production of neutrons inV ]
[rate of absorption of neutrons inV ]
[rate of leakage of neutrons fromV ]

The Equation of Continuity

Neutron
Diffusion and
Moderation
Simon
Cster
Outline
Ficks Law
The
Equation of
Continuity
The
Diffusion
Equation
Solutions to
The
Diffusion
Equation
The Group
Diffusion
Method

In mathematical terms the Equation of Continuity can be

expressed as
Z
n
dV
Neutron change rate =
t
V
Z
Production rate =
sdV
V
Z
Absorption rate =
a dV
ZV
Leakage rate =
JdV
V

The Equation of Continuity

Neutron
Diffusion and
Moderation
Simon
Cster
Outline

This gives the general Equation of Continuity

The Equation of Continuity

Ficks Law
The
Equation of
Continuity
The
Diffusion
Equation
Solutions to
The
Diffusion
Equation
The Group
Diffusion
Method

n
= s a J,
t
where n is the density of neutrons, s is the rate at which
neutrons are emitted from sources per cm3 , a is the
macroscopic absorption cross-section, J is the neutron current
density vector and is the neutron flux.

The Diffusion Equation

Two unknowns; the neutron density n and the neutron
current density vector J.

Neutron
Diffusion and
Moderation
Simon
Cster

Substitute Ficks law into the equation

Outline

The Diffusion Equation

Ficks Law

General:

The
Equation of
Continuity
The
Diffusion
Equation
Solutions to
The
Diffusion
Equation
The Group
Diffusion
Method

D2 a + s =

n
t

Time-independent:
D2 a + s = 0
or
2
where L2 =

D
a .

1
s
+
= 0,
2
L
D

L is called the diffusion length.

Solutions to The Diffusion Equation

Neutron
Diffusion and
Moderation

Infinite Planar Source

Simon
Cster

SL |x|/L
e
2D

S
e r /L
4Dr

Outline
Ficks Law
The
Equation of
Continuity

Point Source

The
Diffusion
Equation
Solutions to
The
Diffusion
Equation
The Group
Diffusion
Method

Bare Slab, width 2a (

a = a + d is called extrapolated
boundary)
=

SL sinh[(
a |x|)/L]
2D
cosh(
a/L)

The Group Diffusion Method

Neutron
Diffusion and
Moderation
Simon
Cster
Outline

Neutrons emitted with a continuous energy spectrum.

Divided into N energy intervals.

Ficks Law
The
Equation of
Continuity
The
Diffusion
Equation
Solutions to
The
Diffusion
Equation
The Group
Diffusion
Method

Averaged diffusion coefficients and cross-section.

The flux of neutrons in a group g is described by
Z
g =
(E )dE ,
g

where (E ) is the energy-dependent neutron flux.

The Group Diffusion Method

Neutron
Diffusion and
Moderation
Simon
Cster
Outline
Ficks Law
The
Equation of
Continuity
The
Diffusion
Equation
Solutions to
The
Diffusion
Equation
The Group
Diffusion
Method

The absorption rate in a specific group is given by

Z
Absorption rate =
a (E )(E )dE
g

We can define the macroscopic group absorption cross-section,

ag , as
Z
1
a (E )(E )dE
ag =
g g
Then the absorption rate can be written as
Absorption rate = ag g

The Group Diffusion Method

Neutron
Diffusion and
Moderation
Simon
Cster
Outline

The rate at which neutrons transfers from group g to h is given

by
Transfer rate = g h g ,
where g h is called the group transfer cross-section.

Ficks Law
The
Equation of
Continuity
The
Diffusion
Equation
Solutions to
The
Diffusion
Equation
The Group
Diffusion
Method

Total transfer rate out of g =

N
X

g h g

h=g +1

Analogy, the rate at which neutrons transfers from group h into

g is given by
Total transfer rate into g =

g
1
X
h=1

hg h

The Group Diffusion Method

Neutron
Diffusion and
Moderation
Simon
Cster

This gives the steady-state diffusion equation for group g

The Diffusion Equation for Groups

Outline
Ficks Law
The
Equation of
Continuity
The
Diffusion
Equation
Solutions to
The
Diffusion
Equation
The Group
Diffusion
Method

Dg 2 g ag g

N
X
h=g +1

g h g +

g
1
X

hg h + sg = 0

h=1

where the group-diffusion coefficient Dg is defined by

Z
1
Dg =
D(E )(E )dE
g g
These calculations are done by computers.

The Group Diffusion Method

Neutron
Diffusion and
Moderation
Simon
Cster

At least two groups must be used to obtain reasonable

result
Thermal neutrons and fast neutrons

Outline
Ficks Law
The
Equation of
Continuity
The
Diffusion
Equation
Solutions to
The
Diffusion
Equation
The Group
Diffusion
Method

For a point source emitting S fast neutrons per second, the

Diffusion Equation can be written (1 = 12 )
2 1

1
1 = 0
D1

a1 0 above thermal energies.

