Fluid Mechanics

Dr. Mohammed Zakria Salih Xoshnaw

History
Faces of Fluid Mechanics

Archimedes

Newton

(C. 287-212 BC)

(1642-1727)

Leibniz

Bernoulli

Euler

(1646-1716)

(1667-1748)

(1707-1783)

Taylor

Navier

Stokes

Prandtl

(1785-1836)

Reynolds

(1819-1903)

(1842-1912)

(1875-1953)

57:020 Fluid Mechanics

(1886-1975)
2

Weather & Climate

Tornadoes

Thunderstorm

Global Climate

Hurricanes

57:020 Fluid Mechanics

Vehicles
Surface ships

Aircraft

Submarines

High-speed rail

57:020 Fluid Mechanics

Environment
Air pollution

57:020 Fluid Mechanics

River hydraulics

Physiology and Medicine

Blood pump

Ventricular assist device

57:020 Fluid Mechanics

Sports & Recreation

Water sports

Cycling

Auto racing

Offshore racing

Surfing

57:020 Fluid Mechanics

Background and introduction

Physical Characteristics of Fluids
Distinction between Solids, Liquids, and gases
Flow Classification
Significance of Fluid Mechanics
Trends in Fluid mechanics

Physical Characteristics of Fluids

Branch of Mechanics

Mechanics

Rigid Bodies
(Things that do not change shape)

Statics

Dynamics

Deformable Bodies
(Things that do change shape)

Fluids

Incompressible

Compressible

Physical Characteristics of Fluids

Fluid mechanics is the science that deals with the action
of forces on fluids.
. Fluid is a substance
The particles of which easily move and change position
That will continuously deform

Distinction Between Solids, Liquids &

Gases
A fluid can be either gas or liquid.
Solid molecules are arranged in a specific lattice
formation and their movement is restricted.
Liquid molecules can move with respect to each
other when a shearing force is applied.
The spacing of the molecules of gases is much
wider than that of either solids or liquids and it is
also variable.

Flow Classification
The subject of Fluid Mechanics
Hydrodynamics deal with the flow of fluid with no
density change, hydraulics, the study of fluid force
on bodies immersed in flowing liquids or in low
speed gas flows.
Gas Dynamics deals with fluids that undergo
significant density change

Significance of Fluid Mechanics

Turning on our kitchen faucets
Flicking on a light switch
Driving cars
The flow of bloods through our veins
Coastal cities discharge their waste
Air pollution
And so on so forth
Trends in Fluid Mechanics
The science of fluid mechanics is developing at a rapid rate.

Fluid Mechanics

Todays subject:

FLUID PROPERTIES

Objectives of this section

Work with two types of units.
Define the nature of a fluid.
Show where fluid mechanics concepts are common
with those of solid mechanics and indicate some
fundamental areas of difference.
Introduce viscosity and show what are Newtonian
and non-Newtonian fluids
Define the appropriate physical properties and
show how these allow differentiation between
solids and fluids as well as between liquids and
gases.

UNIT SYSTEMS

We will work with two unit systems in FLUID MECHANICS:

International System (SI)

U.S. Customary (USCS)

SI UNITS
In the SI system, the unit of force, the Newton,
is derived unit. The meter, second and
kilogram are base units.
U.S. CUSTOMORY
In the US Customary system, the unit of mass,
the slug, is a derived unit. The foot, second
and pound are base unit.

Basic Unit System & Units

The SI system consists of six primary units, from which all
quantities may be described but in fluid mechanics we are generally
only interested in the top four units from this table.

Derived Units
There are many derived units all obtained from combination of the above
primary units. Those most used are shown in the table below:

Derived Units

Table summarizes these unit systems.

SI System of Units
The corresponding unit of force derived from Newtons
second law:
the force required to accelerate a kilogram at one meter
per second per second is defined as the Newton (N)
The acceleration due to gravity at the earths surface:
9.81 m/s2.
Thus, the weight of one kilogram at the earths surface:
W=mg

= (1) (9.81) kg m / s2
= 9.81 N

Traditional Units

The system of units that preceded SI units in

several countries is the so-called English system.
Length = foot (ft) = 30.48 cm
Mass = slug = 14.59 kg
The force required to accelerate a mass of one slug at
one foot per second per second is one pound force
(lbf).
The mass unit in the traditional system is the pound
mass (lbm).

FLUID PROPERTIES
Every fluid has certain characteristics by which its physical conditions may be
described.
We call such characteristics as the fluid properties.

Specific Weight
Mass Density
Viscosity
Vapour Pressure
Surface tension
Capillarity

Bulk Modules of Elasticity

Isothermal Conditions

Adiabatic or Isentropic
Conditions
Pressure Disturbances

Properties involving the Mass or Weight of the Fluid

Specific Weight, g
The gravitational force per unit volume of fluid, or
simply weight per unit volume.
- Water at 20 oC has a specific weight of 9.79 kN/m3.

Mass Density,
The mass per unit volume is mass density. Hence it
has units of kilograms per cubic meter.
- The mass density of water at 4 oC is 1000 kg/m3
while it is 1.20 kg/m3 for air at 20 oC at standard
pressure.

Specific Gravity, S
The ratio of specific weight of a given liquid to the
specific weight of water at a standard reference
temperature (4 oC)is defined as specific gravity, S.
The specific weight of water at atmospheric pressure
is 9810 N/m3.
The specific gravity of mercury at 20 oC is

133 kN/m3
S Hg
13.6
9.81 kN/m3

Ideal Gas Law

A form of the general equation of state, relating pressure, specific volume, and temperature

p = absolute pressure [N/m2], 14.7 psi or 101 kpa

V = volume [m3]
n = number of moles
Ru = universal gas constant

[8.314 kJ/kmol-K;

0.287 kPam3/kg K]

T = absolute temperature [K]

MWgas = molecular weight of gas

British Gravitational (BG) System. In

the BG system the unit of length is the
foot (ft), the time unit is the second
(s), the force unit is the pound (lb),
and the temperature unit is the
degree Fahrenheit (F) or the absolute
temperature unit is the degree
Rankine(R)
R= F+ 459.67
where The mass unit, called the slug,
is defined from Newtons second law
(Force x Acceleration ) as
1 Ib = (1 Slug). (1 ft/s2)
This relationship indicates that a 1-lb
force acting on a mass of 1 slug will
give the mass an acceleration of 1
ft/s2
The weight, (which is the force due to
gravity, g) of a mass, m, is given by the
equation.
W= mg and in BG units
w(lb) = m(slugs) g (ft/s2)
g = 32.2 ft/s2
it follows that a mass of 1 slug weighs
32.2 lb under standard gravity

VISCOSITY
What is the definition of strain?
Deformation of a physical body under the action of applied forces
Solid:
shear stress applied is proportional to shear strain

(proportionality factor: shear modulus)

Solid material ceases to deform when equilibrium is reached
Liquid:

Shear stress applied is proportional to the time rate of strain

(proportionality factor: dynamic (absolute) viscosity)
Liquid continues to deform as long as stress is applied

Example of the effect of viscosity

Think: resistance to flow.

V : fluid velocity
y : distance from solid surface
Rate of strain, dV/dy
: dynamic viscosity
[N.s/m2]
t: shear stress
Shear stress: An applied force
per unit area needed to
produce deformation in a
fluid
t = dV/dy

Velocity distribution next to boundary

VISCOSITY

t = dV/dy

Would it be easier to walk through a

1-m pool of water or oil?
Water
Why?
Less friction in the water
Rate of deformation

Water moves out of your way at a

quick rate when you apply a shear
stress (i.e., walk through it)
Oil moves out of your way more
slowly when you apply the same
shear stress

Viscosity is:
slope of the line shown above
the ratio between shear stress
applied and rate of deformation

Kinematic Viscosity
Many fluid mechanics equations contain the variables of
- Viscosity, m
- Density, r
So, to simplify these equations sometimes use kinematic
viscosity (n)
Terminology

N .s / m 2
2

m
/s
3
kg / m

Viscosity, m

Absolute viscosity, m
Dynamic viscosity, m
Kinematic Viscosity, n

Other viscosity highlights

Viscous resistance is independent of the pressure in
the fluid.
Viscosity is a result of molecular forces within a
fluid.
For liquid, cohesive forces decrease with increasing
temperature decreasing
For gas, increasing temperature increased
molecular activity & shear stress: increasing

Kinematic viscosity for air & crude oil

Increasing temp increasing
viscosity

Increasing temp decreasing

viscosity

Newtonian vs. Non-Newtonian Fluids

Newtonian fluid: shear stress is
proportional to shear strain

Slope of line is dynamic

viscosity
Shear thinning: ratio of shear
stress to shear strain decreases
as shear strain increases
(toothpaste, catsup, paint, etc.)
Shear thickening: viscosity
increases with shear rate (glass
particles in water, gypsumwater mixtures).

Surface tension
Whats happening here?
Bug is walking on
water
Why is this possible?
It doesnt weigh much
Its spreading its
weight out
The downward forces
are less than the effects
of surface tension

Surface Tension
A molecules in the interior of a liquid is under
attractive force in all direction.

However, a molecule at the surface of a liquid is

acted on by a net inward cohesive force that is
perpendicular to the surface.
Hence it requires work to move molecules to the
surface against this opposing force and surface
molecules have more energy than interior ones
Higher forces of attraction at surface
Creates a stretched membrane effect

Surface Tension
Surface tension, s: the force resulting from
molecular attraction at liquid surface [N/m]

surface tension varies with temperature

Fs= s L
Fs= surface tension force [N]
s = surface tension [N/m]
L = length over which the surface
tension acts [m]

Capillarity
Rise and fall of liquid in a capillary tube is caused by surface tension.
Capillarity depends on the relative magnitudes of the cohesion of the liquid
to walls of the containing vessel.

When the adhesive forces between liquid and solid are larger than the
liquid's cohesive forces, the meniscus in a small diameter tube will tend to
be concave
If adhesive forces are smaller than cohesive forces the meniscus will tend
to be convex, for example mercury in glass.

concave

convex

water

mercury

Differences between adhesive & Cohesive

A distinction is usually made between an adhesive force,
which acts to hold two separate bodies together (or to stick
one body to another)

and
a cohesive force, which acts to hold together the like or unlike

atoms, ions, or molecules of a single body.

Capillary Effect
For a glass tube in a liquid
h=height of capillary rise (or depression)
s=surface tension
q=wetting angle
G=specific weight
R=radius of tube
If the tube is clean, qo is 0 for water

F , z W 0

2RCos R 2 h
2Cos
h
r

Vapor Pressure
Vapor pressure: the pressure at which
a liquid will boil.

Vapor pressure when

temperature increases
At atmospheric pressure,
water at 100 C will boil
Water can boil at lower
temperatures if the
pressure is lower
When vapor pressure > the
liquids actual pressure

Coefficient of Compressibility

How does fluid volume change

with P and T?
Fluids expand as T or P
Fluids contract as T or P

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics

41

Coefficient of Compressibility
Need fluid properties that relate volume changes to changes
in P and T.
Coefficient of compressibility
P
P
v
v T
T

(or bulk modulus of compressibility

or bulk modulus of elasticity)

k must have the dimension of pressure (Pa or psi).

What is the coefficient of compressibility of a truly
incompressible substance ?(v=constant).
is infinity

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics

42

09:10

Coefficient of Compressibility
A large implies incompressible.
This is typical for liquids considered to be
incompressible.
For example, the pressure of water at normal
atmospheric conditions must be raised to 210 atm
to compress it 1 percent, corresponding to a
coefficient of compressibility value of = 21,000
atm.

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics

43

09:10

Coefficient of Compressibility
Small density changes in liquids can still cause
interesting phenomena in piping systems such as
the water hammercharacterized by a sound that
resembles the sound produced when a pipe is
hammered. This occurs when a liquid in a piping
network encounters an abrupt flow restriction
(such as a closing valve) and is locally compressed.
The acoustic waves produced strike the pipe
surfaces, bends, and valves as they propagate and
reflect along the pipe, causing the pipe to vibrate
and produce the familiar sound.

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics

44

09:10

Coefficient of Compressibility
Differentiating = 1/v gives d = - dv/v2; therefore, d/ = dv/v
For an ideal gas, P = RT and (P/)T = RT = P/, and thus
ideal gas = P (Pa)
The inverse of the coefficient of compressibility is called the
isothermal compressibility a and is expressed as

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics

45

09:10

Coefficient of Volume Expansion

The density of a fluid depends
more strongly on temperature
than it does on pressure.

To represent the variation of

the density of a fluid with
temperature at constant
pressure. The Coefficient of
volume expansion (or volume
expansivity) is defined as
1 v
1

v T P
T P
Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics

46

(1/K)

09:10

Coefficient of Volume Expansion

For an ideal gas, ideal gas = 1/T (1/K)
In the study of natural convection currents, the condition of the main fluid
body that surrounds the finite hot or cold regions is indicated by the
subscript infinity to serve as a reminder that this is the value at a
distance where the presence of the hot or cold region is not felt. In such
cases, the volume expansion coefficient can be expressed approximately as

where is the density and T is the temperature of the quiescent fluid

away from the confined hot or cold fluid pocket.

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics

47

09:10

Coefficient of Compressibility
The combined effects of pressure and temperature
changes on the volume change of a fluid can be
determined by taking the specific volume to be a
function of T and P. Differentiating v = v(T, P) and
using the definitions of the compression and expansion
coefficients a and give
v
v
dv
dT

dP = (dT - adP)v
T P
P T

09:10
Fundamentals
of Fluid Mechanics

48

Example 2.1:

What is the weight of a pound mass on the earths surface,

where the acceleration due to gravity is 32.2 ft/s2, and on
the moons surface, where the acceleration is 5.31 ft/s2.
Solution by Newtons second law
W=Mg

(lbf = slug*ft/s2)

1lbm
1lbm
1slugs
M

gc
32.2lbm / slug
32.2

Example 2.1: Cont.

Therefore, the weight on the earths surface is

1slugs
ft
W
x 32.2 2 1lbf
32.2
s
And on the moons surface is

1slugs
ft
W
x 5.31 2 0.165lbf
32.2
s

Example 2.2: Capillary Rise Problem

0.073 N/m

How high will water rise in a

glass tube if the inside
diameter is 1.6 mm and the
water temperature is 20C?
Answer: 18.6 mm
Hint: for water against
glass is so small it can be
assumed to be 0.

Example 1
A) calculate the density , specific weight and specific volume of Oxygen at 100 F and 15 Psi.
B) what would be the temperature and or pressure of this gas if it were compressed isentropically to 40
percent of its origin volume.
C) if the process described in (b) had been isothermal , what would the temperature and pressure have
been.

Solution
a) = P/RT = 15*144/(1552)*(100+460) = 0.00248 slug/ft3
= g= 0.00248(32.2)= 0.0799 Ib/ ft3
Vs= 1/ = 1/0.00248 = 403 ft3/slug
b) P1(Vs1)K = P2(Vs2)k =P2= 54.1 Psi
P2 = 2 RT2
(54.1)*144= (0.00218/0.4)*1552*(T2+460)
T2 = 350 F
c) If its isothermal , T2=T1= 100 F
15*144*403= P2(144*0.4*403) =
P2= 37.5 Psi

Example 2
What is specificweight of air at 70 psi and 70F , R= 53.3 ft/R
= 70(144) /(53.3)*(70+460)= 0.357 Ib/ft3

Example 3
A cylinder contains 12.5 ft3 of air at 120 F and 40 Pisa, The air compressed to 2.5 ft3
A) assuming isothermal condition what a pressure at the new volume and bulk modules of elasticity

B) assuming adiabatic conditions, what are the final pressure and temperature and the bulk modules of elasticity
for isothermal condition
Solution
A) P1V1= p2V2 for isothermal P2 = 200 Pisa
K = ( P/V/V)= ( 40- 200)/(12.5-2.5)/12.5= 200 psi
b) P1 (V1)k = P2 (V2)k, k= 1.4 ,
P2 381 Pisa

T2/T1= (P2/P1) k-1/k,

T2 = 1104 R or 644 F ,
K = bulk modules= k* P2 = 583 Ps

Example 4

Example 5

Example 6

Example 7

Example 8