Fabrication of microchannels in fused silica using femtosecond Bessel beams

D. A. Yashunin, Yu. A. Malkov, L. A. Mochalov, and A. N. Stepanov

Citation: Journal of Applied Physics 118, 093106 (2015); doi: 10.1063/1.4929649
View online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4929649
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JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSICS 118, 093106 (2015)

Fabrication of microchannels in fused silica using femtosecond Bessel

beams
D. A. Yashunin,1,2,a) Yu. A. Malkov,1 L. A. Mochalov,1,2,3 and A. N. Stepanov1,2,3
1

Institute of Applied Physics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 46 Ulyanov Str., Nizhny Novgorod 603950,
Russia
2
Nizhny Novgorod State Technical University, 24 Minin St., Nizhny Novgorod 603950, Russia
3
Lobachevsky State University of Nizhny Novgorod, 23 Gagarin Ave., Nizhny Novgorod 603950, Russia

(Received 20 May 2015; accepted 15 August 2015; published online 1 September 2015)
Extended birefringent waveguiding microchannels up to 15 mm long were created inside fused
silica by single-pulse irradiation with femtosecond Bessel beams. The birefringent refractive index
change of 24  104 is attributed to residual mechanical stress. The microchannels were chemically etched in KOH solution to produce 15 mm long microcapillaries with smooth walls and a
high aspect ratio of 1:250. Bessel beams provide higher speed of material processing compared to
conventional multipulse femtosecond laser micromachining techniques and permit simple control
of the optical axis direction of the birefringent waveguides, which is important for practical applications [Corrielli et al., Rotated waveplates in integrated waveguide optics, Nat. Commun. 5,
C 2015 AIP Publishing LLC. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4929649]
4249 (2014)]. V

INTRODUCTION

Femtosecond laser micromachining is a promising technique for creating passive photonic and microfluidic devices
in transparent optical materials.1 The most widespread and
well-studied regime of micromachining is exposure to tightly
focused laser radiation with high repetition rate into material
by microscope objectives. Fused silica is a widely used material for femtosecond laser micromachining, thanks to its
availability and optical transparency up to the vacuum ultraviolet wavelength range. Multipulse femtosecond laser
micromachining of fused silica has been well studied and
allows producing waveguiding microchannels with isotropic
and birefringent refractive index change,25 Bragg grating
waveguides,4,6 and three-dimensional waveguiding structures, such as optical couplers.7
Several studies were devoted to selective etching of
fused silica locally modified by femtosecond laser radiation
in aqueous solutions of hydrofluoric acid (HF)8 and potassium hydroxide (KOH)9 that permits creating microfluidic
structures, which are in great demand for biochemical and
medical diagnostics. Etching in the KOH solution provides
better selectivity than in the HF solution and enables forming microcapillaries with a higher aspect ratio,9 which is
important for fabricating compact microfluidic devices.
Recently, methods of femtosecond laser micromachining
have been used for producing gas-filled targets of complex
shape for charged particles acceleration by high-power
laser systems.10
Despite great advance in femtosecond laser micromachining of fused silica, the speed of material processing in
the regime of conventional multipulse exposure is limited by
the pulse repetition rate of a laser system. An alternative
approach to microchannel fabrication in optical media is to
a)

Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. Electronic mail:

yashuninda@yandex.ru

0021-8979/2015/118(9)/093106/5/$30.00

use femtosecond Bessel beams in a single shot regime for

which production of short nanocapillaries in thin glasses11
and extended microstructures in the bulk of glass12,13 has already been shown. Microstructures fabricated in fused silica
by Bessel beams can be selectively etched in an HF solution
to produce microcapillaries with aspect ratios up to 1:50.14,15
However, the mechanism of microchannel formation by a
single-pulse Bessel beam, optical properties of fabricated
microstructures, and possibilities of producing microfluidic
structures with high aspect ratio at etching in KOH have not
been investigated yet.
In the present paper, we study in detail optical properties
and mechanism of formation of microchannels in fused silica
under irradiation with femtosecond Bessel beams formed by
axicon focusing of laser radiation. We demonstrate that femtosecond Bessel beams at single-pulse exposure allow forming extended waveguiding microchannels having length up
to 15 mm with birefringent refractive index change of
24  104. The birefringent refractive index change is
attributed to the residual mechanical stress in fused silica
caused by densification of the modified material as a result of
formation of a crack-like structure. We study chemical etching of microchannels in KOH solution that produces 15 mm
long microcapillaries with a high aspect ratio up to 1:250.
MICROCHANNEL FABRICATION

