Thin-Walled Structures 33 (1999) 177210

Calculation of the deep bending collapse

response for complex thin-walled columns
II. Post-collapse phase
E. Markiewicz, F. Payen, D. Cornette, P. Drazetic*
Industrial and Human Automatic Control and Mechanical Engineering Laboratory, Mechanical
Engineering Research Group, UMR CNRS 8530, University of Valenciennes, B.P. 311-59304,
Valenciennes, Cedex, France

Abstract
The increasing complexity of transport vehicles means that more powerful finite element
models are needed to simulate their crash behaviour. The structures cannot be effectively
optimized, in terms of peak moment and energy management, by these models which require
long calculation times and should only be used as a final verifying tool. Distinct kinematic
models have been developed to analytically determine the resistance to collapse of thin-walled
structures subjected to bending loading. Part II of this paper concerns the theoretical prediction
of bending strength in the post-failure range for thin-walled structures of relatively complex
geometry with a floating neutral axis position. It also concerns the validation of the proposed
generalized bending kinematic model with experimental results, numerical results and results
of published literature. For all cases considered, the analytical solution was shown to predict
the momentrotation relationship with an error generally below 15%. 1999 Elsevier Science
Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Bending; Deep plastic collapse; Thin-walled structures; Kinematic models; Plastic hinges;
Neutral fiber; Stress; Strain; Energy

Nomenclature
a
A0

kinematic wavelength
strain magnitude in the post-critical stage

* Corresponding author.
0263-8231/99/$ - see front matter 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 2 6 3 - 8 2 3 1 ( 9 8 ) 0 0 0 4 6 - 9

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E. Markiewicz et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 33 (1999) 177210

b
b
b
b2
L
M0
Pkin
P+el pl
Pel pl
Ptotal
i,j
r
t
Vt
W

base
max
0
u
1,2
i

plate width
higher corner position
higher corner velocity
plate width in the plane
hinge line length
fully plastic bending moment (per unit length)
kinematic compression load
elasticplastic load in compression
elasticplastic load in tension
total force in the cross-section
ith and jth edges position
toroidal zone radius
plate thickness
tangential velocity
dissipated energy
dissipated rate of energy
angle between two flanges in relation to a hinge line
strain
strain in the profile base
maximum strain
yield strain
ultimate strain
kinematic continuity parameters
shortening due to bending of the ith edge
plate inclination
plate inclination in the plane
half angle of folding
half folding angular velocity
yield stress
hinge angle between the flanges of a stationary line

1. Introduction
A lot has been written about the problem of deep plastic collapse of thin-walled
columns under bending loading over the past 15 yr.
As shown in Fig. 1, the response of a typical prismatic column under bending
loading consists of three phases identified as:
pre-collapse,
collapse,
post-collapse.
The pre-collapse and collapse phases have been presented in the accompanying
paper, Part I: Pre-collapse and Collapse Phases [1], in which the buckling mode, the

E. Markiewicz et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 33 (1999) 177210

Fig. 1.

179

Bending features of a typical prismatic column.

peak moment and the associated angle have been calculated. After the peak moment,
the post-collapse phase leads to a reduction in the moment response and large plastic
bending deformations. This characterizes the structure failure.
Several authors have worked on the post-collapse curve determination. Cimpoeru
and Murray [2] determined an empirical model based on experimental results. Mahmood and Paluszny [3] developed a semi-empirical model which formed the basis
of the computer programs VCRUSH [4,5] and SECOLLAPSE [6,7].
Murray [8] used a geometric description to define a model which describes the
global behaviour of a structure under bending loading. This description does not
however take some dissipated energies into account, due to the extension phenomena.
Kecman [9,10] has concentrated his work on the bending collapse of rectangular
cross-sections in relation to the bus roll over problem. This has resulted in the development of a pure bending kinematic model. A limitation of the Kecman model is
that it is semi-empirical because the so-called rolling radius has to be determined
from tests and it does not control the neutral fiber position which is assumed to be
on the lower plate.
Anceau [11] has used the Kecman model and extended its field of application to
cross-sections. He has also developed two new bending models for U and
H (Fig. 2) cross-sections.
Seki [12] has studied the compression/bending coupling for rectangular cross-

Fig. 2.

The Anceau bending kinematic model for H cross-sections.

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E. Markiewicz et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 33 (1999) 177210

Fig. 3.

