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Unit - 5
Refrigeration
Refrigeration is a process in which work is done to move heat from one location to another.
The work of heat transport is traditionally driven by mechanical work, but can also be driven by
magnetism, laser or other means. Refrigeration has many applications, including household
refrigerators, industrial freezers, cryogenics, air conditioning, and heat pumps.

Basic principle of refrigeration

The basic principle used for refrigeration is: Expansion of a gas reduces its temperature. The
second principle is the Second Law of Thermodynamics: When two surfaces of different temperatures
come in contact with each other, the surface that is at higher temperature cools and the surface at lower
temperature warms.

Purpose of Refrigeration
The fundamental reason for having a refrigerator is to keep food cold. Cold temperatures help food
stay fresh longer. The basic idea behind refrigeration is to slow down the activity of bacteria so that it
takes longer for the bacteria to spoil the food. For example, bacteria will spoil milk in two or three
hours if the milk is left out on the kitchen counter at room temperature. However, by reducing the
temperature of the milk, it will stay fresh for a week or two. The cold temperature inside the
refrigerator decreases the activity of the bacteria that much. By freezing the milk you can stop the
bacteria altogether.
Refrigeration and freezing are two of the most common forms of food preservation used today.
Different parts of a refrigerator are:
Refrigerant (liquid that evaporates inside the refrigerator to create the cold temperatures)
Evaporator
Heat-exchanging pipes (serpentine or coiled set of pipes inside and outside the unit)
Compressor
Condenser
Expansion valve

Refrigerator Parts

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The mechanism used to keep the temperature inside the refrigerator cool involves different
components that perform different functions. The different parts and functions of the refrigerator are
listed below:
Refrigerant: This is the substance that performs the cooling function in the refrigerator through the
changes in its temperature and pressure. The refrigerant usually used is ammonia. Earlier freon was
used as a refrigerant. The liquid used in the refrigerator evaporates at a very low temperature and
results into a freezing temperature inside the refrigerator.
Evaporator: It is the part that absorbs the heat inside the refrigerator with the help of the evaporating
liquid refrigerant.
Heat Exchanging Pipes: The entire unit of the refrigerator is surrounded by a series of heat
exchanging coils. These coils carry the refrigerant from one part of the refrigerator to the other. Most
of the heat exchanging pipes is placed behind the compressor.
Compressor: It is a heavy metal device that is powered by a motor and compresses the refrigerant. The
main function of the compressor is to raise the pressure and thus, the temperature of the refrigerant
gas.
Condenser: It is a part of the refrigerator that condenses the vaporized refrigerant (converts into liquid
form) and reduces its temperature.
Expansion Valve: The expansion valve reduces the pressure on the liquid refrigerant. Usually the
expansion valve is made of thin copper coil.
Working of a Refrigerator
The working of the refrigerator is a cyclic process that comprises changes in the temperature
and pressure of the refrigerant. A step-by-step explanation is given below:
The refrigerant gas is passed through a compressor. Here, the gas is compressed and thus the
pressure on it increases. The temperature of the refrigerant gas in turn increases as a result of
the increased pressure and it takes the form of superheated vapor.
The refrigerant passes through the heat exchanging pipes and releases heat to the surroundings.
Thus, the refrigerant cools down due to the loss of heat to the surroundings.
As the refrigerant passes through the condenser, its temperature reduces. However, the pressure
on the refrigerant remains the same. Due to the reduction in its temperature, the refrigerant gets
converted into its liquid form.
The expansion valve causes a sudden reduction in the pressure on the refrigerant. Some of the
refrigerant evaporates and expands. This expansion results in the lowering of the temperature
of the refrigerant.
During the evaporation of the liquid refrigerant, it is present in the evaporator, which absorbs
the heat from the foodstuffs kept in the refrigerator and thus, cools them. The second law of
thermodynamics is used here.
The refrigerant again heats up to form a gas. This refrigerant, which is now in the gaseous
form, again enters the compressor and the cycle repeats.

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From the above discussion, we can conclude that refrigeration is the result of the transfer of heat from
one place to other, with the help of expansion and compression of the refrigerant.