Only two groups only 12 is non-zero in the third term
No thermal neutrons are scattered into the fast group.

The Group Diffusion Method

Neutron
Diffusion and
Moderation
Simon
Cster
Outline
Ficks Law
The
Equation of
Continuity

For neutrons in the thermal group, the diffusion equation can

be written
1
1 1
2 T 2 T =
LT
D
Necessary to solve for fast neutrons first

Se r / T
1 =
.
4D1 r

The
Diffusion
Equation
Solutions to
The
Diffusion
Equation
The Group
Diffusion
Method

Then
T =
where T =

D1
1

SL2T
(e r /LT e r / T ),
2
4D(LT T )

and L2T =

D
a

Reactor theory
Ola Hkansson

April 15, 2013

Ola Hkansson

Reactor theory

One-group reactor equation

Time-dependent diffusion equation

1
v t
where D and a are the one-group diffusion coefficient and
macroscopic absorption cross-section for fuel-coolant mixture.
D2 a + s =

s = f

(1)

(2)

If the source term is to balance the leak and absorption in (1), we

get
1
D2 a + f = 0
(3)
k

Ola Hkansson

Reactor theory

One-group reactor equation

By letting the Buckling B be defined by
B2 =


1 
f a
D k

(4)

we get the one-group reactor equation

DB 2 a +

1
f = 0
k

(5)

or
2 + B 2 = 0

(6)

From (5), we have the multiplication factor k

k=

f
DB 2 + a

Ola Hkansson

Reactor theory

(7)

One-group reactor equation

Source term for the one-group equation

s = aF

(8)

where is the average number of fission neutrons emitted per

absorbed neutron in the fuel and aF is the cross-section for the
fuel.
This can be written as
s = f a
(9)
where
f =

Ola Hkansson

aF
a

Reactor theory

(10)

One-group reactor equation

For an infinite reactor all neutrons are absorbed, the multiplication
factor k is
f a
k =
= f
(11)
a
and the source term can now be written as
s = k a

(12)

and we now have

DB 2 a +

1
k
a =
(?)
k
v t

(13)

For a critical reactor (k = 1), we get

B2 =

k 1
D
, L2 =
2
L
a

Ola Hkansson

Reactor theory

(14)

The slab reactor

For a critical, infinite bare slab of thickness a the reactor equation is
d 2
+ B 2 = 0
dx 2

(15)

Boundary conditions: vanishes at x = a/2 and at x = a/2

where a = a + 2d . Note symmetry and d
dx = 0|x=0 .
General solution to (15) is
(x) = A cos Bx + C sin Bx

(16)

(x) = A cos Bx

(17)

which reduces to
when making use of the condition on the derivative.

Ola Hkansson

Reactor theory

The slab reactor

The boundary conditions now gives

 
 
a
a
Ba

=
= A cos
=0
2
2
2

(18)

For the non-trivial solution, B can take any of the values

Bn =

n
a

(19)

The flux in the critical reactor then is

(x) = A cos

Ola Hkansson

x
a

Reactor theory

(20)

The slab reactor

A can be found by calculating the power of the reactor P.
Z

a/2

P = ER f

(x)dx

(21)

a/2

where ER is the recoverable energy per fission and f (x) are the
number of fissions at the point x. Introducing
(x) = A cos

n
a

(22)

and solve (21) for A, we get

A=

P
2aER f sin a
2
a

Ola Hkansson

Reactor theory

(23)

The spherical reactor

Critical, spherical reactor with radius R - The flux only depends on
r . The reactor equation is
1 d 2 d
r
+ B 2 = 0
r 2 dr dr

(24)

= 0 as well as the flux must be

with the boundary condition (R)
finite.
Solution to (24) is given by
=A

sin Br
cos Br
+C
r
r

(25)

and reduces to

sin Br
r
since the flux must be finite when r = 0.
=A

Ola Hkansson

Reactor theory

(26)

The spherical reactor

As earlier, introducing the boundary conditions and calculating the

reactor power yields the flux
=

P
sin r /R
2
4ER f R
r

Ola Hkansson

Reactor theory

(27)

The infinite cylinder reactor

Critical, cylindrical reactor with radius R
1 d d
r
+ B 2 = 0
r dr dr

(28)

or

d 2 1 d
+
+ B 2 = 0
dr 2
r dr
This is a special case of Bessels equation


d 2 1 d
m2
2
+
+ B 2 =0
dr 2
r dr
r
where m = 0.