The Seki compression/bending model for rectangular cross-sections.

section profiles (Fig. 3). This model was used by Wierzbicki and Abramowicz
[13,14] to study the stress profiles in thin-walled prismatic columns subjected to
axial and bending crush loading. In order to simplify, the neutral fiber is assumed
to stay within the tensile flange at a distance of 0.06b where b is the width of the
flange. They have deduced that it is possible to study the bending behaviour by
studying the compression of the different corner elements which constitute the crosssection. A simple generalization to multi-cornered columns with an even number of
corners is also presented.
Apart from the full generalization of this work to arbitrary multi-cornered columns,
which is used in the commercial computer program CRASH-CAD [15], all previous
models are limited to a certain class of cross-sections. The prediction of the deep
bending response for a new class of cross-sections implies therefore the development
of a new kinematic model. This practice leads to an unmanageable data base and
justifies the development of a generalized bending model.
In this paper, another approach for the development of a generalized bending
kinematic model is proposed. The study is based on the superposition of plastic
mechanisms, for different folding mode configurations, of the Kecman [9] bending
model and Wierzbicki and Abramowicz [16] axial compression model.
Fig. 4 shows how the corner lines undergo uniform displacements which depend
on their position with respect to the neutral axis position. Consequently, the use of
corner elements to describe the bent cross-section can lead to discontinuities in the
phase of global assemblage by cutting the plastic mechanisms of the Kecman bending
model. It seems to be more interesting to describe the cross-section by plate elements
linked with boundary conditions [17].
From this superposition five basic plate kinematic models are extracted which are
representative of the majority of collapse modes encountered. A geometric description of each basic model is needed in order to ensure the kinematic continuity with

Fig. 4.

Displacements due to bending.

E. Markiewicz et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 33 (1999) 177210

181

the neighbouring plates when global assemblage of the cross-section is undertaken.

A kinematic description using the principle of virtual velocities then gives the rate
of energies dissipated in the different plastic mechanisms.
The choice of a basic kinematic model for each plate which constitutes the crosssection is made using the buckling mode calculated in the accompanying paper (Part
I). After assemblage of the cross-section a global folding mode is obtained and the
deep bending collapse response is predicted with a floating neutral axis position
determined from the requirement of force equilibrium.
Generally speaking there is a good correlation between experimental results, FE
numerical results and results published in literature.

2. Description of the basic kinematic models in bending for relatively

complex thin-walled prismatic columns
Fig. 4 highlights the fact that an isolated plate undergoes a bending loading (uiuj)
combined with an axial compression loading (uj0). Consequently, the superposition
of plastic mechanisms of the Kecman [9] bending model and the Wierzbicki and
Abramowicz [16] quasi-inextensible model for axial compression allows one to study
the combination of these two behaviors (Fig. 5).
In the automotive field the load-carrying structure in many types of vehicles consists of welded prismatic tubes. In the case of frontal impact most of the strength
and energy absorption is derived from spot-welded longitudinal members that are
initially straight and then continue as an S frame shape into the rocker panel and
tunnel of the car body. In the case of lateral impact most of the kinetic energy is
dissipated by the pillar and tunnel which are also spot-welded stamped sheet metal
parts. In the railway field the construction of vehicles generally results in members
of more simple geometry such as rectangular closed cross-sections or U opened
cross-sections.
A check of these different members and their buckling modes shows that the deep
bending collapse of an arbitrary cross-section may be studied as a combination of
five basic folding configurations with boundary conditions:
folding of a horizontal plate or free flange parallel to the bending axis,
folding of an inclined plate of the free flange type,

Fig. 5. Superposition of the plastic mechanisms of (a) the Kecman model [8] and (b) the Wierzbicki
and Abramowicz model [15].

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E. Markiewicz et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 33 (1999) 177210

folding of an inclined plate with moving higher corner where the corner displacement is towards the lower plate,
folding of an inclined plate with moving higher corner where the corner displacement is towards the higher plate,
folding of an inclined plate with moving lower corner where the corner displacement is towards the higher plate,
For each folding configuration a superposition of plastic mechanisms of the corresponding axial compression and bending models is made. This superposition results
in five basic plate kinematic models, as represented in Fig. 6, which differ by their
inclination with respect to the neutral axis and the moving direction of the corner
lines. They are denoted as type IV, respectively.
A limitation of the present theory concerns the so-called multitubular crosssections obtained from an extrusion manufacturing process of alloyed-aluminium
materials. These cross-sections are characterized by corner lines connected to more
than two plates which constitute sub-sections of type T or X. Identification of
the collapse modes of such cross-sections is the subject of future research in order
to complete the data base of basic plate kinematic models.
For the study of a non-extruded arbitrary cross-section, the choice of a basic kinematic model of each plate depends on the buckling mode calculated from an eigenvalues system in the pre-collapse stage (Part I).
Consider for instance the case of a square cross-section. The buckling mode calculated at an initial stage is used to determine the moving direction of each corner by
comparing the transversal displacements of the plates (Fig. 7). The cross-section is
described from the neutral axis furthest plate to the nearest plate and for each plate
a basic kinematic model corresponding to the folding configuration is chosen. In the
case of the present square cross-section, as represented in Fig. 8, the type I basic
model is chosen for the two higher and lower horizontal plates which are parallel
to the bending axis (the lower plate is not represented in Fig. 8) and the type III
basic model is chosen for the two vertical plates.
The global folding mode is finally obtained by an assemblage of each plate with
boundary conditions.
The following sections concern the geometric and kinematic description needed
in order to ensure kinematic continuity between the plates and quantify the rate of
energies dissipated by each plastic mechanism of type IV basic models.