The scheme of the experiment on micromachining is

shown in Fig. 1. Linearly polarized femtosecond laser radiation (pulse duration 60 fs, wavelength 800 nm, and pulse
energy up to 10 mJ) was focused by a conical axicon lens
with a base angle of 25 deep into fused silica samples 5 mm
and 15 mm thick.15 The diameter of the laser beam with
nearly Gaussian intensity distribution incident on the axicon
was varying from 15 to 29 mm (at 1/e2 intensity level).
Figure 2 shows characteristic transverse and axial intensity distributions of laser radiation (pulse duration 12 ns,

118, 093106-1

C 2015 AIP Publishing LLC

V

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J. Appl. Phys. 118, 093106 (2015)

FIG. 1. (a) Scheme of the experiment on microchannels fabrication in fused silica by axicon focusing of femtosecond laser radiation. Typical images of microchannels formed by (b) a single laser pulse and (c) by a train of laser pulses in an optical microscope: on the leftside view, on the righttop view after sample polishing.

wavelength 800 nm, and 1/e2 incident beam diameter

13 mm) passed through the axicon, which is in a good agreement with theoretical calculations.16 The fused silica sample
end face was spaced apart from the axicon tip so that the
maximum of the laser radiation intensity along the axicon
axis was inside the target material.
Two types of sample exposure were used in experiment:
by a single laser pulse with an energy of 0.28.0 mJ, and by
a train of laser pulses (10100 pulses, frequency 10 Hz) with
energies 0.57.0 mJ irradiating the same spot of the sample.

When a sample was exposed to a single laser pulse, a

homogeneous channel was formed in the focal region of
the axicon when the pulse energy exceeded a certain threshold value Wth (for the beam having diameter d 15 mm,
Wth  2 mJ, and for d 29 mm, and Wth  4 mJ) (Fig. 1(b)).
The diameter of the homogeneous microchannels was several micrometers, which is comparable to the characteristic
transverse size of the axicon-produced Bessel beam.
Diagnostics of the structures at the channel facets by optical
microscopy and atomic force microscopy showed craters
shaped as concentric rings in the input face of the sample,
which resembled the transverse intensity distribution of the
incident Bessel beam.
Multiple exposure of the same sample spot to Bessel
beams resulted in formation of inhomogeneous channels consisting of numerous microscopic inhomogeneitiesbubbles
(Fig. 1(c)). With increasing energy and number of the pulses,
the diameter of the channels increased up to about 20 lm. The
formation of inhomogeneous channels is evidently due to scattering of the incident laser radiation by the structure inside the
sample formed by the preceding laser pulses.
The length of the fabricated microchannels was determined by the length of fused silica samples and varied from
5 to 15 mm. After the samples had been polished, the transverse section of homogeneous channels featured crack-like
structure with constant orientation (Fig. 1(b)), which was not
dependent on the polarization direction of the incident femtosecond laser beam.
OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MICROCHANNELS

FIG. 2. Typical (a) transverse and (b) axial intensity distributions of laser
radiation after axicon.

The waveguiding properties of the microchannels were

investigated by focusing linearly polarized radiation of a
HeNe laser (wavelength k  633 nm) at their input. It was
found that the inhomogeneous channels formed with multipulse exposure of the same sample spot (Fig. 1(c)) have no
explicit waveguiding, whereas homogeneous microchannels
(Fig. 1(b)) created by single laser pulses strongly confine
optical radiation. Typical intensity distribution of the radiation passed through a homogeneous channel is depicted in
Fig. 3(a). This distribution represents two bright regions on
both sides of the crack-like structure. Each of these regions

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J. Appl. Phys. 118, 093106 (2015)

FIG. 3. (a) Radiation intensity distribution at 15 mm long microchannel output.