Ola Hkansson

Reactor theory

(29)

(30)

The infinite cylinder reactor

The solution can thus be written as
= AJ0 (Br ) + CY0 (Br )

(31)

Since Y0 is not finite at the origin, C = 0 and

= AJ0 (Br )

(32)

The boundary conditions specify that

= AJ0 (B R)
=0
(R)

(33)

so that

xn

R
where xn is the values where J0 (x) is zero.
B=

Ola Hkansson

Reactor theory

(34)

The infinite cylinder reactor

For the critical reactor, the flux can now be written as



2.405r
= AJ0

R
A is calculated from the reactor power, resulting in


2.405r
0.738P
J0
=

ER f R 2
R

Ola Hkansson

Reactor theory

(35)

(36)

The finite cylinder reactor

Finite cylindrical reactor with height H and radius R. The flux here
depends on the distance r from the axis and the distance z from
the midpoint of the cylinder. The reactor equation takes the form
1 2
r
+ 2 + B 2 = 0
r r r
z

(37)

The boundary conditions in this case are

z) = (r , H/2)

(R,
=0

Ola Hkansson

Reactor theory

(38)

The finite cylinder reactor

Assuming the solution can be obtained by separation of variables
(r , z) = R(r )Z (z)

(39)

we now get
1 2Z
1 1 R
r
+
= B 2
R r r r
Z z 2
This implies that the first and second term of (40) must be
constants. This gives that
d 2R
1 dR
d 2Z
2
+
+
B
R
=
0,
+ Bz2 = 0
r
dr 2
r dr
dz 2
where Br2 + Bz2 = B 2 . Both of the equations in (41) have been
solved earlier.

Ola Hkansson

Reactor theory

(40)

(41)

Maximum-to-average flux and power

The ratio between max and average , , is in some cases of

interest. max , in a uniform bare reactor is always found at the
center pf the reactor. In the case of a bare spherical reactor, the
maximum flux is obtained from the limit
max =

sin (r /R)
P
P
lim
=
2
4ER f R r 0
r
4ER f R 3

(42)

The average flux is given by

average

1
=
V

Ola Hkansson

Z
dV

Reactor theory

(43)

Maximum-to-average flux and power

Making use of
Z
P = ER f

dV

(44)

average =

P
ER f V

(45)

we can write average as

and now becomes

=

max
2
=
3.29
average
3

Ola Hkansson

Reactor theory

(46)

The one-group critical equation

The equation
k
=1
1 + B12 L2

(47)

determines the conditions under which a bare reactor is critical.

Ola Hkansson

Reactor theory

Thermal reactors

an infinite reactor composed of a homogeneous fuel-moderator

mixture. a is the macroscopic cross-section of the mixture so that
a = aF + aM

(48)

Letting
f =

aF
a

(49)

it is clear that f a T neutrons are absorbed per cm3 /sec in the

fuel. If T is the average number of neutrons emitted per thermal
neutron absorbed in the fuel, T f a T neutrons are emitted per
cm3 /sec.

Ola Hkansson

Reactor theory

Thermal reactors

The multiplication factor of the reactor is given by the four-factor

formula
k = T fp
(50)
where  is defined as the ratio of the total number of fission
neutron produces by both fast and thermal fission to the number
produced by only thermal fission and p is the probability that a
fission neutron is not absorbed at any other energies than thermal.

Ola Hkansson

Reactor theory

Thermal reactors, criticality calculation

Two-group calculation with fast and thermal neutrons.

T f a T = (k /p)a T neutrons are emitted to the fast group
and 1 1 are scattered out of the group. The diffusion equation for
the fast group is
D1 2 1 1 1 +

k
a T = 0
p

(51)

With p1 1 neutrons entering the thermal group (i.e the source)

the diffusion equation for the thermal group is
D2 T a T + p1 1 = 0

Ola Hkansson

Reactor theory

(52)

Thermal reactors

Moreover, the two fluxes may be written as

1 = A1 , T = A2

(53)

Now we get the two equations

(D1 B 2 + 1 )A1 +

k
a A2 = 0
p

p1 A1 (DB 2 + a )A2 = 0

(54)
(55)

If these equations are to have non-trivial solutions, the determinant

is 0.

Ola Hkansson

Reactor theory

Thermal reactors

Calculating the determinant, and setting it to 0, one gets the

multiplication factor (in this case k = 1)

(1 +

k
2
2
B LT )(1

+ B 2 T )

=1

(56)

where
L2T =

D1
D
, T =

a
1

Ola Hkansson

Reactor theory

(57)

Reflected reactors

For a spherical reactor with a core and infinite reflector, there are
two reactor equations - One for the core and one for the reflector.
In this case,
2 c + B 2 c = 0
(58)
and
2 r

1
c = 0
L2r

(59)

These must be solved and satisfy continuity of the neutron flux at

the boundary between the core and reflector (quite lengthy
calculations).

