Chapter 7

Asexual reproduction
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Rapid and effective way of making new individuals

Offspring resulting from asexual reproduction are clones of the parent
organism

Clones
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Genetically identical

Sexual reproduction
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Fusion of two specialized cells called gametes

Results in offspring with considerable genetic variation

Gametes
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Specialized cell formed by meiosis

Contains half the genetic material of the original cell
Contain only a single set of chromosomes or 1 homolog from each pair

Meiosis
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Process of cell division resulting in half the genetic material being passed on
During this process, genetic material is randomly separated and reorganized
so that daughter cells differ genetically from one another

Chromosome
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Consists of a single molecule of DNA and associated proteins

Structures that make up the DNA in eukaryotic cells

Somatic Cells
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Body cells in multicellular organisms that are not specialized for reproduction
Contains two sets of chromosomes
Chromosomes occur in pairs called homologous pairs

Homologous pairs
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One chromosome of each pair comes from the organisms female parent and
other from the male parent
Two chromosomes contain corresponding but not identical genetic
information

Haploid
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Gamete with chromosome number n

Combines with another haploid gamete to form a zygote

Zygote
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Result of two haploid gamete fusion in a process called fertilization

Has two sets of chromosomes like a somatic cell denoted by 2n and referred
to as diploid
Usually divides by mitosis, producing a new mature organism with diploid
somatic cells

Essence of sexual reproduction is the random selection of half of the diploid

chromosome set to make a haploid gamete, followed by fusion of two haploid
gametes from separate parents to produce a diploid cell.
Requirements for cell to divide
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Reproductive signal which initiates cell division- may originate from inside or
outside the cell
Replication of DNA must occur so that each of the two new cells will have a
full set of genes to complete cell functions
Segregation cells must distribute the replicated DNA to each of the two new
cells
Enzymes needed for cell division must be synthesized, new organelles must
be formed and new material must be added to the plasma membrane
division of cytoplasm to form two daughter cells is called cytokinesis

Binary fission
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In prokaryotes, cell division results in the reproduction of entire single celled

organisms
Cell grows in size, replicates its DNA and then separates the cytoplasm and
DNA into two new cells by binary fission

Replication of DNA in prokaryotes

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Almost all genetic information is on one single chromosome

Ends of DNA molecule are covalently joined, making the chromosome circular
Two regions of chromosome are important ori or the origin and ter or the
terminus of replication
Replication begins at ori and moves toward ter
Once replication is completed, the two daughter DNA molecules separate and
segregate from one another at opposite ends of cell

Segregation of DNA in prokaryotes

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During replication, DNA sequences adjacent to the ori region bind proteins
that are essential for segregation
Active process since binding proteins hydrolyze ATP
Components of the cytoskeleton are involved in segregation such as through
the use of providing a filament along which ori and proteins move

Cytokinesis in prokaryotes
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Actual division of single cell and its contents into two cells begins after
chromosome segregation
Pinching of membrane caused by contraction of ring of fibers on the inside of
the surface of the membrane

As membrane pinches in, new cell wall materials are deposited which
separates the two cells

Eukaryotic cell Replication

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Similar to replication of DNA in prokaryotes except that eukaryotes have

more than one chromosome
Achieved by threading long strands through replication complexes
Occurs only during a specific stage of the cell cycle

Eukaryotic cell segregation of DNA

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When cell divides, one copy of each chromosome must end up in each of the
two new cells
Newly replicated chromosomes are closely associated with each other
Chromosomes become highly condensed and a mechanism called mitosis
segregates them into two new nuclei
Cytoskeleton is involved in this process

Eukaryotic cell Cytokinesis

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Following mitosis, cytokinesis occurs

Process in plants and animal cells are different due to plants having a cell
wall

Replication, segregation, cytokinesis occur within the context of the cell cycle
In eukaryotes, cell cycle can be divided into mitosis and cytokinesis referred to as M
phase and the interphase.
During interphase, cell nucleus is visible and typical cell functions occur including
DNA replication in cells that are dividing.
Interphase
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Three subphases- G1, S, G2

G1 is variable and cell may spend a long time in this phase carrying out
specialized functions
S Phase for synthesis is where the cells DNA is replicated
G2 gap phase is when cell makes preparations for mitosis, for example, by
synthesizing components of the microtubules that will move the segregating
chromosomes to opposite ends of the diving cell

Prophase sets the stage for DNA segregation

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In mitosis, single nucleus gives rise to two daughter nuclei that each contain
the same number of chromosomes as the parent nucleus.
During interphase only the nuclear envelope and nucleolus- region where
ribosomes are formed- are visible under the light microscope
The chromatin- DNA with associated proteins- is not yet condensed and
individual chromosomes cannot be discerned
Appearance changes during prophase- following three are the structures that
contribute to segregation

Condensed Chromosome
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After replication, each chromosome has two DNA molecules called sister
chromatids
Chromatids are held together at the centromere until separation during
mitosis
Kinetochores, specialized protein structures, assemble on the centromeres,
one on each chromatid- important for chromosome movement

Centrosome
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An organelle in the cytoplasm that determines orientation

Consists of centrioles, each one a hollow tube formed by nine triplets of
microtubules
During s phase, centrosome becomes duplicated
G2-M transition, two centrosomes separate from one another
Positions of the centrosomes determine the plane at which the cell divides,
determining the spatial relationship between the two new cells
Centrosomes are like poles toward which chromosomes move during
segregation
Plant cells lack centrosomes but distinct microtubule organizing centers at
each end of cell play same role

