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Participative or democratic
Although good leaders use all three styles, with one of them normally dominate, bad
leaders tend to stick with one style.
Authoritarian (autocratic)
This style is used when the leader tells her employees what she wants done and
how she wants it done, without getting the advice of her followers. Some of the
appropriate conditions to use it is when you have all the information to solve the
problem, you are short on time, and your employees are well motivated.
Some people tend to think of this style as a vehicle for yelling, using demeaning
language, and leading by threats and abusing their power. This is not the
authoritarian style...rather it is an abusive, unprofessional style called bossing
people around. it has no place in a leaders repertoire.
The authoritarian style should normally only be used on rare occasions. If you have
the time and want to gain more commitment and motivation from your employees,
then you should use the participative style.
Participative (democratic)
This type of style involves the leader including one or more employees in on the
decision making process (determining what to do and how to do it). However, the
leader maintains the final decision making authority. Using this style is not a sign of
weakness, rather it is a sign of strength that your employees will respect.
This is normally used when you have part of the information, and your employees
have other parts. Note that a leader is not expected to know everything -- this is why
you employ k n o w l e d g e a b l e and s k i l l f u l employees. Using this style is of
mutual benefit -- it allows them to become part of the team and allows you to make
better decisions.
leader knows the problem, but does not have all the information. The
employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team.
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than
you. You cannot do everything! The employee needs to take ownership of her
job. Also, the situation might call for you to be at other places, doing other
things.
Using all three: Telling your employees that a procedure is not working
correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian). Asking for their
ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative). Delegating tasks in
order to implement the new procedure (delegative).
o
Internal conflicts.
There is a difference in ways leaders approach their employee. Positive leaders use
rewards, such as education, independence, etc. to motivate employees. While
negative employees emphasize penalties. While the negative approach has a place
in a leader's repertoire of tools, it must be used carefully due to its high cost on the
human spirit.
Negative leaders act domineering and superior with people. They believe the only
way to get things done is through penalties, such as loss of job, days off without pay,
reprimand employees in front of others, etc. They believe their authority is increased
by freighting everyone into higher lever of productivity. Yet what always happens
when this approach is used wrongly is that morale falls; which of course leads to
lower productivity.
Also note that most leaders do not strictly use one or another, but are somewhere on
a continuum ranging from extremely positive to extremely negative. People who
continuously work out of the negative are bosses while those who primarily work out
of the positive are considered real leaders.
Use of Consideration and Structure
Two other approaches that leaders use are:
Consideration (employee orientation) - Leaders are concerned about the human
needs of their employees. They build teamwork, help employees with their problems,
and provide psychological support.
Structure (task orientation) - Leaders believe that they get results by consistently
keeping people busy and urging them to produce.
There is evidence that leaders who are considerate in their leadership style are
higher performers and are more satisfied with their job.
Also notice that consideration and structure are independent of each other, thus they
should not be viewed on opposite ends of a continuum. For example, a leader who
becomes more considerate, does not necessarily mean that she has become less
structured.
Paternalism
Paternalism has at times been equated with leadership styles. Yet most definitions of
leadership normally state or imply that one of the actions within leadership is that of
influencing.
Leadership is influencing people -- by providing purpose, direction, and
motivation -- while operating to accomplish the mission and improving
the organization."
The Army further goes on by defining 'influence' as a:
means of getting people to do what you want them to do. It is the means or
method to achieve two ends: operating and improving. But theres
more to influencing than simply passing along orders. The example
you set is just as important as the words you speak. And you set an
example -- good or bad -- with every action you take and word you
utter, on or off duty. Through your words and example, you must
communicate purpose, direction, and motivation.
While 'paternalism' is defined as (Webster):
a system under which an authority undertakes to supply needs or regulate
conduct of those under its control in matters affecting them as
individuals as well as in their relationships to authority and to each
other.
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Thus paternalism supplies needs for those under its protection or control,
while leadership gets things done. The first is directed inwards, while the.
Latter is directed outwards.
However, when paternalistic or autocratic styles are relied upon too much and the employees
are ready and/or willing to react to a more consultive type of leadership style, then it
normally becomes quite damaging to the performance of the organization.
Leadership styles
Charismatic Leadership
Assumptions
Charm and grace are all that is needed to create followers.
Self-belief is a fundamental need of leaders.
People follow others that they personally admire.
Style
The Charismatic Leader gathers followers through dint of personality and charm,
rather than any form of external power or authority.
The searchlight of attention
It is interesting to watch a Charismatic Leader 'working the room' as they move
from person to person. They pay much attention to the person they are talking to at
any one moment, making that person feel like they are, for that time, the most
important person in the world.
Charismatic Leaders pay a great deal of attention in scanning and reading their
environment, and are good at picking up the moods and concerns of both
individuals and larger audiences. They then will hone their actions and words to
suit the situation.
Pulling all of the strings
Charismatic Leaders use a wide range of methods to manage their image and, if
they are not naturally charismatic, may practice assiduously at developing their
skills. They may engender trust through visible self-sacrifice and taking personal
risks in the name of their beliefs. They will show great confidence in their followers.
They are very persuasive and make very effective use of body language as well as
verbal language.
Deliberate charisma is played out in a theatrical sense, where the leader is 'playing
to the house' to create a desired effect. They also make effective use of
storytelling, including the use of symbolism and metaphor.
Many politicians use a charismatic style, as they need to gather a large number of
followers. If you want to increase your charisma, studying videos of their speeches
and the way they interact with others is a great source of learning. Religious
leaders, too, may well use charisma, as do cult leaders.
Leading the team
Charismatic Leaders who are building a group, whether it is a political party, a cult
or a business team, will often focus strongly on making the group very clear and
distinct, separating it from other groups. They will then build the image of the
group, in particular in the minds of their followers, as being far superior to all
others.
The Charismatic Leader will typically attach themselves firmly to the identify of the
group, such that to join the group is to become one with the leader. In doing so,
they create an unchallengeable position for themselves.
Alternative views
The description above is purely based on charisma and takes into account varying
moral positions. Other descriptions tend to assume a more benevolent approach.
Conger & Kanungo (1998) describe five behavioral attributes of Charismatic
Leaders that indicate a more transformational viewpoint:
Musser (1987) notes that charismatic leaders seek to instil both commitment to
ideological goals and also devotion to themselves. The extent to which either of
these two goals is dominant depends on the underlying motivations and needs of
the leader.
Discussion
The Charismatic Leader and the Transformational Leader can have many
similarities, in that the Transformational Leader may well be charismatic. Their
main difference is in their basic focus. Whereas the Transformational Leader has a
basic focus of transforming the organization and, quite possibly, their followers, the
Charismatic Leader may not want to change anything.
Despite their charm and apparent concern, the Charismatic Leader may well be
somewhat more concerned with themselves than anyone else. A typical experience
with them is that whilst you are talking with them, it is like being bathed in a warm
and pleasant glow, in which they are very convincing. Yet afterwards, ask the
sunbeam of their attention is moved elsewhere, you may begin to question what
they said (or even whether they said anything of significance at all).
The values of the Charismatic Leader are highly significant. If they are wellintentioned towards others, they can elevate and transform an entire company. If
they are selfish and Machiavellian, they can create cults and effectively rape the
minds (and potentially the bodies) of the followers.
Their self-belief is so high, they can easily believe that they are infallible, and
hence lead their followers into an abyss, even when they have received adequate
warning from others. The self-belief can also lead them into psychotic narcissism,
where their self-absorption or need for admiration and worship can lead to their
followers questioning their leadership.
They may also be intolerant of challengers and their irreplaceability (intentional or
otherwise) can mean that there are no successors when they leave.
Participative Leadership
Assumptions
Involvement in decision-making improves the understanding of the issues involved
by those who must carry out the decisions.
People are more committed to actions where they have involved in the relevant
decision-making.
People are less competitive and more collaborative when they are working on joint
goals.
When people make decisions together, the social commitment to one another is
greater and thus increases their commitment to the decision.
Several people deciding together make better decisions than one person alone.
Style
A Participative Leader, rather than taking autocratic decisions, seeks to involve
other people in the process, possibly including subordinates, peers, superiors and
other stakeholders. Often, however, as it is within the managers' whim to give or
deny control to his or her subordinates, most participative activity is within the
immediate team. The question of how much influence others are given thus may
vary on the manager's preferences and beliefs, and a whole spectrum of
participation is possible, as in the table below.
Leader
Team
proposes
proposes
Autocratic
decision,
decision,
decision by listens
to
leader has
leader
feedback,
final
then
decision
decides
Joint
Full
decision
delegation
with team as of decision
equals
to team
There are many varieties on this spectrum, including stages where the leader sells
the idea to the team. Another variant is for the leader to describe the 'what' of
objectives or goals and let the team or individuals decide the 'how' of the process
by which the 'how' will be achieved (this is often called 'Management by
Objectives').
The level of participation may also depend on the type of decision being made.
Decisions on how to implement goals may be highly participative, whilst decisions
during subordinate performance evaluations are more likely to be taken by the
manager.
Discussion
There are many potential benefits of participative leadership, as indicated in the
assumptions, above.
This approach is also known as consultation, empowerment, joint decision-making,
democratic leadership, Management By Objective (MBO) and power-sharing.
Participative Leadership can be a sham when managers ask for opinions and then
ignore them. This is likely to lead to cynicism and feelings of betrayal.
Situational Leadership
Assumptions
Assumptions
People are motivated by reward and punishment.
Social systems work best with a clear chain of command.
When people have agreed to do a job, a part of the deal is that they cede all
authority to their manager.
The prime purpose of a subordinate is to do what their manager tells them to do.
Style
The transactional leader works through creating clear structures whereby it is clear
what is required of their subordinates, and the rewards that they get for following
orders. Punishments are not always mentioned, but they are also well-understood
and formal systems of discipline are usually in place.
The early stage of Transactional Leadership is in negotiating the contract whereby
the subordinate is given a salary and other benefits, and the company (and by
implication the subordinate's manager) gets authority over the subordinate.
When the Transactional Leader allocates work to a subordinate, they are
considered to be fully responsible for it, whether or not they have the resources or
capability to carry it out. When things go wrong, then the subordinate is considered
to be personally at fault, and is punished for their failure (just as they are rewarded
for succeeding).
The transactional leader often uses management by exception, working on the
principle that if something is operating to defined (and hence expected)
performance then it does not need attention. Exceptions to expectation require
praise and reward for exceeding expectation, whilst some kind of corrective action
is applied for performance below expectation.
Whereas Transformational Leadership has more of a 'selling' style, Transactional
Leadership, once the contract is in place, takes a 'telling' style.
Discussion
Transactional leadership is based in contingency, in that reward or punishment is
contingent upon performance.
Despite much research that highlights its limitations, Transactional Leadership is
still a popular approach with many managers. Indeed, in the Leadership vs.
Management spectrum, it is very much towards the management end of the scale.
The main limitation is the assumption of 'rational man', a person who is largely
motivated by money and simple reward, and hence whose behavior is predictable.
The underlying psychology is Behaviorism, including the Classical Conditioning of
Pavlov and Skinner's Operant Conditioning. These theories are largely based on
controlled laboratory experiments (often with animals) and ignore complex
emotional factors and social values.
In practice, there is sufficient truth in Behaviorism to sustain Transactional
approaches. This is reinforced by the supply-and-demand situation of much
employment, coupled with the effects of deeper needs, as in Maslow's Hierarchy.
When the demand for a skill outstrips the supply, then Transactional Leadership
often is insufficient, and other approaches are more effective.
Transformational Leadership
Assumptions
People will follow a person who inspires them.
A person with vision and passion can achieve great things.
The way to get things done is by injecting enthusiasm and energy.
Style
Working for a Transformational Leader can be a wonderful and uplifting
experience. They put passion and energy into everything. They care about you and
want you to succeed.
Developing the vision
Transformational Leadership starts with the development of a vision, a view of the
future that will excite and convert potential followers. This vision may be developed
by the leader, by the senior team or may emerge from a broad series of
discussions. The important factor is the leader buys into it, hook, line and sinker.
Selling the vision
The next step, which in fact never stops, is to constantly sell the vision. This takes
energy and commitment, as few people will immediately buy into a radical vision,
and some will join the show much more slowly than others. The Transformational
Leader thus takes every opportunity and will use whatever works to convince
others to climb on board the bandwagon.
In order to create followers, the Transformational Leader has to be very careful in
creating trust, and their personal integrity is a critical part of the package that they
are selling. In effect, they are selling themselves as well as the vision.
Finding the way forwards
In parallel with the selling activity is seeking the way forward. Some
Transformational Leaders know the way, and simply want others to follow them.
Others do not have a ready strategy, but will happily lead the exploration of
possible routes to the promised land.
The route forwards may not be obvious and may not be plotted in details, but with a
clear vision, the direction will always be known. Thus finding the way forward can
be an ongoing process of course correction, and the Transformational Leader will
accept that there will be failures and blind canyons along the way. As long as they
feel progress is being made, they will be happy.
Leading the charge
The final stage is to remain up-front and central during the action. Transformational
Leaders are always visible and will stand up to be counted rather than hide behind
their troops. They show by their attitudes and actions how everyone else should
behave. They also make continued efforts to motivate and rally their followers,
constantly doing the rounds, listening, soothing and enthusing.
It is their unswerving commitment as much as anything else that keeps people
going, particularly through the darker times when some may question whether the
vision can ever be achieved. If the people do not believe that they can succeed,
then their efforts will flag. The Transformational Leader seeks to infect and reinfect
their followers with a high level of commitment to the vision.
One of the methods the Transformational Leader uses to sustain motivation is in
the use of ceremonies, rituals and other cultural symbolism. Small changes get big
hurrahs, pumping up their significance as indicators of real progress.
Overall, they balance their attention between action that creates progress and the
mental state of their followers. Perhaps more than other approaches, they are
people-oriented and believe that success comes first and last through deep and
sustained commitment.
Discussion
Whilst the Transformational Leader seeks overtly to transform the organization,
there is also a tacit promise to followers that they also will be transformed in some
way, perhaps to be more like this amazing leader. In some respects, then, the
followers are the product of the transformation.
Transformational Leaders are often charismatic, but are not as narcissistic as pure
Charismatic Leaders, who succeed through a believe in themselves rather than a
believe in others.
One of the traps of Transformational Leadership is that passion and confidence
can easily be mistaken for truth and reality. Whilst it is true that great things have
been achieved through enthusiastic leadership, it is also true that many passionate
people have led the charge right over the cliff and into a bottomless chasm. Just
because someone believes they are right, it does not mean they are right.
Paradoxically, the energy that gets people going can also cause them to give up.
Transformational Leaders often have large amounts of enthusiasm which, if
relentlessly applied, can wear out their followers.
Transformational Leaders also tend to see the big picture, but not the details,
where the devil often lurks. If they do not have people to take care of this level of
information, then they are usually doomed to fail.
Finally, Transformational Leaders, by definition, seek to transform. When the
organization does not need transforming and people are happy as they are, then
such a leader will be frustrated. Like wartime leaders, however, given the right
situation they come into their own and can be personally responsible for saving
entire companies.
The Quiet Leader
Assumptions
The actions of a leader speak louder than his or her words.
People are motivated when you give them credit rather than take it yourself.
Ego and aggression are neither necessary nor constructive.
Style
The approach of quiet leaders is the antithesis of the classic charismatic (and often
transformational) leaders in that they base their success not on ego and force of
character but on their thoughts and actions. Although they are strongly taskfocused, they are neither bullies nor unnecessarily unkind and may persuade
people through rational argument and a form of benevolent Transactional
Leadership.
The 'Level 5' leader
In his book Good To Great, Jim Collins, identified five levels of effectiveness people
can take in organizations. At level four is the merely effective leader, whilst at level
five the leader who combines professional will with personal humility. The
'professional will' indicates how they are far from being timid wilting flowers and will
march against any advice if they believe it is the right thing to do. In 'personal
humility' they put the well-being of others before their own personal needs, for
example giving others credit after successes but taking personal responsibility for
failures.
Taoist w ritings
The quiet leader is not a modern invention and Lao Tzu, who, in the classic Taoist
text Tao Te Ching, was discussing the same characteristic around 500 BC:
The very highest is barely known by men,
Then comes that which they know and love,
Then that which is feared,
Then that which is despised.
He who does not trust enough will not be trusted.
When actions are performed
Without unnecessary speech,
People say We did it!
Here again, the highest level of leadership is virtually invisible.
Discussion
To some extent, the emphasis on the quiet leader is a reaction against the lauding
of charismatic leaders in the press. In particular during the heady days of the dotcom boom of the 1990s, some very verbal leaders got much coverage. Meanwhile,
the quiet leaders were getting on with the job.
Being quiet, of course, is not the secret of the universe, and leaders still need to
see the way forwards. Their job can be harder when they are faced with people of
a more external character.
For people accustomed to an extraverted charismatic style, a quiet style can be
very confusing and they may downplay the person, which is usually a mistake.
Successful quiet leaders often play the values card to persuade others, showing
selfishness and lack of emotional control as being unworthy characteristics. Again
there is a trap in this and leadership teams can fall into patterns of behavior where
peace and harmony are prized over any form of challenge and conflict.
Servant leadership
Assumptions
The leader has responsibility for the followers.
Leaders have a responsibility towards society and those who are disadvantaged.
People who want to help others best do this by leading them.
Style
The servant leader serves others, rather than others serving the leader. Serving
others thus comes by helping them to achieve and improve.
There are two criteria of servant leadership:
The people served grow as individuals, becoming 'healthier, wiser, more
autonomous and more likely themselves to become servants' (Greenleaf,
1977).
The extent to which the leadership benefits those who are least advantaged
in society (or at least does not disadvantage them).
Principles of servant leadership defined by the Alliance for Servant Leadership are:
Transformation as a vehicle for personal and institutional growth.
Personal growth as a route to better serve others.
Enabling environments that empower and encourage service.
Service as a fundamental goals.
Trusting relationships as a basic platform for collaboration and service.
Creating commitment as a way to collaborative activity.
Community building as a way to create environments in which people can
trust each other and work together.
Nurturing the spirit as a way to provide joy and fulfilment in meaningful work.
It is easy to dismiss servant leadership as soft and easy, though this is not
necessarily so, as individual followers may be expected to make sacrifices for the
good of the whole, in the way of the servant leader.
The focus on the less privileged in society shows the servant leader as serving not
just their followers but also the whole of society.
Servant leadership is a natural model for working in the public sector. It requires
more careful interpretation in the private sector lest the needs of the shareholders
and customers and the rigors of market competition are lost.
A challenge to servant leadership is in the assumption of the leader that the
followers want to change. There is also the question of what 'better' is and who
decides this.
Servant leadership aligns closely with religious morals and has been adopted by
several Christian organizations.
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In 1938, Lewin and Lippitt proposed classifications of leaders. These were based on
how much involvement leaders placed onto task and relationship needs. These
types of leadership behavior were expressed in 1973 along a continuum by
Tannebaum & Schmidt. The spectrum ranges from boss-centered (task) to
subordinate-centered (relationship).
To choose the most appropriate style and use of authority, the leader should take
into consideration:
1.
Forces in the manager: belief in team member participation and
confidence in capabilities of members. Compare: Theory of Needs
2.
Forces in the subordinate person: subordinates who are independent,
tolerant of ambiguity, competent, identify with organizational goals.
3.
Forces in the situation:
o
the team has requisite knowledge.
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the team has organizational values and traditions.
o
the team works effectively.
4.
Time pressure: need for immediate decision under pressure. Mitigates
against participation.
Advantages
of
the
Leadership
Continuum
Model.
Benefits
Gives managers a range of choices for involvement.
Focuses the decision maker on relevant criteria (e.g. forces & time).
In doing the research for his first book, Daniel Goleman became aware of Salovey
and Mayers work in the early 1990s. Being trained as a psychologist at Harvard,
where he worked with David McClelland, Goleman wrote the popular bestseller
"Emotional Intelligence" (1995), in which he offered the first ' proof' that emotional
and social factors are important.
Self-management
(Emotional
Self-Control.
Transparency
(Trustworthiness). Adaptability. Achievement Orientation. Initiative. Optimism.
Conscientiousness)
IQ or EI?
According to some scientists, IQ by itself is not a very good predictor of job
performance. Hunter and Hunter (1984) estimated that at best IQ accounts for about
25 percent of the variance. Sternberg (1996) has pointed out that studies vary and
that 10 percent may be a more realistic estimate. In some studies, IQ accounts for as
little as 4 percent of the variance. In a recent meta-analysis examining the correlation
and predictive validity of EI when compared to IQ or general mental ability, Van Rooy
and Viswesvaran (2004) found IQ to be a better predictor of work and academic
performance than EI. However, when it comes to the question of whether a person
will become a "star performer" (in the top ten percent, however such performance is
appropriately assessed) within that role, or be an outstanding leader, IQ may be a
less powerful predictor than emotional intelligence (Goleman 1998, 2001, 2002).
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6.
Limitations
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Disadvantages
Aimed at large organizations. Can however be used in medium-sized
businesses as well, by removing the group management level and
understanding that the business manager is also doing the work of the
enterprise manager.
Book: Jim Collins - Good to Great - Why Some Companies Make the Leap and
Others Don't -
Charismatic people have a remarkable ability to distill complex ideas into simple
messages ("I have a dream"); they communicate by using symbols, analogies,
metaphors and stories. Furthermore they relish risk and feel empty without it, they
are great optimists, they are rebels who fight convention, and they may seem
idiosyncratic.
Dominant.
Strong desire to influence others.
Self-confident.
Strong sense of ones own moral values.
Usage
of
the
Charismatic
Leadership
style.
Applications
In difficult times or circumstances, such as an urgent organizational
turnaround. Compare: Crisis Management.
Limitations
of
Charismatic
Leadership
style.
Disadvantages
Results in relatively strong, unchallenged levels of obedience.
Tendency of gathering weak "yes-men" around him. Poor delegation.
W h a t i s E P I C AD V I S E R S ? D e s c r ip t i o n
The EPIC ADVISERS model from Stephen Banhegyi is an African leadership
framework based on attribution theory and self perception. Most of the models that
are used to teach principles of leadership were developed by Western consultants
and professors. According to Banhegyi, effective leadership requires the
understanding and exercise of certain personality and leadership traits by the person
that is playing the role of leader. All leaders surveyed in a major 2002 survey
suggested that they used these traits to some extent in their experience of
leadership. The model suggests that the making of myth, meaning and reality
A clear and remarkable example of such leadership is that of King Shaka of the Zulu
nation in the early 19th century. Shaka appears to have been on of the first to realize
that if he invited leaders of his various regiments to discuss battle plans, they would
all have a better chance of success. A 'consultative' approach to war.
The behavior and style of Shaka was so different and unique that his people called
him unodumehlezi kaMenzi (meaning the one who gazes into the heavens). Shaka
would make time to sit, to meditate, to think and to contemplate. At the same time,
he was clearly a man of the people in that he would not only plan an offensive, but
he would join with, train and fight alongside his followers. The leadership style of
Shaka was a quantum leap from what had had been experienced in Africa up until
that time. Before Shaka, wars had been fought in other ways. These innovations
were the reason why the Zulu nation became so powerful.
The model focuses not on the traditional "trait and situation" approaches but rather
on the things that successful leaders actually do and the things they know about
themselves. These actions and beliefs indicate underlying value systems and predict
certain behaviors. The 12 elements of the model are:
EPIC
E: Emotion
o
A state of mind that can arise spontaneously as well as through
conscious effort.
o
Emotions are often accompanied by changes in the body.
o
Emotions also refer to that part of consciousness that involves
feelings; excitement of the feelings (whether pleasing or painful);
ADVISERS
A: Authority
o
The power to enforce laws, exact obedience, to command, to
determine, or to judge.
o
People with authority include your parents, your peers, the
courts, the police, the church, popular culture etcetera.
Some
types
of
authority
include:
Charismatic
Traditional
Legal
Formal
Functional
D: Drama
o
A feeling of drama, ritual and occasion is vitally important to
create milestones in time.
o
The drama and ritual also allows everyone to experience the
same emotions at the same time.
o
Leaders have an instinct for knowing when drama ought to be
used to make a point, create an impression or mark a point in history.
o
Drama could be used to enliven otherwise mundane events.
Events such as when a new customer is acquired, a project is
completed or a new employee is hired.
V: Vision
o
The ability to see what does not yet exist.
o
And to be able to describe it in such a way, that others become
sufficiently excited and interested and the vision becomes a reality.
I: Intention
o
An action that a person intends to follow.
o
A desired outcome that someone sees and he wishes to achieve
it at the end of a process.
S: Storytelling & Journey Making
o
The ability to create a story or myth that is interesting and
persuasive enough to convince others to start using it as a way of
describing their reality.
o
The journey-making-component of story telling describes the
movement from where we are at the moment to where we are going.
E: Experience
o
An attitude of confidence expressed by the leader that whatever
must be done can be done and will be done by the role-players.
o
Irrespective of its complexity.
o
The leader here expresses faith in her followers. They respond
in return in a way that justifies this faith.
R: Role Modeling
o
Emulating the characteristics, behavior and language of
someone else. In order to capture a mood state and a way of being.
o
Role modeling is a crucial and often-unconscious mechanism
used by people to confirm their allegiance to a group or cause.
S: Self Perception
O r i g i n o f t h e E P I C AD V I S E R S f r a m e w o r k . H is t o r y
Analysis by Banhegyi of interviews by 600 students from CIDA University in 2002
with hundreds of leaders of companies in (South-) Africa. It is necessary to
understand some of the principles and history of African culture, religion and
spirituality before trying to understand African leadership. This is because there are
certain subtle ways of organizing people, setting direction, motivating and creating
reality that can be better understood by looking at peoples spiritual and religious
heritage. Additionally, in studying organizations and communities throughout Africa, it
becomes apparent that leaders themselves are much closer in attitude and behavior
to priests and shamans than the commonly accepted stereotype of what a western
leader is.
U s a g e o f E P I C AD V I S E R S . Ap p l i c a t i o n s
S t e p s i n t h e E P I C AD V I S E R S m o d e l. P r o c e s s
1.
Read about a particular technique.
2.
Imagine using it.
3.
Feel whether the technique is right for you and what it is you are at the
moment.
4.
If the technique feels right, use it with all the passion you can muster.
5.
Test it.
6.
If you are happy with the result, allow the technique to become part of
you.
S t r e n g t h s o f t h e E P I C AD V I S E R S . B e n e f it s
L im it a t io n s o f t h e E P I C AD V I S E R S . D is a d va n t a g e s
Leading
by
serving
first.
Explanation
of
Servant-
of
the
Servant-Leadership
philosophy.
Benefits
Servant-leadership is a long-term, transformational approach to life and
work - in essence, a way of being - that has the potential for creating positive
change throughout society.
Limitations
of
the
Servant-Leadership
concept.
Disadvantages
It is not a quick-fix approach. Nor is it something that can be quickly
instilled within an institution.
Offering paths to achieve goals. Explanation of PathGoal Theory of Robert House. ('71)
What is the Path-Goal Theory? Description
This idea of Robert House holds that a leader can affect the performance,
satisfaction, and motivation of a group by:
Subordinates' Personality
o
Locus of Control. A participative leader is suitable for
subordinates with internal locus of control; A directive leader is
suitable for subordinates with external locus of control.
o
Self-perceived ability. Subordinates that believe they have a
high ability themselves, do not like directive leadership. Compare:
Attribution Theory
Characteristics of the environment:
o
When a group is working on a task that has a high structure,
directive leadership is redundant and less effective.
o
When a highly formal authority system is in place, directive
leadership can again reduce workers' satisfaction.
o
When subordinates are in a team environment offering great
social support, the supportive leadership style becomes less
necessary.
According to House, there are four different types of leadership styles depending on
the situation.
Hard
or
Soft
Theory
Management?
of
Explanation
McGregor.
('60).
of
Theory
Explanation
X
of
Theory X
Theory Y
Assumptions
Humans inherently dislike working and will try to avoid it if they can.
People view work as being as natural as play and rest. Humans expend the same
amount of physical and mental effort in their work as in their private lives.
Because people dislike work they have to be coerced or controlled by management
and threatened so they work hard enough.
Provided people are motivated, they will be self-directing to the aims of the
organization. Control and punishment are not the only mechanisms to let people
perform.
Average employees want to be directed.
Job satisfaction is key to engaging employees and ensuring their commitment.
People don't like responsibility.
People learn to accept responsibility and seek responsibility. Average humans, under
the proper conditions, will not only accept, but even naturally seek responsibility.
Average humans are clear and unambiguous and want to feel secure at work.
People are imaginative and creative. Their ingenuity should be used to solve
problems at work.
Application
Shop Floor, Mass Manufacturing. Production workers.
Professional Services, Knowledge Workers. Managers and Professionals.
Conducive to
Large scale efficient operations.
Management of Professionals, Participative Complex Problem Solving.
Management Style
Authoritarian, Hard Management.
Participative, Soft Management.
Theory Z - Ouchi
In 1981, William Ouchi came up with a variant that combined American and
Japanese management practices together to form Theory Z, having the following
characteristics: long-term employment - collective decision-making - individual
responsibility - slow evaluation & promotion - implicit, informal control with explicit,
formalized measures - moderately specialized career paths - and a holistic concern
for the employee, including family
The
optimal
making
various
organization
style
is
internal
leadership
dependent
and
decision-
(contingent)
external
upon
constraints
Analyzing
organizational
leadership
roles.
effectiveness
Explanation
of
and
Competing
What
is
the
Competing
Values
Framework?
Explanation
The Competing Values Framework of Robert Quinn and Rohrbaugh is a theory that
was developed initially from research done on the major indicators of effective
organizations. Based on statistical analyses of a comprehensive list of effectiveness
indicators, Quinn and Rohrbaugh (1983) discovered two major dimensions
underlying conceptions of effectiveness
The Competing Values Framework got its name because the criteria within the four
models at first seem to carry conflicting messages. Organizations must be adaptable
and flexible, but we want them at the same time to be stable and controlled. A
paradox.
Each quadrant of the framework represents one of four major models of organization
and management theory (Quinn 1988):
1.
Human Relations Model. Places a lot of emphasis on flexibility and
internal focus. It stresses cohesion, morale, and human resources
development as criteria for effectiveness.
2.
Open Systems Model. Emphasizes flexibility and external focus, and
stresses readiness, growth, resource acquisition and external support.
3.
Rational Goal Model. Emphasizes control and an external focus. It
regards planning, goal setting, productivity and efficiency as being effective.
Internal Process Model. Emphasizes control and an internal focus, and stresses
the role of information management, communication, stability and control.
Quinn argues that more effective managers have the ability to play multiple, even
competing leadership roles. Managers are expected to play all of these roles. And
they should simultaneously consider and balance the competing demands that are
represented by each set of expectations.
The Competing Values Framework can be used in organizational context. It can be
used as a strategic tool to develop supervision and management programs. It can
also be used to help organizations diagnose their existing and desired cultures.
Furthermore, it can be seen as a tool to examine organizational gaps. Another
function might be to use it as a teaching tool for practicing managers. Or to help
interpret and understand various organizational functions and processes. Another
application is: to help organizational members better understand the similarities and
differences of managerial leadership roles.
Adopting
the
different
situation.
leadership
styles
Explanation
of
depending
on
Situational
S2 - Selling / Coaching - High task focus, high relationship focus leaders still define roles and tasks, but seeks ideas and suggestions from the
follower. Decisions remain the leader's prerogative, but communication is
much more two-way. For people who have some competence but lack
commitment. They need direction and supervision because they are still
relatively inexperienced. They also need support and praise to build their selfesteem, and involvement in decision-making to restore their commitment.
Likewise, the competence and commitment of the follower can also be distinguished
in 4 quadrants.
Similar to the leadership styles, the development levels are also situational. A person
could be skilled, confident and motivated for one part of his his job, but could be less
competent for another part of the job.
Blanchard and Hersey said that the Leadership Style (S1 - S4) of the leader must
correspond to the Development level (D1 - D4) of the follower - and it's the leader
who adapts. By adopting the right style to suit the follower's development level, work
gets done, relationships are built up, and most importantly, the follower's
development level will rise to D4, to everyone's benefit.
Strengths
of
the
Situational
Leadership
model.
Leadership
model.
Benefits
Easy to understand
Easy to use
Limitations
of
the
Situational
Disadvantages
Model fails to distinguish between leadership and management. What
is called leadership style is really management style. Compare also:
Leadership Pipeline
Leaders may indeed vary the way they inspire people to change. But
this is when they have already decided on the need to change. Hence
leadership style does not reduce to decision making style.
There are four leadership styles that match the four combinations of
high/low readiness and willingness.
The four styles suggest that leaders should put greater or less focus on
the task in question and/or the relationship between the leader and the
follower.
Leadership
and
Management.
Explanation
of
Seven
3.
Put first things first. A manager must manage his own person.
Personally. And managers should implement activities which aim to achieve
the second habit. Covey says that habit 2. is the first, or mental creation;
habit 3 is the second, or physical creation.
4.
Think win-win. This is the most important aspect of interpersonal
leadership, because most achievements are based on shared effort.
Therefore the aim needs to be win-win solutions for all.
5.
Seek first to understand and then to be understood. By developing
and maintaining positive relationships through good communications, the
manager is understood by others, and he can understand the subordinates.
6.
Synergize. This is the habit of creative cooperation: the principle that
collaborating towards attaining a purpose often achieves more, than could be
achieved by individuals working independently.
7.
Sharpen the saw. We should learn from our previous experiences.
And we should encourage others to do the same. Covey sees development
as one of the most important aspects for being able to cope with challenges,
and for aspiring towards higher levels of ability.
In his 2004 book: "The 8th Habit: From Effectiveness to Greatness", Covey
introduces an additional eighth habit:
8.
Find your voice and inspire others to find theirs. Striving towards
"greatness", means to act with integrity as an individual and to help others to
do the same. According to Covey, this habit represents the 3rd dimension of
his model. Greatness is the overlap of:
Behavior Attributes:
Expressiveness is our interest in others and in the world around us. People who
are expressive are reserved, quiet, private and self sufficient. People who are
Expressive like attracting attention. They are outgoing, affectionate and easy to talk
to.
Assertiveness is the energy we invest in communicating our thoughts, beliefs, and
feelings. People who are assertive are easy going, amiable and even passive.
People who are assertive are driving, competitive and even confrontational.
Flexibility is our willingness to accommodate the thoughts and actions of other
people and to meet their needs. People who arte flexible have strong opinions,
prefer defined situation, and can be stubborn. FLEXIBLE people are
accommodating, open to suggestions, and can be indecisive.
Emergenetics leadership:
What analytical brain bring to the table
People with strong preference for analytical thinking can be very good at helping to
define and analyse the problems. They are themselves as straightforward,clear and
purposeful. They must have facts, figures, directions , reasons to approach any task.
In a team situation they say lets check out our decision to see if its feasible to
implement
If we look over the shoulder of someone with an analytical profile, you might see
some thing like this:
1. Analysis
a. Mission?
b. Work break down structure
c. Financial analysis
Cost/benefits
Risk
Profitability
2. Project assignments
a. Change management
b. Roles and responsibilities
c. Success metrics
3. Work the plan
a. Communication
b. Road blocks/critical path
4. Review
a. Six- month efficiency evaluation
b. Retool
What structural brains bring to the table
People with a strong preference for structural thinking can be excellent in
defining the problem and assisting with implements. They see themselves as the
source for making systemic links to determine the scope of the problem. They
organize the components of the problem and the possible situations. In a team
situation they ask, How does this idea apply to our situation?
If you look over the shoulder of someone with a structural profile, yomigh see some
thing like this:
1. Define objectives
2. Develop process map
3. Indentify roles/responsibilities
4. Develop time line/ schedule
5. Establish milestones and checkpoints
6. Make communication plan
7. Determine success measures
8. Identify project control mechanism
CALL ROBB