Ola Hkansson

Reactor theory

Multigroup calculation
One-group method is a rough estimate. More accurate results are
obtained by multigroup calculations.
fg is the group-averaged macroscopic fission cross-section
g is the average number of fission neutron from fission
induced by group g
Xg is the fraction of fission neutrons emitted with energies in
the group g
The multigroup equation for group g is then
Dg 2 g ag g

N
X

g
1
X

g h g +

h=g +1

hg h +Xg

h=1

N
X

h fh h = 0

h=1

(60)
.

Ola Hkansson

Reactor theory

Reactor Physics tutorial

Reactor Physics tutorial

Markus Preston

April 22, 2013

Reactor Physics tutorial

Heterogeneous reactors
Quasi-homogeneous vs. heterogeneous reactors

Quasi-homogeneous vs. heterogeneous reactors

I

Most reactors are non-homogeneous: fuel (rods), coolant,

moderator (if thermal reactor) are separated
Even such a reactor may be considered to be
quasi-homogeneous
I
I

Mean free path larger than fuel rod dimensions at all En

> 1 collision in fuel rod unlikely

If . fuel rod dimensions at some energy: multiple collisions

probable Heterogeneous reactor

Examples
I

Highly enriched fuel thin fuel rods quasi-homogeneous

Slightly enriched fuel thicker fuel rods heterogeneous

Reactor Physics tutorial

Heterogeneous reactors
Heterogeneous reactor parameters

Heterogeneous reactor parameters

T
I

Average number of fission neutrons produced per neutron

absorbed by fuel (thermal neutrons)

Example fuel rod contents: 235 U, 238 U, 16 O

Average number of fission neutrons produced: f

f ,238 = 0 at thermal energies

Absorption cross section for 16 O 0

f ,235 f ,235
T =
a,235 + a,238

Reactor Physics tutorial

Heterogeneous reactors
Heterogeneous reactor parameters

Heterogeneous reactor parameters

f - Thermal utilization
I Probability that neutron absorbed in core is absorbed in the
fuel
I Number of neutrons absorbed in volume (fuel/moderator) per
second:
Z
a T dV = a T V
V

f =
I

aF VF
aF VF + aM VM

= TM : thermal disadvantage factor. Generally, > 1 in

TF
heterogeneous reactor
f is calculated numerically. Analytical solutions (Wigner-Seitz
method) only rough approximation in most cases

Reactor Physics tutorial

Heterogeneous reactors
Heterogeneous reactor parameters

Heterogeneous reactor parameters

k - Multiplication factor in infinite reactor
I

Four-factor formula: k = T fp

Thermal utilization: fhetero < fhomo

Resonance escape probability: phetero > phomo . Increases more

than f decreases (fp)hetero > (fp)homo

Fast fission factor: hetero > homo

k |hetero > k |homo

Homogeneous reactor containing natural uranium and graphite:

k 0.85 non-critical. Rods of same fuel (heterogeneous
reactor) critical reactor possible.

Reactor Physics tutorial

Classification of time problems

Classification of time problems

Time-dependent neutron population
I Short Time Problems (seconds - tens of minutes)
I

Reactor conditions altered change in k

Intermediate Time Problems (hours - 1 or 2 days)

Radioactive decay of fission products change in
concentration
Fission product concentration affects absorption term

Long Time Problems (days - months)

I
I

Variation of neutron flux over long periods.

Assume system in series of stationary states. Solve diffusion
equation for each configuration:

D2 a = f
I

Change design parameters (buckling, absorption/fission

cross-sections) so that = 1

Reactor Physics tutorial

Reactor kinetics
Prompt Neutron Lifetime

Prompt Neutron Lifetime

I

Produced directly at fission

Average time between emission and absorption of prompt

neutron: lp (prompt neutron lifetime)

Average time spent as thermal neutron before absorption: td

(mean diffusion time)

For infinite thermal reactor: lp ' td

td =
2vT (aF + aM )

For thermal reactor: lp ' 1 104 s

For fast reactor: lp ' 1 107 s

Reactor Physics tutorial

Reactor kinetics
Reactor with No Delayed Neutrons

Reactor with No Delayed Neutrons

I

100% of neutrons are prompt neutrons

Infinite thermal reactor

Number of fissions at time t, NF (t):

t
NF (t) = NF (0) exp
T

Reactor period T :
T =

lp
k 1

lp = 1 104 s T = 0.1 s Power increase by factor

22000 after 1 second. Delayed neutrons needed!