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The Refrigeration Cycle
A refrigeration cycle describes the changes that take place in the refrigerant as it alternately
absorbs and rejects heat as it circulates through a refrigerator.
1. The compressor compresses the ammonia gas. The compressed gas heats up as it is
pressurized (orange).
2. The coils on the back of the refrigerator let the hot ammonia gas dissipate its heat. The
ammonia gas condenses into ammonia liquid (dark blue) at high pressure.
3. The high-pressure ammonia liquid flows through the expansion valve which is a small hole.
On one side of the hole is high-pressure ammonia liquid. On the other side of the hole is a lowpressure area (because the compressor is sucking gas out of that side).
4. The liquid ammonia immediately boils and vaporizes (light blue), its temperature dropping to
-27 F. This makes the inside of the refrigerator cold.
5. The cold ammonia gas is sucked up by the compressor, and the cycle repeats.
Types of Refrigerators
1) Compression refrigerator: Electric motor to provides the mechanical energy, through the
compressor of the refrigeration system works. This refrigeration system uses a low boiling point
refrigerant which evaporates and absorbs heat of vaporization. The advantage is long life, easy to
use. 91 to 95% of the refrigerators are of this type.
2) Absorption refrigerators: These types of refrigerators have heat source (such as gas, kerosene,
electricity, etc.) as the driving force. Use of ammonia - water - mixture of hydrogen absorption in
a row - the diffusion process to achieve cooling purposes. The disadvantage is low efficiency and
slow cooling.
3) Semiconductor Refrigerator: It is the use of the PN-type semiconductor which is connected to DC
in the node to generate the principle of Peltier effect to achieve cooling.
4) Chemical refrigerator: Certain chemical substances are dissolved in water to get the strong
endothermic cooling effect.
5) Electromagnetic Vibration refrigerator: It is the electromagnetic vibration machine which provides
the power to drive the compressor of the refrigerator. The principle, structure and compression are
basically the same as that of Compression refrigerator.
6) Solar refrigerator: It is the use of solar energy as a cooling refrigerator.

Air conditioner
An air conditioner is a home appliance, system, or mechanism designed to dehumidify and
extract heat from an area. The cooling is done using a simple refrigeration cycle. In construction, a
complete system of heating, ventilation and air conditioning is referred to as "HVAC".

Air-conditioning Basics
Air conditioners use refrigeration to chill indoor air, taking advantage of a remarkable physical
law: When a liquid converts to a gas (in a process called phase conversion), it absorbs heat. Air
conditioners exploit this feature of phase conversion by forcing special chemical compounds to
evaporate and condense over and over again in a closed system of coils.
The compounds involved are refrigerants that have properties enabling them to change at
relatively low temperatures. Air conditioners also contain fans that move warm interior air over these
cold, refrigerant-filled coils. In fact, central air conditioners have a whole system of ducts designed to
funnel air to and from these serpentine, air-chilling coils.
When hot air flows over the cold, low-pressure evaporator coils, the refrigerant inside absorbs
heat as it changes from a liquid to a gaseous state. To keep cooling efficiently, the air conditioner has
to convert the refrigerant gas back to a liquid again. To do that, a compressor puts the gas under high
pressure, a process that creates unwanted heat. All the extra heat created by compressing the gas is
then evacuated to the outdoors with the help of a second set of coils called condenser coils, and a
second fan. As the gas cools, it changes back to a liquid, and the process starts all over again. It as an
endless, elegant cycle: liquid refrigerant, phase conversion to a gas/ heat absorption, compression and
phase transition back to a liquid again.

The Parts of an Air Conditioner

The biggest job of an air conditioner is to cool the indoor air. Air conditioners monitor and
regulate the air temperature via a thermostat. They also have an onboard filter that removes airborne
particulates from the circulating air. Air conditioners function as dehumidifiers. Because temperature
is a key component of relative humidity, reducing the temperature of a volume of humid air causes it
to release a portion of its moisture. That's why there are drains and moisture-collecting pans near or
attached to air conditioners, and air conditioners discharge water when they operate on humid days.
Still, the major parts of an air conditioner manage refrigerant and move air in two directions: indoors
and outside:

Evaporator - Receives the liquid refrigerant

Condenser - Facilitates heat transfer
Expansion valve - regulates refrigerant flow into the evaporator
Compressor - A pump that pressurizes refrigerant

The cold side of an air conditioner contains the evaporator and a fan that blows air over the
chilled coils and into the room. The hot side contains the compressor, condenser and another fan to
vent hot air coming off the compressed refrigerant to the outdoors. In between the two sets of coils,
there's an expansion valve. It regulates the amount of compressed liquid refrigerant moving into the
evaporator. Once in the evaporator, the refrigerant experiences a pressure drop, expands and changes
back into a gas. The compressor is actually a large electric pump that pressurizes the refrigerant gas as
part of the process of turning it back into a liquid. There are some additional sensors, timers and
valves, but the evaporator, compressor, condenser and expansion valve are the main components of an
air conditioner.
Window air conditioners have all these components mounted into a relatively small metal box
that installs into a window opening. The hot air vents from the back of the unit, while the condenser
coils and a fan cool and re-circulate indoor air. Bigger air conditioners work a little differently: Central
air conditioners share a control thermostat with a home's heating system, and the compressor and
condenser, the hot side of the unit. In very large buildings, like hotels and hospitals, the exterior
condensing unit is often mounted somewhere on the roof.
Window and Split-system AC Units
A window air conditioner unit implements a complete air conditioner in a small space. The
units are made small enough to fit into a standard window frame. It contains the following
components:

A compressor
An expansion valve
A hot coil (on the outside)
A chilled coil (on the inside)
Two fans
A control unit

The fans blow air over the coils to improve their ability to dissipate heat (to the outside air) and
cold (to the room being cooled). A split-system air conditioner splits the hot side from the cold side of
the system, as in the diagram below. The cold side, consisting of the expansion valve and the cold coil,
is generally placed into a furnace or some other air handler. The air handler blows air through the coil
and routes the air throughout the building using a series of ducts. The hot side, known as the
condensing unit, lives outside the building.
The unit consists of a long, spiral coil shaped like a cylinder. Inside the coil is a fan, to blow air
through the coil, along with a weather-resistant compressor and some control logic. This approach has
evolved over the years because it's low-cost, and also because it normally results in reduced noise
inside the house. Other than the fact that the hot and cold sides are split apart and the capacity is
higher, there's no difference between a split-system and a window air conditioner.

In warehouses, large business offices, malls, big department stores and other sizeable
buildings, the condensing unit normally lives on the roof and can be quite massive. Alternatively, there
may be many smaller units on the roof, each attached inside to a small air handler that cools a specific
zone in the building.

Washing machine
A washing machine is a machine designed to wash laundry, such as clothing, towels and
sheets. The term is mostly applied only to machines that use water as the primary cleaning solution.
The definition of washing is "To clean, using water or other liquid, usually with soap, detergent, or
bleach, by immersing, dipping, rubbing, or scrubbing". The term machine "A device consisting of
fixed and moving parts that modifies mechanical energy and transmits it in a more useful form".

Parts of the Washing Machine

1) Water inlet control valve: Near the water inlet point of the washing there is water inlet control
valve. When you load the clothes in washing machine, this valve gets opened automatically and it
closes automatically depending on the total quantity of the water required. The water control valve is
actually the solenoid valve.
2) Water pump: The water pump circulates water through the washing machine. It works in two
directions, re-circulating the water during wash cycle and draining the water during the spin cycle.
3) Tub: There are two types of tubs in the washing washing machine: inner and outer. The clothes are
loaded in the inner tub, where the clothes are washed, rinsed and dried. The inner tub has small holes
for draining the water. The external tub covers the inner tub and supports it during various cycles of
clothes washing.
4) Agitator or rotating disc: The agitator is located inside the tub of the washing machine. It is the
important part of the washing machine that actually performs the cleaning operation of the clothes.
During the wash cycle the agitator rotates continuously and produces strong rotating currents within
the water due to which the clothes also rotate inside the tub. The rotation of the clothes within water
containing the detergent enables the removal of the dirt particles from the fabric of the clothes. Thus
the agitator produces most important function of rubbing the clothes with each other as well as with
water.
In some washing machines, instead of the long agitator, there is a disc that contains blades on
its upper side. The rotation of the disc and the blades produce strong currents within the water and the
rubbing of clothes that helps in removing the dirt from clothes.
5) Motor of the washing machine: The motor is coupled to the agitator or the disc and produces it
rotator motion. These are multi speed motors, whose speed can be changed as per the requirement. In
the fully automatic washing machine the speed of the motor i.e. the agitator changes automatically as
per the load on the washing machine.
6) Timer: The timer helps setting the wash time for the clothes manually. In the automatic mode
the time is set automatically depending upon the number of clothes inside the washing machine.
7) Printed circuit board (PCB): The PCB comprises of the various electronic components and
circuits, which are programmed to perform in unique ways depending on the load conditions (the
condition and the amount of clothes loaded in the washing machine). They are sort of artificial
intelligence devices that sense the various external conditions and take the decisions accordingly.
These are also called as fuzzy logic systems. Thus the PCB will calculate the total weight of the
clothes, and find out the quantity of water and detergent required, and the total time required for
washing the clothes. Then they will decide the time required for washing and rinsing.

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8) Drain pipe: The drain pipe enables removing the dirty water from the washing that has been used
for the washing purpose.

Wash cycles
Rinsing
Washing machines perform several rinses after the main wash to remove most of the detergent.
Modern washing machines use less water due to environmental concerns; however, this has led to the
problem of poor rinsing on many washing machines on the market, which can be a problem to people
who are sensitive to detergents.
Spinning
At the end of the cycle, washing machines spin the load at a high speed to remove most of the
water and quicken and ease the drying process. Early machines would spin at only 300 RPM and,
because of lack of any suspension, would often shake and vibrate. Today, machines can spin as fast as
2,000 RPM and include built-in suspension and shock systems to reduce noises well as sensors and
software to detect and correct a load that is spinning out of balance. Front-loading washers can be
significantly quieter during spin than top loaders because of the lack of a noisy gearbox to drive the
machine's moving parts.
Maintenance wash
Most washing machines now use a plastic outer shell instead of stainless steel to contain the
water. Washing machine manufacturers are now advising the users to perform a regular maintenance
wash which cleans the inside of the washing machine. A maintenance wash is performed without any
laundry on the hottest wash programme, using either one of the following: white vinegar, a detergent
with bleaching. The purpose of a maintenance wash is to remove any mold, bacteria, old detergent
residue and grunge. If using white vinegar, it is important to allow the washing machine to fill for
about 30 seconds before adding the vinegar, as the first bit of water goes into the sump.

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Electric Fan
Electric fan works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. There are two parts of this
one is stator and other is rotar. Induction machine are ac machines. Stator is given single phase ac
voltage which produces sinuosoidal flux and emf is induced in the rotar and according to lenz law
current flows in a direction so as to oppose the cause that has produced effect. In this case it rotates in
similar direction as that of sinuosoidal field. As rotar rotates, blades attached to it also rotate and cool
air is obtained.
All fans work by moving the air that is in the area of the fan. This movement of air creates a
breeze, which is felt on the skin of the person that is in front of the fan. While this breeze itself does
not actually feel cool, there is a cooling effect from the fan's air. The air allows your skin to evaporate
sweat faster, cooling your skin.
Electric fans are comprised of a motor run by electric current, which is attached to fan blades
via a shaft. This rotor shaft is run by the motor, and turns the fan blades at different speeds depending
on the speed set for the motor. The number of blades and the general revolutions per minute of the
motor can vary greatly depending on the model of the electric fan.
While all fans, hand operated and electric, move the air that is in a room or space, only electric
fans are actually efficient at cooling people down. This is because the energy expended to wave a
manual fan creates heat in the body, and the fan's air does not do enough to counteract it. Additionally,
the velocity of an electric fan changes the air pressure and lowers the temperature.
Working of an Electric Fan
A mechanical fan is a machine used to create flow within a fluid, typically a gas such as air. A
fan consists of a rotating arrangement of vanes or blades which act on the air. Usually, it is contained
within some form of housing or case. This may direct the airflow or increase safety by preventing
objects from contacting the fan blades. Most fans are powered by electric motors, but other sources of
power may be used, including hydraulic motors and internal combustion engines.
Fans produce air flows with high volume and low pressure, as opposed to compressors which
produce high pressures at a comparatively low volume. A fan blade will often rotate when exposed to
an air stream, and devices that take advantage of this, such as anemometers and wind turbines, often
have designs similar to that of a fan.
While fans are often used to cool people, they do not actually cool air (if anything, electric fans
warm it slightly due to the warming of their motors), but work by evaporative cooling of sweat and
increased heat conduction into the surrounding air due to the airflow from the fans. Thus, fans may
become ineffective at cooling the body if the surrounding air is near body temperature and contains
high humidity.
Parts of a FAN
Blades
The blades are one of the most identifiable features of a fan. These are the paddle-shaped
objects that spin and move air through the fan. They are angled to carry air from one point to another.
Some fans have a switch that allows users to control the direction of the airflow while others blow air
in only one direction based on the angle of their blades.

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Hub
The hub is located in the center of the fan blades. It is the device that connects the motor to the
fan blades. Without it, fan would not work. The blades and the rest of the fan would be two different
pieces. The hub keeps everything together.
Motor
The motor is what makes an electric fan go. Whether it's a ceiling fan, a window fan, a desk
fan, a computer fan or an automotive fan, they all need power to keep turning and moving air, which
typically comes from a motor. Ceiling fan motors are housed above the hub of the fan in special motor
housing. Box fans and desk fan motor housing units are typically located behind the hub. Computer
fans and automotive fans may or may not have motors separate from the machinery they service; some
models rely on the car or computer's own power supply to turn the fan.
Switch
Stating that electrical fans run on electricity may seem like an over-simplification. For the
electricity to power the fan, an electrical circuit is present. When a switch is flipped, the circuit is
whole and power can run from an outside power source to the motor to power the fan and make it go.
Not all fans have an obvious switch. Fans found in computers start when the computer starts; the
switch is thrown when the power is supplied to the whole unit.
Guard
Fan guards protect both the fan and the user from damage. Not all fans have a guard. Those
with a high probability of coming into contact with outside elements -- including but not limited to
vegetable matter, additional mechanical elements or the user's skin -- will have a guard. Ceiling fans
typically do not have a guard due to the low chance of encountering a person or object. Computer fans
may or may not have a guard to keep the blades from interfering with other pieces in the casing.
Automotive fans may or may not have a guard, depending on the make and model of the car and the
function and location of the fan.
Mount
The mount keeps the fan where it's positioned. Most fans are mounted with screws and
brackets, whether it is to an engine, a computer processing unit (CPU), a ceiling or -- in the case of a
window or desk fan -- to the stand that holds the fan.
Wiring
Without wiring, a fan could not access and use electricity to its full potential and would have to
rely on natural stimuli, such as wind, to move. A wall plug for a desk fan converts energy flowing into
a house's outlet into a medium the fan can use. Wiring carries the electricity throughout the fan to the
motor and to the blades to make them turn.
Applications of Electric Fan
It cools the electrical appliances where cooling is required.
It circulates air in a room.

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It ventilates the air in a kitchen or toilet.
It maintains uniform heat in a incubator.

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TAPE RECORDER
An audio tape recorder, tape deck, cassette deck or tape machine is an audio storage device that
records and plays back sounds, including articulated voices. Usually using magnetic tape wound on a
reel or in a cassette is used for storing the audio. In its present day form, it records a fluctuating signal
by moving the tape across a tape head that polarizes the magnetic domains in the tape in proportion to
the audio signal.
Magnetic recording is a backbone technology of the electronic age. It is a fundamental way for
permanently storing information. In the audio realm, magnetic tape (in the form of compact cassettes)
is a popular way of distributing music. People either buy tapes pre-recorded with material, or make
their own tapes from CDs. In the video realm, video tape is used widely both in the broadcast industry
and at home to store material for later viewing on VCRs.
In the computer realm, magnetic recording is used on floppy disks, hard disks and magnetic
tape as the main method for data storage. Magnetic recording is so popular is because it an easy and
inexpensive technology with good medium-term (10 to 20 years) storage characteristics.
Operation
Electrical
Electric current flowing in the coils of the tape head creates a fluctuating magnetic field. This
causes the magnetic material on the tape, which is moving fast and in contact with the head, to align in
a manner proportional to the original signal. The signal can be reproduced by running the tape back
across the tape head, where the reverse process occurs the magnetic imprint on the tape induces a
small current in the read head which approximates the original signal and is then amplified for
playback. Many tape recorders are capable of recording and playing back at once by means of separate
record and playback heads in line or combined in one unit.
Mechanical
Modern professional recorders usually use a three-motor scheme. One motor with a constant
rotational speed drives the capstan. This, usually combined with a rubber pinch roller, ensures that the
tape speed does not fluctuate. The other two motors, which are called Torque Motors, apply equal and
opposite torques to the supply and take up reels during recording and play back functions and maintain
the tape's tension. During fast winding operations the pinch roller is disengaged and the take up reel
motor is supplied with a higher voltage than the supply motor. The cheapest models use a single motor
for all required functions; the motor drives the capstan directly and the supply and take-up reels are
loosely coupled to the capstan motor with slipping belts or clutches. There are also variants with two
motors, in which one motor is used for rewinding only.
Use of Tape recorders
An important use of tape recorders is the recording of video. Video cassette recorders differ
substantially from audio recorders due to the use of a rotating magnetic head that uses a helical scan
over the tape medium. Helical scans increase the relative speed of the tape surface over the head.
While they are primarily used for sound recording.
Tape machines were also important for data storage before the advent of floppy disks and CDs,
and are still used today, although primarily to provide an offline backup to hard disk drives.

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Tape deck speeds
Professional decks will use higher tape speeds, with 15 and 30 inches per second being most
common, while lower tape speeds are usually used for smaller recorders and cassette players, in order
to save space where fidelity is not as critical as in professional recorders. By providing a range of tape
speeds, users can trade-off recording time against signal quality with higher tape speeds providing
greater frequency response.
There are many different tape speeds which are in use in all sorts of tape recorders. Speed may
be expressed in centimeters per second (cm/s) or in inches per second (in/s).
Common tape speeds
cm/s
in/s
1.2
15/32
2.4
15/16
4.75
178
9.5
334
19
712
38
15
76
30