The arrow points to the polarization direction of exciting radiation of HeNe
laser corresponding to the maximal transmission coefficient. The inset shows
the plot of radiation intensity at the microchannel output versus polarization
angle of incident field. (b) Change of refractive index in microchannel calculated numerically for the intensity distribution in Figure 3(a).

may be excited independently by changing parameters of

laser radiation focusing onto the microchannel input.
The transmission coefficient through waveguiding channels strongly depends on the direction of incident field polarization due to birefringent refractive index change of the
fabricated structures. The transmission coefficient is maximal
when the radiation polarization of the HeNe laser is parallel to
the crack-like structure of the channel; in the case of orthogonal polarization, there is almost no transmission (see the inset
in Fig. 3(a)). The maximum transmission coefficient in a
15 mm long microchannel was 27%, which corresponds to
losses less than 0.4 dB/cm (losses on mode matching are not
taken into account).
Using the measured intensity distribution of the radiation
passed through the microchannel Ix; y (Fig. 3), we reconstructed two-dimensional distribution of the refractive index
change Dnx; y of the modified material, assuming that
the transmitted radiation corresponds to the eigenmode of
the waveguiding channel and using the expression
Dnx; y   2k12 n0
0

r2? E 17
E ,

where E is electric field amplitude

and k0 is the wave number in vacuum.

It is seen in Fig. 3(b) that the index of refraction of the

crack-like structure in the center of the channel varies negatively, and on each side, there are waveguiding regions
with birefringent positive refractive index change that
amounts to about 24  104. The calculated distribution
of the refractive index of the microchannels material is in a
qualitative agreement with results of transversal optical
interferometry, which has revealed negative variation of the
refractive index of homogeneous microchannels at their
center and positive variation in the surrounding region. In
addition, it was shown that the refractive index change in
the bubbles of the inhomogeneous channels is negative
(see supplementary material18).
Numeric calculations of waveguide mode propagation
were done for the profile of refractive index change
depicted in Fig. 3(b). The calculations showed that such
waveguide supports modes with polarizations both parallel
and perpendicular to the crack-like structure. However, the
orthogonal mode was not excited in the experiments. This
indicates that the microchannel refractive index change
strongly depends on the polarization direction of the incident optical radiation.
Formation of microchannels is accompanied by generation of luminous plasma, which results in significant
absorption of femtosecond radiation and heating of the material. The mechanism of formation of homogeneous microchannels is connected with high pressure of fused material
occurring in the focal region of the axicon, which exceeds
compression and tensile strength of fused silica19 and has
an asymmetric radial profile due to slightly nonsymmetric
spatial intensity distribution of the beam incident on the
axicon. As a result, a crack-like structure with negative refractive index change is created in the center of the channel,
on each side of which regions of densified material with
positive refractive index change are formed. According to
the model, the sample material contains residual mechanical stress, the characteristic magnitude of which may be
assessed as the magnitude of tensile strength of fused silica
equal to 50 MPa according to the data of the manufacturer.
This estimate gives the magnitude of birefringent refractive
index change Dn  2  104 (Ref. 20) that agrees well with
results of reconstruction of refractive index from radiation
intensity distribution at the output of a homogeneous channel (Fig. 3).
Note that the orientation of the crack-like structure (and,
hence, of the optical axis of the birefringent refractive index
change) was the same over the cross-section of all formed
homogeneous microchannels and did not depend on the
polarization direction of the femtosecond laser radiation.
Spatial orientation of the optical axis in microchannels can
be simply controlled by changing the symmetry of the laser
beam incident on the axicon (e.g., when the beam is
extended along a certain axis) or by rotating the sample
around the axicon axis. To demonstrate the ability of controlling the microchannel optical axis, we have fabricated waveguides with a length of 7.2 mm by rotating the sample
around the axicon axis with simultaneous single-pulse irradiation. The formed waveguides had controllable orientation
of the optical axis (Fig. 4). Thus, axicon focusing may be

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J. Appl. Phys. 118, 093106 (2015)

FIG. 4. Near-field mode profiles of waveguides with different optical axis orientations, fabricated by rotating the sample around the axicon axis. The arrow
shows the polarization direction of exciting radiation of HeNe probe laser corresponding to maximal transmission.

used to form highly demanded birefringent waveguides with

arbitrary orientation of the optical axis, which is challenging
in the case of exposure to tightly focused Gaussian beams.21
CHEMICAL ETCHING OF MICROCHANNELS IN KOH