Reactor Physics tutorial

Reactor kinetics
Reactor with Delayed Neutrons

Reactor with Delayed Neutrons

I

Simplification: single delayed-neutron precursor (in reality: 6)

Diffusion equation for homogeneous reactor:

dT
sT
T = lp
dt
a

Pure prompt-neutron source term: sT = k a T

If fraction are delayed, this becomes

sT |prompt = (1 )k a T

Delayed-neutron source term depends on resonance escape

probability p, precursor decay constant and precursor
concentration C : sT |delayed = pC

Reactor Physics tutorial

Reactor kinetics
Reactor with Delayed Neutrons

Reactor with Delayed Neutrons

Two coupled differential equations:
I

Thermal neutron flux T

(1 )k T +

pC
dT
T = lp
dt
a

Precursor concentration C
dC
k a T
=
C
dt
p

Assume solutions of forms

= A exp(t)

C = C0 exp(t)

Reactor Physics tutorial

Reactor kinetics
Reactor with Delayed Neutrons

Reactor with Delayed Neutrons

Solution for the flux:
T = A1 exp(1 t) + A2 exp(2 t)

k1
k

Define reactivity =

k >1>0

k <1<0

k =1=0

depends on evolution of flux for specific

In general, T exp(1 t) T exp Tt

I
I

Example reactor period with delayed neutrons: 57 s (0.1 s

without)

Reactor Physics tutorial

Reactor kinetics
The Prompt Critical State

The Prompt Critical State

If (1 )k = 1, the prompt neutrons are enough to make the

reactor critical

Corresponding reactivity:
=

k 1
=
k

1
1
1
1

Short periods when prompt critical restrict additions to

reactivity to <

HEAT REMOVAL FROM NUCLEAR

REACTORS
Sebastian Thor

TABLE OF CONTENTS

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Thermodynamic Considerations
Heat Generation in Reactors
Fission Product Decay Heating
Heat Flow by Conduction
Fuel Elements
Heat Transfer to Coolants
Boiling Heat Transfer

Sebastian Thor

2.

5/17/2013

1.

THERMODYNAMIC CONSIDERATIONS

The rate of heat absorbed in the

coolant is given by:

The enthalpy:
= +
= +

Change in phase of the coolant

Up to the saturation temperature
it acts the same:
= +

Sebastian Thor

Temperature increases, pressure

invariant

5/17/2013

No change in phase of the

coolant

Once saturation temperature is

achieved, the coolant has to absorb
an amount of heat equal to the heat
of vaporization per unit mass to
change phase.

= +

+
3

HEAT GENERATION IN REACTORS

5/17/2013

Fission fragment, -ray and about 1/3 of the -ray energy is absorbed in the
fuel. This is about 90% of the recoverable fission energy.

Sebastian Thor

The rate of heat production per unit volume at the point is given by:

= ,
0

For the thermal reactor this reduces to:

= ()

Where is the energy deposited locally in the fuel per fission, is the
thermal cross-section of the fuel and () is the thermal flux.
Derivations and assumptions then leads to
(8.12)

No significant errors when used in heat transfer calculations.

4

FISSION PRODUCT DECAY HEATING

5/17/2013
Sebastian Thor

After a few days of reactor operation, the fission products

accumulates and together stand for about 7% of the total thermal
power output through and decays. This is something that has to
be dealed with in the event of a shut down.
If not, the temperature may rise to a point where the integrity of the
fuel might be compromised. (Fukushima).

HEAT FLOW BY CONDUCTION

5/17/2013

Fouriers law

Sebastian Thor

Steady-state equation of conductivity

= 0

Steady-state heat conduction equation:

2
+
=0

Where no heat sources exist (i.e. = 0); Laplaces equation:

2 = 0

These equations are then for example used to calculate how the heat
transferes from a fuel rod to a coolant.
6

FUEL ELEMENTS

cf.
With the cladding:
Using Fouriers law:

+
+
2
This shows that the thermal resistances behaves like two electrical
resistors in series.
The last part also applies for cylindrical fuel, however and are
calculated differently.
=

Sebastian Thor

5/17/2013

Plate-type fuel
In the fuel:

HEAT TRANSFER TO COOLANTS

5/17/2013

Coolant channels

= +
1 + sin

2
, = +

Sebastian Thor

Continues along the lines of the previous slide.

=
1
1
=

is the bulk temperature of the coolant, is the thermal resistance for

convective heat transfer, h is the heat transfer coefficient, which depends on
many factors such as the coolant temperature and the manner in which it
flows by the heated surface. A is the area of contact.

BOILING HEAT TRANSFER

5/17/2013

Up to this point it has been assumed that the coolant does not change phase.
However there are some advantages to permitting the coolant to boil.

Sebastian Thor

The fact that one does not need a heat transfer system between the reactor
coolant and the turbines for one, and also lower pressure in the reactor.