3. Geometric description
The symmetry plane of the plastic hinge is a particular plane where transversal
displacements are maximal. In this plane a simple geometric description model
describes the kinematic behaviour of the profiles walls. The plastic hinge edge is
projected in the plane as depicted in Fig. 9. After projection, the edge is represented
by two parameters b2 and 2, which are expressed as follows:
b2 bcos2() sin2()cos2()

(1)

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Fig. 6.

183

Basic models extracted from the compression/bending superposition of plastic mechanisms.

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E. Markiewicz et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 33 (1999) 177210

Fig. 7.

Fig. 8.

Buckling and kinematic modes.

Choice of the basic kinematic model for a square cross-section. for each plate of the cross-section.

2 tan1(tan()cos())
The folding of the plastic hinge causes displacements and of the plates edges.

E. Markiewicz et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 33 (1999) 177210

Fig. 9.

185

Bending features in the plane of symmetry.

These displacements are expressed in relation to the half bending angle and the
position with respect to the bending axis by:

yisin()
yjsin() bsin()sin()

(2)

The higher and lower edges (Fig. 10) of the plate are expressed in the plane
by the equations:

Fig. 10. Deflection of the higher edge of the plate.

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E. Markiewicz et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 33 (1999) 177210

AG a 2
DE a 2

(3)

4. Kinematic description
In order to define the instantaneous moment and the neutral fiber position the
principle of virtual velocities is used. The equilibrium between the rate of energy
dissipated by the folding zones and the external rate of work is expressed as:
int W
ext f2() M f2()
M W

(4)

int is given by:

where W
int M0L with f()
W

(5)

In Eq. (5) M0 represents the fully plastic bending moment per unit length related
by an equivalent flow stress which is defined assuming a rigid-plastic strain-hardening material idealization.
To calculate the rate of energy dissipated in each plastic mechanism all parameters
are defined in relation to the bending angle , which constitutes the timelike parameter. Derivation of each geometric parameter with respect to the timelike parameter gives:
b2

b sin2()cos()sin()
tan()sin()

2
2
cos () sin ()cos()
1 tan2()cos2()
yicos()
yj cos() b sin()cos()
AG2 2
AG

2AGtan()

E
D

DE2 2

2DE tan()

By following the decomposition of the buckling mode into the kinematic model
(Fig. 6) expressions for the rate of energy dissipated in each basic mechanism may
be found.
Details of the following calculations were described by Payen [17].
4.1. Horizontal plates
The folding of a horizontal plate is shown in Fig. 11 by three stationary horizontal
hinge lines (AD, GE, BF).
1 and 2 represent the kinematic continuity parameters with two adjacent plates
at point G and E. They express the slopes of the right and left edges respectively.
The hinge lines remain parallel during the folding process. Consequently 1 and 2
are invariant and equal to zero.

E. Markiewicz et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 33 (1999) 177210

Fig. 11.

187

Folding modes of a horizontal plate.

Using the trigonometric relations in the triangle (AGA) the following angles
are obtained:

(AAG) a cos 1

2
2
; (AGA) a sin 1
a
a

(6)

The total dissipated rate of energy is then determined by:

int 4M0b
W

2
a

2
1 1
a

2M0b

(7)

The sign in Eq. (7) depends on the plate displacement in relation to the bending direction.
4.2. Inclined plates
4.2.1. Free flanges
A free flange can be found in opened cross-sections or in closed cross-sections
obtained by the assemblage of two or more sheet bent parts. The free flange is
characterized by an edge not connected with another plate. This mechanism (Fig.
12) is described by five stationary hinge lines (AD,GD, GE, GF, BF).
The projection in the plane on the x and y axis gives the following system
of equations:
DE sin(2) b cos(2) b2cos(2)

AG

cos(1) DE cos(2) b sin(2) b2sin(2)

AG

sin(1)

(8)

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E. Markiewicz et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 33 (1999) 177210

Fig. 12.

Folding mechanism of a free flange.

where
cos2(1) sin2(1) 1
and 1 and 2 represent the kinematic continuity parameters.
From this system the flange inclination may be obtained by resolving Eq. (9):
D A cos(2) B sin(2)

(9)

where
D

AG2 DE2 b2 b22

2

A ( bb2cos(2) b2DE sin(2))

B ( bb2sin(2) b2DE cos(2))
The inclination velocity between two plates with a common edge must be continuous. It is expressed by derivation of 2 and 1 parameters:

cos(2) B sin(2)
A
D
B cos(2) A sin(2)

where
AGAG DEDE b2b2
D
( bb2cos(2) bb2sin(2) 2 b2DE sin(2)
A
b2DE sin(2) b2DE cos(2) 2)
B ( bb2sin(2) bb2cos(2) 2 b2DE cos(2)
b2DE cos(2) b2DE cos(2) 2)
and

(10)

E. Markiewicz et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 33 (1999) 177210

DE sin(2) 2(DE cos(2) b sin(2))