Spindle
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Each of the two centrosomes, when positioned on opposite sides of nucleus

serves as poles
Tubulin dimers from around the centrosomes aggregate into microtubules
that extend from the poles into the middle region of the cell
Together these microtubules make up a spindle- spindle forms during
prophase and prometaphase when nuclear envelope breaks down
Two types of microtubules
Polar microtubules form framework of spindle and run from one pole to the
other keeping them apart
Kinetochore microtubules attach to the kinetochores on chromosomes. The
two sister chromatids in each chromosome attach to kinetochore
microtubules from opposite sides of cell. They form much later and ensures
two chromatids will move to opposite poles

Developing microtubule end is unstable and will fall apart unless attached to
kinetochore
Separation of chromatids and movement of the daughter chromosomes is the
central feature of mitosis
Chromosome separation and movement are highly organized
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Prometaphase- nuclear envelope breaks down and compacted chromosomes,

each consisting of two chromatids, attach to kinetochore microtubules
Metaphase- chromosomes line up at midline of cell- equatorial position
Anaphase- chromatids separate and daughter chromosomes move away from
each other toward the poles

Two mechanisms operate to move chromosomes

Kinetochores contain a protein called cytoplasmic dynein that acts as a motor
and hydrolyzes ATP to ADP and phosphate, releasing energy, propelling
chromosomes long the microtubules toward poles
Kinetochore microtubules shorten from poles, drawing chromosomes toward
them
Telophase- nuclear envelope forms around each set of new chromosomes,
nucleoli appear and chromosomes become less compact. Spindle also
disappears at this stage

Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm and is the final stage of cell
reproduction. This process occurs differently in plants and animals.
Animal cells
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Begins with furrowing of the plasma membrane- ring is composed of

microfilaments of actin and myosin, forming a ring on the cytoplasmic surface
of the plasma membrane
Two proteins interact to produce a contraction, pinching the cell in two
Microfilaments assemble from actin monomers that are present in interphase
cytoskeleton.
Assembly is controlled by calcium ions released from storage sites in center
of cell

Plant cells
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Cytoplasm divides differently because of cell walls.

As spindle breaks down after mitosis, vesicles derived from Golgi appear
along plane of cell division
Vesicles are propelled along microtubules by the motor protein kinesin and
fuse to form new plasma membrane
During that time, vesicles contribute their contents to a cell plate which is the
beginning of a new cell wall that lies between the two new cells.

Cell Reproduction is Under Precise Control

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Prokaryotes respond to conditions in the environment by changing

reproductive rate
Eukaryotes do not constantly divide like prokaryotes; eukaryotic organism
specialized cells seldom or never divide.
Signals for eukaryotic cell division is related to the needs of the entire
organism
Mammals produce a variety of substances called growth factors that
stimulate cell division and differentiation

Eukaryotic cell division cycle is regulated internally

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After restriction point in G1-S transition phase, cell will proceed with rest of
the cell cycle and divide
S-M phase entered by molecular activators involving cell fusion

Cell cycle is controlled by cyclin-dependent kinases

Protein kinases are molecular activators

Catalyze the phosphorylation of target proteins that regulate cell cycle
Cyclin-dependent kinases- Cdk are activated by binding to protein cyclinchanges shape of Cdk so that active site is exposed-allosteric regulation
There are several Cdk that regulate the cell cycle at specific stages called cell
cycle checkpoints
Each Cdk has its own cyclin to activate it
Cyclin is made only at the right time
Cyclin is broken down by a protease after Cdk acts
Cyclin is synthesized in response to various molecular signals including
growth factors
Growth factor-cyclin synthesis-Cdk activation-cell cycle events
Example- Retinoblastoma protein (RB) acts as inhibitor at R point. To begin S
phase, cell must overcome the RB block. G1-S cyclin-Cdk catalyzes the
addition of phosphate to RB. This inactivates RB by changing its structure,
cell cycle is now able to proceed.

Binary fission and mitosis result in daughter cells with the same number of
chromosomes as their parent cells. Sexual reproduction requires a process of cell
division in which the number of chromosomes is halved.
Meiosis halves the Nuclear Chromosome Content and Generates Diversity
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Meiosis consists of two nuclear divisions that reduce the number of

chromosomes to the haploid number but DNA is replicated only once
Haploid cells that are the product of meiosis are genetically different from
one another and from the parent cell
Meiosis- reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid, ensures
that each of the haploid products has a complete set of chromosomes, and to
generate genetic diversity among the products

Meiotic division reduces the chromosome number

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Meiosis I is characterized by homologous chromosomes coming together and

lining up along their entire lengths and homologous chromosome pair
separate but the individual chromosomes , each with two sister chromatids
remain intact (chromatids separate during meiosis II)
Meiosis is preceded by an interphase with an S phase similar to mitosis,
during which each chromosome is replicated
Each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids
Two nuclei form at the end of meiosis I, each with half of the original
chromosomes- one member of each homologous pair
Since centromeres have not separated, the chromosomes are still doublecomposed of two sister chromatids
During meiosis II , sister chromatids are separated
Four cells are the result of meiosis I and II with each containing haploid
number of chromosomes- these four cells are not genetically identical