Boiling regimes
No boiling: Temperature rises. Nothing significant happens
Local boiling: Bubbles form but quickly transfer their heat to the
surrounding liquid coolant
Bulk boiling: Bubbles persists. Bubbly flow leads to anular flow.
Boiling Crisis
Partial film boiling: The sides of the coolant channels gets covered with a
thin layer of gas. The gas has higher thermal resistance, heat conduction is
reduced.
Full film boiling: Even though the heat conduction is reduced, the fuel is
still going now becoming hotter and hotter due to decreased cooling

Nuclear reactor licensing and

regulation
BENJAMINAS MARCINKEVICIUS

Table of contents
History
Reactor licensing

Nuclear reactor safety principles

Radiation release

Data from NPP

History
First legislation related to nuclear power 1946 McMahon
Act
In 1974 Nuclear regulatory Comission (NCR) was
created to manage licensing and regulation of nuclear
power plants.
DOE Department of energy, takes responsibility to
sposor recearch and development of Nuclear Energy.

Licensing
NRC regulates everything from reactor project approval to
fuel transport licensing and disposal of radioactive waste.
Although all nuclear power plants have to receive from
other institutions as well. (Like coal or gas plants).
It is more than 40 licensing actions and may take more
than two years.

Licensing

Licensing
NRC groups:
Regulatory staff
Building, regulation of normal working, fuel regulation
etc.

ACRS (Advisor committee on reactor safeguards)

Reviews reactor licensing and predicts potential
hazards

ASLB (Atomic safety and licensing boards)

Grants, revokes or suspends license of object. At least
two technical members.

Licensing
Stages
Construction permit
Informal Site review
Application of license

Includes financial information, technical information,

preliminary safety analysis, Environmental report.
Submission of AER
Review of regulatory staff

Licensing
Review by ACRS
Public hearings

Against Atomic safety and Licensing board which

decides if application should be approved.
Appeals

Licensing
Operation license
Submittal for Operating License

Review by Regulatory staff

Determine new information after the CP and its impact

Review by ACRS
Hearings
Appeals

Nuclear power plant safety principles

Three main contamination paths
Operation

Refueling
Shipping of fuel

Nuclear power plant safety principles

Multiple barriers
Fuel

Cladding
Closed coolant system

Pressure vessel
Containment

Nuclear power plant safety principles

Containment. Left PWR, Right BWR. [Lamarsh]

Nuclear power plant safety principles

Three levels of safety
First:

Accident prevention by safe design, construction and

surveillance.
Negative void and temperature coefficients.
Only known property materials should be used.

Sufficient instrumentation so that operators should have

information at all times.
High quality construction.
Continual monitoring of plant.

Nuclear power plant safety principles

Second level of safety:
Objective is to protect operators and public from
radiation damage.
Emergency core cooling system

Fast shut down ability without control rod insertion

Independent sources of power from Nuclear power
plant for instrumentation.

Third level of safety

Margin of safety for very unlikely events

Radiation release
Dose sources
External radiation from emitted plume

Internal dose from radionuclide inhalation

External dose from radionuclide deposited on the
ground
External dose from radionuclide deposited on clothes
and body
Direct dose from power plant.

Radiation release
Gamma from released plume
It is taken that plume is infinitely large gives
conservative values and simplifies calculation.

For more than one gamma ray:

Dose rate:

Radiation release
dose:
Treatment is similar as gamma ray case.
Surface dose estimation
Internal dose estimation

Radiation release
Internal dose
Function of breathing activity

Steady state equilibrium equation for dose rate

Radiation release
Dose from Ground-deposited nuclides
80 % of dose form meltdown would be from Cs137

Release from nuclear power plant

Population dose:
Defined by person-rems

Data from NPP

Product

Activity

Average
Lithuania
Bq/kg

Vicinity of NPP
50 km diameter
Bq/kg

Milk

90Sr

0,020,01
0,030,01
0,250,05
501

0,030,01
0,040,02
0,140,06
494

0,030,02
0,140,18
0,390,29
1176

0,030,02
0,090,03
0,570,29
1173

0,060,02
0,040,01
0,460,32
716

0,050,03
0,070,08
0,330,23
623

137Cs

alfa
beta
Meat

90Sr
137Cs

alfa
beta
Cabbage

90Sr

137Cs

alfa
beta

Data from NPP

Milk
Meat
Fish
Veggies

Data from NPP

Average dose to NPP workers in Sweden in year 2010
1.7 mSv per year.
Maximal dose in 2010 - 16.9 mSv.
Doses are ~50 % higher in BWR reactors in Sweden.
Nuclide

Coal, Lodz
power station

238U

1.1 GBq/year

210Pb

1.2 GBq/year

Data from NPP

131mXe, 133mXe, 135Xe

up to 96 % of released

radioactivity.
2790 GBq/a from Xenon
During Fukushima accident 19.0 3.4 Ebq of
Xenon.