AG cos(1)
b2 cos(2) b2 sin(2) 2 AG cos(1)
AG cos(1)

189

(11)

The rate of energy dissipated in the stationary hinge lines BF and AD is expressed
in relation to the displacement of the higher edge (triangle AAG). As a consequence
of the point G displacement direction, the rate of energy associated to the rotation
of facets (ADG) and (BFG) is added or subtracted:

4bM0
(BF,AD)
W

b sin()cos()
a

2 2b sin()sin()
1 1
a

2b cos()M0

(12)

The rate of energy dissipated in the stationary hinge line GE is expressed in

relation to the lower edge displacement:
4bM0
(GE)
W

2
1 1
a

(13)

The difference between the bending amplitude of the lower and higher edges
induces two supplementary stationary hinge lines GD and DF. As a consequence
the angle between the facets (GED) and (GAD) is a new parameter which depends
on the folding angle of the hinge lines GE, AD and BF. The folding of (ADEG) is
studied in the R frame (D,x,y,z) and two supplementary points I and J are introduced
(Fig. 13).

Fig. 13.

Unfolded half plastic hinge.

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E. Markiewicz et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 33 (1999) 177210

The position of points E and J is expressed by:

DE sin(2)
DE cos( )

DJ cos()
DJ cos()sin()

(14)

(a/2 ) DJ sin()sin()

where

2 2
Using the angle and trigonometric relations, the distances IE, JI and DJ may
be obtained. Distance JE during the folding process is then expressed as:
JE2

a
2

DJ2 2

a
DJ sin()sin()
2

(15)

2DEDJ sin(2)cos() 2DEDJ cos(2)sin()cos()

and the angle between the facets adjacent to the hinge line DG is obtained:
cos()

JE2 JI2 IE2

2JI IE

(16)

The rate of energy dissipated in the hinge lines DG and FG is then expressed by:
(DG,FG) 2M0
W

a
2

b2

(17)

where

(18)

( DE cos(2) )sin()sin()

sin()cos()
2
)cos() DE cos( ) cos()
(DDEE sin(

cos( ) DE sin( ) )sin()cos()

a
b2
4
4 2

ba 1 cos()2

is the velocity rotation of the hinge line GD.

Finally, the total rate of energy dissipated in the plate is defined as:
int W
(BF,AD) W
(GE) W
(GD,FG)
W

(19)

4.2.2. Moving higher corner

With this mechanism a new element appears: the corner line. The buckling mode
controls the displacement direction of the corner line. Two corner line displacements
in either the higher or lower plate are possible.

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191

4.2.2.1. Displacement of the corner line towards the lower plate The superposition
of plastic mechanisms of the Kecman model and the Wierzbicki and Abramowicz
model gives the folding mechanism represented in Fig. 14. In this case the point C
position (b) is determined by projection of the plane AGED on to the x and y axis:

b2cos(2) DE sin(2) b cos(1) AG sin(1)

cos(2) cos(1)

b2sin(2) DE cos(2) b sin(1) AG cos(1)

by

sin(2) sin(1)

bx

(20)

For the cross-section assemblage, the angle 1 and the velocity of inclination 1
are used to ensure geometric and kinematic continuity with the edge (AGB) of the
higher plate. By comparing the two terms of Eq. (20) the slope of the lower may
be obtained:
D A cos(2) B sin(2)

(21)

where
D DE AG b2cos(2)sin(1) b2sin(2)cos(1)
A b2sin(2) b sin(1) AG cos(1) DE cos(1)
B b2cos(2) b cos(1) AG sin(1) DE sin(1)
The velocity displacement (b) of the corner C is an important parameter when
quantifying the rate of energy dissipated in the plate. It is expressed as:
b A1 B1 1 C1 2

Fig. 14.

Displacement of the hinge line ACB towards the lower plate.

(22)

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E. Markiewicz et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 33 (1999) 177210

where
A1

b2cos(2) b2sin(2) 2 DE sin(2) AG sin(1)

cos(2) cos(1)

B1

AG cos(1) (b b)sin(1)
cos(2) cos(1)

C1

DE cos(2) bsin(2)
cos(2) cos(1)

In Eq. (22) (b) is expressed in relation to the velocity inclination of the lower
and higher edge. The velocity inclination of the higher edge ( 2) is used to ensure
continuity with the adjacent plate:

A1 A2 1(B1 B2)
C2 C1

(23)

where
A2

b2sin(2) b2cos(2) 2 DE cos(2) AG cos(1)

sin(2) sin(1)

B2

AG sin(1) (b b)cos(1)
sin(2) sin(1)

C2

DE sin(2) bcos(2)
sin(2) sin(1)

As shown in Fig. 14 the folding mechanism of the plate may be described by:
(a) two stationary hinge lines with constant length AD and BF for which the
dissipated rate of energy is expressed by:

4bM0
(AD,BF)
W

b sin()cos() bsin()sin()
a

2 2bsin()sin()
1 1
a

(24)

2b cos()M0
(b) two stationary hinge lines with variable length GC and CE defined in relation
to the position (b) of corner point C. The dissipated rate of energy is
expressed by:

E. Markiewicz et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 33 (1999) 177210

4(b b)M0
(GC)
W

b sin()cos() )
a

2 2b sin()sin()
1 1
a

4bM0
(CE)
W

193

(25)

(26)
2 2
1 1
a
(c) two propagating hinge lines AC and BC which dissipate energy by rolling.
This energy is added to the energy induced by the relative rotation between the
facets (AGC, ADC) and facets (BGC, BFC). This last quantity is however negligible when compared to the rolling rate of energy defined by:
2M0
W

Vt
dl
r

(27)

The tangential velocity Vt is linearly distributed along the moving hinge lines
with a null value at points A and B, and a value equal to (b) at the point C.
The rate of energy dissipated in the two propagating hinge lines AC and BC
may then be expressed as:

2M0
I(AC,BC)
a 2
(b b)2
b
(28)
r
2
r
(d) a section of toroidal surface which gives rise to extension. The difference in
angle which appears between the hinge lines AC and BC during the folding
process causes a discontinuity of the velocity field at the corner point C. Such
discontinuity is inadmissible and needs to introduce a toroidal transition zone
between these two propagating hinge lines (Fig. 15). As reported by Wierzbicki
and Abramowicz [16], all extensional deformations are now concentrated in a
circumferential direction in this small area. The rate of energy dissipated in the
toroidal surface is expressed as:
(AC,BC)
W

N0
W

M0
Vt
sin()ds 4
br sin()d d
R
t

(29)

with ds r R d d
with and respectively varying in the range
1 2

2
2

and
2
2

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E. Markiewicz et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 33 (1999) 177210

Fig. 15.

Description of the toroidal surface.

with

2 asin

a

2

a2
(b b)2
4

, atan

a 2
, 1 1 and 2
b b

2
Integrating Eq. (29) the rate of energy dissipated in the toroidal surface is obtained:

M0
(sin() sin( 1 2)) I(tore)r
(30)
rb
t
2
The energy dissipated by the toroidal surface and the propagating hinge lines
AC and BC depends on the small radius r. According to Hill [18] this radius is
calculated by extremizing the total dissipated rate of energy:
(tore) 8
W

(AC,BC) W
(tore))
(W
I(AC,BC)
0r
(31)
r
I(tore)
(e) to complete the folding mechanism of the plate two hinge lines DC and FC
remain which dissipate energy by rolling, due to the displacement of the corner
point C, and by the relative rotation between the facets (ADC, ECD) and facets
(BCF, ECF).

If we assume that the displacements of the higher edge () and the lower edge
() are identical, the behaviour of an axial compression collapse is then observed.
In this case, the idealization of the inclined hinge lines DC and FC as propagating
hinge lines gives rise to a rolling energy dissipation while these hinges lines are not

E. Markiewicz et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 33 (1999) 177210

195

present in axial compression. If we assume however that the dissipated energy is

due only to the angle variation between facets adjacent to the hinge lines DC and
FC, the dissipated energy is cancelled. An analogy with the Wierzbicki and Abramowicz quasi-inextensible model [16] is then observed. The rate of energy dissipated
in the inclined hinge lines DC and FC may be obtained using Eqs. (15), (16) and
(18) where the parameter b is substituted by b:
(DC,FC) 2M0
W

a
2

with 2 2
b2

(32)

The total rate of energy dissipated by the mechanism is then expressed as follows:
int W
(AD,BF) W
(GC) W
(CE) W
(AC,BC) W
(tore)
W
(DC,FC)
W

(33)

4.2.2.2. Displacement of the corner line towards the higher plate In this case, the
corner line covers the higher plate. The mechanism is represented in Fig. 16 and is
described by the following plastic mechanisms where rates of energy are calculated
in the same way as before:
(a) two stationary hinge lines with constant length AD and BF:

4bM0
(AD,BF)
W

(b b)sin()cos() bsin()sin()
a

2 2(b b)sin()sin()
1 1
a

(34)

2bM0cos()
(b) one stationary hinge line CE with variable length in relation to the position
(b) of corner point C:

Fig. 16.

Displacement of the corner line ACB towards the higher plate.

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E. Markiewicz et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 33 (1999) 177210

4(b b)M0
(CE)
W

4( b)M0

b sin()cos() )
a

(35)
2 2
2 2b sin()sin() 2
1 1
1 1
a
a
where the second term of the right hand side corresponds to the rate of energy
dissipated by shortening of the middle hinge line of the higher plate, where the
corner point C moves, and which may then be subtracted.
(c) two inclined propagating hinge lines AC and BC:

a 2
I(AC,BC)
(AC,BC) 2M0 b
W
(36)
b2
r
2
r
(d) a section of toroidal surface which gives rise to extension in a circumferential direction:

(tore) 8 M0 rb (sin() sin( 1 2)) I(tore)r

W
t
2
where

2 asin

a

2

, atan

(37)

a 2
, 1 1 and 2 2
b

a2
b2
4
The small radius r of the toroidal surface is defined by extremizing the rate of
energy dissipated by the propagating hinge lines AC and BC and the toroidal surface:

I(AC,BC)
(38)
I(tore)
(e) two inclined hinge lines DC and FC for which the dissipated rate of energy
is obtained by substituting the parameter (b) by (b b) into Eqs. (15), (16)
and (18):
r

(DC,FC) 2M0
W

2
a

with 2 2
(b b)2

(39)

Thus, the total dissipated rate of energy is expressed as follows:

int W
(AD,BF) W
(CE) W
(AC,BC) W
(tore) W
(DC,FC)
W

(40)

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197

4.2.3. Moving lower corner into the higher plate

Previous models have concentrated on the behaviour of the higher edge. For the
lower edge the kinematic continuity must also be kept. The basic model shown in
Fig. 17 is representative of the folding configuration of a cross-section as represented,
for instance, on the same figure. Plate 1 is parallel to the bending axis but is not
collinear to the neutral fiber. In this case the buckling study indicates a displacement
of the corner line, between the adjacent plates 1 and 2, into the higher plate 2.
The shortenings due to bending of the lower edges of the two plates are identical.
In the () plane they are represented by points E and E located on a circle of center
D. Geometric equations in the circle can be written as:
CE CE b

(41)

The inclination and the velocity of inclination between the two plates is then
expressed by:

2 1
2 1
and
2
2

(42)

The corner point C position is obtained by trigonometric relations in triangles

(DEC) and (DEC):
b EC EC DE tan()

(43)

Derivation from Eq. (43) gives the velocity displacement of the corner point C.
For lower edges the rate of energy dissipated by the hinge line CE, due to stretching, is identical to that dissipated by the hinge line CE. In this case, only the rates
of energy dissipated by rolling of the corner line DCF are taken into account and
the mechanism is then described by:
(a) two inclined propagating hinge lines DC and FC:

Fig. 17. Displacement of the lower corner towards the higher plate.

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E. Markiewicz et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 33 (1999) 177210

a 2
I(DC,FC)
(DC,FC) 2M0 b
W
b2
(44)
r
2
r
(b) a section of toroidal surface which gives rise to extension in a circumferential direction:
(tore) 8
W

M0
(sin() sin( 1 2)) I(tore)r
rb
t
2

where

2 asin

a

2

a2
b2
4

, atan

(45)

a 2
, 1 1 and 2 2
b

The small radius r of the toroidal surface is defined by extremizing the rate of
energy dissipated by the propagating hinge lines DC and FC and the toroidal surface:
r

I(DC,FC)
I(tore)

Thus, the total dissipated rate of energy is determined as:

int W
(DC,FC) W
(tore)
W

(46)

(47)

4.3. Plates assembling

Identification of the buckling mode allows one to see that the cross-section is
decomposed under the shape of an assemblage of plates. The collapse mechanism
can be determined by studying its edges. Once the collapse mechanism has been
found the horizontal plates and free flanges are assembled to determine the initial
parameters of geometric and kinematic continuity. The other plates are then
assembled, starting with the plate furthest away from the neutral fiber and moving
towards that which is closest. The angle and inclination velocity of the upper edge
can therefore be used as a reference to express the angle and inclination velocity of
the lower edge.
In order to undertake this assemblage, the description of the plate being studied
is moved from the global frame towards the local frame in which the equations have
been defined. After having studied the edges kinematic behaviour, their continuity
parameters are transposed to the global frame.
The kinematic wavelength (a) still needs to be identified. Previous research suggests several methods.

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199

In the case of rectangular cross-sections Kecman [9] experimentally observed that

the kinematic wavelength is close to the smallest of the two dimensions.
In axial compression Wierzbicki and Abramowicz [16,19,20] chose the kinematic
wavelength in order to extremize the energy dissipated during crushing.
In the case of opened cross-sections, Akel [21] considers that the wavelength does
not change between pre and post-collapse stages.
This last hypothesis was used in this study as it ensures continuity between the
pre and post-collapse modes. The kinematic wavelength is equal to the average of
elastic buckling wavelengths of the compressed plates.
After having quantified the energy dissipated by the entire plastic hinge, the equilibrium between external and internal rates of energy gives the instantaneous moment
of post-collapse:

total 2Mcomp Mcomp Wtotal

W
2

(48)

5. Neutral fiber position

In bending collapse, the neutral fiber position is determined in order to ensure
the equilibrium between the forces in the extended and compressed parts. During
plastification, the neutral fiber moves in line with the equilibrium.
Initiation of transversal displacements reduces the capacity of the compressed part
to withstand forces. Consequently the neutral fiber moves towards the extended part
as the bending angle increases.
Many authors, such as Kecman [9], Abramowicz [22] and Akel [21], have neglected the mobility of the neutral fiber and located it at the base of the extended
part. For a rectangular cross-section, Wierzbicki [14] locates the neutral fiber at 0.06b
with b the plate width.
In the case of a complex cross-section, the neutral fiber displacement cannot be
neglected.
5.1. Stress profiles associated with a kinematic deformation
An isolated plate element, of width dl, subjected to an eccentric bending loading
is studied. The bending center is located on the neutral fiber and a stationary hinge
line is created during deformation (Fig. 18).

Fig. 18.

Study of stresses due to a hinge line.

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E. Markiewicz et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 33 (1999) 177210

The equilibrium between internal and external rates of work allows one to obtain
the bending moment with respect to the bending center:
dM M0dl f()

(49)

This bending moment is due to the compression force dP, applied on the studied
plate element, times the eccentration y:
dM dP y kinds y

(50)

Combining Eq. (49) and Eq. (50) gives an expression for the stress due to the
stationary hinge line:

kin

M0f()
yt

(51)

For a propagating hinge line the stress is expressed as:

kin

2M0Vt
y r t

(52)

Eqs. (51) and (52) depend on the y position. If this position equals zero, the
stress tends towards infinity. Thus the kinematic model is not defined around the
neutral fiber.
As shown by Wierzbicki [14] the stress value cannot however exceed the elastic
plastic stress (Fig. 19).
At the beginning of the post-collapse stage, zones in compression and tension
close to the neutral fiber are in the elasticplastic field. At the same time, zones
distant to the neutral fiber are submitted to large kinematic displacements. In the
compressed part the behaviour of a plate is determined according to the position of
its edges with respect to ys, the boundary position between the field of stresses due
to the kinematic model and the field of stresses due to elasticplastic flow.

Fig. 19. Stresses evolution in the post-collapse stage.

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201

5.2. Calculation of the force in the compressed part

The total force is obtained by summing local forces in each deformed part. The
local force is determined by integrating the kinematic stresses along the plate.
For a stationary hinge line:

Pkin

M0f()
y2
Mhinge
ln
dl
y(l)
y2 y1
yc

(53)

For a propagating hinge line:

Pkin

M0Vt
y2
2Mhinge
y yc y1 ln
dl
y(l) r
(y2 y1)2 2
yc

ys y1yc y1

with the relations y2 > ys > y1yc ys

y2 ysyc y2

(54)

where y1 and y2 are the positional parameters of the hinge line extremities.
5.3. Calculation of the force in the extended part
The force in the extended part is determined by integrating the field of stresses
obtained by assuming a linear strain repartition. The strain therefore equals zero on
the neutral fiber and equals base on the lower edge of the cross-section. Thus:

base

2
y sin()
a base

(55)

For each angle increment the total force is obtained by summing each contribution:
Ptotal Pkin P+el pl Pel pl

(56)

Finally, the neutral fiber position is determined at each calculation step by a dichotomy procedure so that the equilibrium between compressed and extended parts is satisfied.

6. Curve of the complete deep bending response

Stress management in the cross-section describes the neutral fibers behaviour during bending. The post-collapse curve obtained is therefore no longer asymptotic ad

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E. Markiewicz et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 33 (1999) 177210

infinitum for a bending angle tending towards zero but behaves in the same way as
the pre-collapse curve. Stress management in the cross-section limits the value
obtained for an elasticplastic behaviour. The ultimate kinematic moment does not
correspond to the maximal moment that the cross-section can withstand in the precollapse stage. The momentangle curve obtained is calculated for a kinematic wavelength (a). In the elasticplastic field the entire column is deformed under external
loadings. Plastic strains then increase until the maximal value of the bending moment
reaches the value of the ultimate moment that the cross-section can support. It is at
this stage that the concept of a plastic hinge is introduced for the zone where plastic
strains are concentrated. From now on it is assumed that all the plastic energy is
dissipated in this zone.
Assemblage of the pre and post-collapse curves is undertaken in order to obtain
the columns global response (Fig. 20). The post-collapse curve is moved along the
abscissa. The value of this shift corresponds to the ultimate pre-collapse angle minus
the ultimate post-collapse angle hinge defined as:

hinge

a u
y(u)

(57)

7. Validation
Validation was carried out in two stages:
analytical/experimentalnumerical comparison of the bending response for
opened and closed cross-sections,
comparison of analytical/published results of relatively complex thin-walled
columns.
7.1. Comparison made with experimental and numerical results
A series of quasi-static cantilever bending tests were carried out on the device
represented in Fig. 21, on specimens of relatively simple geometry at a crushing
speed of 5.88 103 ms1. All profiles were 460 mm long. The C and U sections
were machined out from a standard square cross-section.
The static tensile curve, expressed in terms of true stress and true strain (Fig. 22),

Fig. 20. Instantaneous bending response curve.

E. Markiewicz et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 33 (1999) 177210

203

Fig. 21. Quasi-static cantilever bending device.

Fig. 22. Static tensile curve.

was obtained from a test specimen cut from the walls of each profile and tested at
strain rate of approximately 3 104 s1.
Results for these profiles with the cross-section geometry, analytical buckling
modes and momentangle characteristics are given in Figs. 2325.
To complete the validation, each profile was modelled using the FE code PAMCRASH. Loading conditions were applied with a low impact velocity of 1 ms1
and without strain rate considerations in order to come near quasi-static loading.
Results are given in Figs. 2325 with analytical and experimental results.
Table 1 summarizes the analytical, numerical and experimental results in terms
of peak moment (Mmax) and dissipated energies (Wint).
The U profile represents a tensile flange pattern. It is noted that the curves are
in the elasticplastic field because collapse instability does not occur.
A generally good correlation may be observed when compared to experimental
results with error percentages which never exceed 10%.

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E. Markiewicz et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 33 (1999) 177210

Fig. 23.

Bending curve of 50 50 2 section.

Fig. 24. Bending curve of C 150 50 2 section.

7.2. Comparison of analytical and published results

Bending experimental results on two complex thin-walled structures already published in literature were selected to make comparisons with analytical predictions.
(a) Kecman [23] studied the bending collapse characteristics of bus pillars made

E. Markiewicz et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 33 (1999) 177210

205

Fig. 25. Bending curve of U 50 25 2 section.

Table 1
Summary of results

50 50
C 50 50
U 50 25

Analytical

Numerical

Error A/N (%) Experimental

Error A/Ex

Energy Mmax

Energy Mmax

Energy Mmax

Energy Mmax

Energy Mmax

459
407
153

524
402
145

12.3
1.15
5.5

509.4
371.9
146.2

9.8
8.23
4.76

2512
2414
466

2904
1962
458

15.6
18.7
1.68

2495
1922
466

0.6
2
0.14

by spot-welded assemblage of bent sheet steel metal parts. To define the material
constitutive law, which is not completely defined in this reference, a power model
is used assuming a strain-hardening coefficient n 0.1:

n
(58)
0
The geometry of the cross-section and the material characteristics are given in
Fig. 26.
Profiles were clamped at one extremity and loaded by a concentrated force at
the other extremity.
Two bending directions were tested: one parallel to the free flanges and one
orthogonal to the free flanges.
The analytical/experimental comparison of the momentangle characteristic as
0

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E. Markiewicz et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 33 (1999) 177210

Fig. 26.

Static tensile curve and geometry of the cross-section.

Fig. 27. Bending curve of bus pillar section (first bending direction bd1).

well as the loading condition and predicted buckling mode are shown in Figs.
27 and 28.
Table 2. summarizes analytical and Kecmans results in terms of peak moment
(Mmax) and dissipated energies (Wint).

Fig. 28.

Bending curve of bus pillar section (second bending direction bd2).

E. Markiewicz et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 33 (1999) 177210

207

Table 2
Summary of results
Analytical

Bus pillar bd1

Bus pillar bd2

Experimental [22]

Error A/N (%)

Energy

Mmax

Energy

Mmax

Energy

Mmax

108.1
149

806.15
929.8

106.13
123.8

811.32
950

1.81
16.93

0.64
2.13

Fig. 29.

Static tensile curve and geometry of the cross-section.

It is noted that the analytical results correlate well with Kecmans results.
(b) Mac-Gregor [24] studied the bending characteristics of spot-welded hat sections made of alloyed aluminium AA6111-T4.
The geometry of the cross-section and the material characteristics are given in
Fig. 29.
As for previous experiments, profiles were clamped at one extremity and loaded
by a concentrated force at the other extremity.
Two cantilever bending configurations were tested in the positive (flanges in
tension) and negative (flanges in compression) direction.
Figs. 30 and 31 compare analytical model results and those of Mac-Gregors tests.

Fig. 30.

Hat section with flange in tension (Hat tf).

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E. Markiewicz et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 33 (1999) 177210

Fig. 31.

Hat section with compressed flange (Hat tc).

Table 3. summarizes the analytical and Mac-Gregor results in terms of peak

moment (Mmax) and dissipated energies (Wint). A good correlation between both
results may be seen as the error percentages never exceed 15% on the peak moment
and 5% on the dissipated energy.

8. Conclusion
In Part I, a theory for the pre-collapse and collapse characteristics for general
cross-sections was developed. In Part II, the theory has been extended to give kinematic models for bending collapse. Five basic mechanisms which represent the plates
behaviour have been identified. The geometric characteristics and dissipated rates of
energy have been determined for each of them.
In order to validate the developments, results of the entire bending response have
been compared with experimental results, FE numerical results and results from published literature. In all cases, the predicted responses do not generally exceed 15%
in terms of peak moment and dissipated energy, which is acceptable for a predesign tool.

Table 3
Summary of results
Analytical

Hat tf
Hat tc

Experimental [23]

Error A/N (%)

Energy

Mmax

Energy

Mmax

Energy

Mmax

116.1
149.2

909.8
1088.9

96.95
140.47

840
1050

16.48
5.85

7.67
3.70

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209

Acknowledgements
The authors thank the Conseil Regional Nord-Pas-de-Calais for its financial support. They are grateful to ESI for the FE PAM-CRASH code.
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