A sample containing both homogeneous and inhomogeneous microchannels 15 mm thick was etched in aqueous solution of KOH with a concentration of 40% at temperature
T 70 C in the ultrasonic bath. The etching rate varied in
time. It slowed down with increasing microcapillary length
as a result of formation of hydrogen bubbles,9 which could
accumulate in the microcapillary and thus hinder reagent
renewal. At the initial stage, after the sample had been
etched for 74 h, microcapillaries having length up to 4 mm
were formed at each end face of the sample. The aspect ratio
of the microcapillaries in this case amounted to 1:550, which
is an order of magnitude more than that of the microcapillaries obtained by etching microchannels in HF solution.15 The
average rate of etching homogeneous and inhomogeneous
microchannels was approximately identical, about 0.7 lm/
min, which is much less than the etching rate in HF that was
6 lm/min.15
After that, the sample was etched under the same conditions (40% KOH solution and T 70  C) but without ultrasonic bath until capillaries were formed throughout the
entire sample thickness. Eventually, after additional 200 h of
etching, we obtained extended 15 mm long microcapillaries
taping to the center of the sample with optically smooth
walls and aspect ratio up to 1:250. The characteristic images
of the formed microcapillaries are presented in Figs. 5(a) and
5(b).

In Ref. 9, it was shown that, in addition to material densification, selective etching of the microchannels fabricated
at multipulse exposure to femtosecond laser radiation
focused by microscopic objectives may occur as a result of
formation of Si-rich structures.
The structural changes of the material of microchannels
formed at axicon focusing of laser radiation were studied by
fluorescence microscopy. The measured luminescence spectra
of microchannel material excited by laser radiation at the
wavelength of 400 nm are presented in Fig. 5(c). The luminescence spectra of the microchannels produced at single shot
and multipulse exposure have two peaks in the regions of
480 nm and 620 nm that correspond, respectively, to the
oxygen-deficiency centers (ODC) and to the nonbridging
oxygen-hole centers (NBOHC).2224 The presence of ODC
and NBOHC defects indicates the formation of Si-rich structures etching of which in KOH leads to formation of the precipitates and hydrogen bubbles9 observed in our experiments.
The presented experimental facts indicate that the mechanism of selective etching in KOH solution of microchannels
fabricated using Bessel beams is the same as for microchannels formed at multipulse exposure to tightly focused
Gaussian beams, namely, material densification and formation of Si-rich structures.
CONCLUSION

We have performed an experimental study of the optical

properties of microchannels fabricated in fused silica with
exposure to femtosecond Bessel beams. Extended 15 mm
long microchannels having birefringent waveguiding properties have been formed at a single-pulse exposure. Residual

FIG. 5. (a) and (b) Optical images of

formed microcapillaries after sample
etching in 40% KOH solution: (a) side
view, (b) on the leftside view, on the
righttop view of microchannels
marked in Figure 5(a). Distance
between microcapillaries is 200 lm.
(c) Microchannel luminescence spectra
excited by laser radiation with a wavelength of 400 nm normalized to the
region of 480 nm.

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Yashunin et al.

mechanical stress in fused silica is responsible for birefringent refractive index change of 24  104. By chemical
etching of the microchannels in KOH solution, we produced
hollow microchannels with optically smooth walls having
length 15 mm and aspect ratio up to 1:250. The mechanism
of selective etching of microchannels formed in fused silica
at exposure to Bessel beams, as well as at multipulse exposure to tightly focused Gaussian beams is enhanced etching
rate of Si-rich structures and densified material. The new
results obtained in this work advance femtosecond laser
micromachining in the field of fabrication of birefringent
waveguiding microchannels with arbitrary orientation of the
optical axis and microfluidic structures with high aspect
ratio.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors are grateful to V. N. Burenina, N. M.

Bityurin, and N. A. Agareva for help in chemical etching of
microchannels. This work was supported partially by the
RFBR Grant No. 14-02-31885, by the Ministry of Education
and Science of the Russian Federation under Contract No.
14.Z50.31.0007 and by the Russian Scientific Foundation
(Contract No. 15-19-00147).
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