References
www.RSC.lt
Lamarsh, Introduction to unclear engineering

Walinder Robert, Radiation doses to Swedish nuclear

workers and cancer incidence in a NPP
Martin B. Kalinowski, Matthias P. Tuma, Global
radioxenon emission inventory based on nuclear power
reactor reports, Journal of Environmental Radioactivity,
Volume 100, Issue 1, January 2009,
Andreas Stohl, Petra Seibert, Gerhard Wotawa, The total
release of xenon-133 from the Fukushima Dai-ichi
nuclear power plant accident, Journal of Environmental
Radioactivity, Volume 112, October 2012

Dispersion of Effluents
Reactor physics 2013
SANDRA ANDERSSON

Atmospheric
structure

Themperature profile of the lowermost

troposphere

Atmospheric stabillity

Atmospheric stabillity

Atmospheric stabillity

Atmospheric stabillity

Atmospheric stabillity

Dispersion of a plume

Dispersion of a plume

Modelling the dispersion of pollutants

Diffusion of Effluents
Mainly turbulent diffusion
Spreads out in gaussian
distribution
Standard deviation:
1/2
2
=

2
=

1/2

Concentration of effluents

2
+
=

+
2
2
2

2
=

2
2

+
+
2
2

z=0 =>
y=0 =>

h=0 => released at ground level, use if

do not know emission altitude

at ground level
at centerline, use if
know emission altitude

[X]/Q= dilution factor

Deposition and radioactive decay

2
=

2
2

Depositionrate: = Ci/m2/s
Radioactive decay: =

0 exp()=0 exp( )

Releases from Buildings

Releases from Buildings

=

Building dilution factor

The wedge model

The wedge model

The location of a nuclear reactor has an obvious bearing on the consequences of a reactor accident
to the public
construction permit from the NRC (regulations regarding reactor site criteria)
-without undue risk to the health and safety of the public
-minimal effect on the environment

The NRC evaluation considerations

Reactor itself, its design characteristics, and its proposed mode of operation.

Population Considerations

the physical characteristics of the site :seismology, meteorology, geology, and hydrology of the area
the use of appropriate engineering safeguards

Population Considerations
the NRC has defined two areas in the vicinity of the reactor
An exclusion area, or exclusion zone: is that area surrounding the reactor in which the reactor licensee has
the authority to determine all activities including exclusion or removal of personnel and property from the
area
A low-population zone (LPZ) is "the area immediately surrounding the exclusion area which contains
residents, the total number and density of which are such that there is a reasonable probability that
appropriate protective measures could be taken in their behalf in the event of a serious accident
the NRC also defines
the population center distance. "the distance from the reactor to the nearest boundary of a densely
populated center containing more than 25,000 residents."
total radiation dose to the whole body in excess of 25 rem
the population center distance be no less than 1 .33 times the radius of the LPZ.

Population Considerations
The assumptions that the NRC makes in calculating the radii of the exclusion area and the LPZ , are used
to compute the external and internal dose from the effluent cloud and the direct dose from nuclides

Population Considerations
To begin the computation
If the cumulative yield of the fission product is Yi atoms per fission, the rate of production of this
nuclide is

rate of production = P Yi atoms/sec.

Reactor power(MW)

The amount of a fission product available for release to the atmosphere can be estimated by

where Fp is the fraction of the radionuclide released from the fuel into the reactor containment and Fb is
the fraction of this that remains airborne and capable of escaping from the building.

Physical Characteristics of Site

Nuclear power plants must be designed and constructed in such a manner that all structures and systems
important to safety can withstand the effects of earthquakes, tornadoes, hurricanes, floods, and other
natural phenomena, without a loss of safety function

Seismology: Geologists now believe that the surface of the earth is composed of large structures called
tectonic plates.

the centers of 42,000 earthquakes

Figure 1 1 .19 The earth's tectonic plates and earthquake belts (From C. Kissinger, "Earthquake Prediction," Physics Today, March, 1 974.)

Physical Characteristics of Site

Meteorology

To safety-related structures of reactor plant

from: hurricanes and tornadoes

Limitations
Hurricanes: up to 600 miles in diameter, with winds from 75 to 200 mi/hr
Tornadoes, Their diameters range from several feet to a mile

Geology :Studies must be made of the geological structure of a proposed site in order to
determine whether the area can family support the reactor building with all its internal
components.

Hydrology It is necessary to prevent large quantities of water from entering the site of a nuclear
power plant, since water could compromise some of the safety-related systems of the
plant.

the hydrological phenomena : depends upon the nature and location of the site

the NRC has divided the spectrum of possible accidents into nine classes,

Loss-of-Coolant Accident
coolant flow through a reactor core ---- caused by leak in a small coolant pipe
-to serious consequences for the plant as a whole
-the pressure in the reactor vessel quickly drops to the saturation
pressure
-change in the average water temperature
control: emergency core cooling system (ECCS):
when the pressure has dropped below about 650 psi
Three Mile Island Accident: The accident at the Three Mile Island nuclear power station (TMI) near
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, in March 1979 is one of the worst that has occurred in a commercial nuclear
power plant.
During maintenance operations, the feedwater flow to the steam generator was lost, an event that can be
expected to happen two or three times a year in a plant. Because of the sudden loss of heat removal,
pressure began to increase in the primary system
The accident at Three Mile Island did seriously damage the core, but did not result in a large release of
radioactivity to the atmosphere

The Chernobyl Accident

Ukranian City of Kiev April 26, 1 986
The Chernobyl reactor was a graphite
moderated boiling water pressure tube
reactor of the RBMK

Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant

During the shutdown process, the reactor was in an extremely unstable condition. A peculiarity of the
design of the control rods caused a dramatic power surge as they were inserted into the reactor
The interaction of very hot fuel with the cooling water led to fuel fragmentation along with rapid steam
production and an increase in pressure.

Where a low power level with an unfavorable power distribution, a high coolant flow rate in the core,
a reduced feedwater flow rate to the reactor with increasing coolant temperature at the core inlet,
and an unstable xenon spatial distribution

BWR: Steam Pipe Break: The steam in a BWR plant is somewhat radioactive, since it is produced
directly in the reactor

In analyzing this accident

( 1 ) the isolation valves close in the maximum time characteristic of the valves
(2) all of the coolant in the broken steam line and its connecting lines at the time of the break, plus the
steam passing through the valves prior to closure, is released;
(3) the activity (including all the iodine and noble gases that may be present in the steam from leaking fuel
rods) is released to the atmosphere within 2 hrs, at a height of 30 feet, under fumigation conditions.

BWR: Rod Drop : The control rods in a BWR enter from the bottom of the core and are inserted
upwards.

A number of failures in the control rod drive system: to the release of some activity
into the containment.

PWR: Rod Ejection

failure of the control rod housing could occur in such a way that high-pressure reactor coolant water
might forcibly eject a cluster control rod assembly.
-power transient similar to that in a BWR rod drop accident

The Meaning of Risk

as the consequence of the event per unit time

the average individual risk is defined as

The risk of an event can be computed in an obvious way from the frequency
of the event and the magnitude of the consequences of the event:

However, the public acceptability of a given risk depends not only on the size
of the risk, but also on the magnitude of the consequences of the event.

Risk Determination
The calculation of the risk associated with accidents in a nuclear power plant is a three-step process:
1- determine the probabilities of the various releases of radioactivity resulting from accidents
2- the consequences to the public of these releases must be evaluated
3- the release probabilities and their consequences are combined to obtain the overall risk.
event trees :the identification of the accident sequences leading to various releases

The effluent released to the environments: gaseous or liquid form

the origin, amount, and composition of this effluent varies from plant to plant,

Regulation of Effluents
The NRC has translated its "as low as reasonably achievable

Doses from Effluents

The gaseous effluents emitted to the atmosphere and liquid wastes discharged to bodies of water, and
these two cases will be considered separately.

Gaseous Effluents

:noble gases and the isotopes of iodine 131I

radiation dose from ingested food

Where Vd is a proportionality constant, has

units of 0,01m/sec and is called the deposition
velocity, Rd has units of Ci/m2-sec and X is in
Ci/m3
Because the emission of radioactive
effluent is often stated in Ci/yr

Where Q is in Ci/yr, (X / Q') is the dilution factor in

sec/m3

Once the Iodine has fallen on the foliage ?

*When the rates of production and decay are equal

*the Iodine concentration in sample

*the annual dose rate is

Liquid Effluents
There are several pathways by which man may become exposed to the radioactive waste
discharged into bodies of water
The calculation of the radiation dose from contaminated seafood?
1)-the concentration of the radionuclides discharged from the plant is estimated from the discharge rate
and dispersion characteristics of the receiving body of water.
2)-the concentration of the radionuclides in seafood is computed

the proportionality constant CF is usually called the concentration factor and sometimes the
bioaccumulation factor.
3)-the consumption rate of seafood from waters near the power plant must be estimated
4)-the dose rate can be found by comparing the activity of the seafood Cs in Ci/cm3 and its consumption
rate Rs in cm3/day with the dose rate
the dose rate received from the seafood: